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PARKS IN BHUTAN
UGYEN DORJI
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 1 BHUTAN ........................................................................................................................................................... 2 1. THE GREAT HIMALAYA................................................................................................................................... 3 2. THE INNER HIMALAYA .................................................................................................................................... 3 DRAINAGE/RIVER SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................. 3 METEOROLOGY ................................................................................................................................................... 4 BIODIVERSITY OF BHUTAN ............................................................................................................................... 5 IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY .......................................................................................................................... 5 FORESTRY IN BHUTAN ..................................................................................................................................... 7 THREATS AND CHALLENGES................................................................................................................................ 8 INVASIVE SPECIES ............................................................................................................................................ 9 PHASE OF BIOLOGICAL INVASION IN BHUTAN ..................................................................................................... 9 INVASIVE SPECIES FOUND IN BHUTAN AND THEIR COMMON NAMES.................................................................. 10 PROTECTED AREAS IN BHUTAN...................................................................................................................... 19 INVASIVE SPECIES IN PROTECTED AREAS .......................................................................................................... 20 COMMON INVASIVE SPECIES IN DIFFERENT ECOLOGICAL HABITATS OF PROTECTED AREAS ..................................................... 21 COMMON INVASIVE SPECIES IN ECOLOGICAL HABITATS OF NATIONAL PARKS .............................................. 30 JIGME DORJI NATIONAL PARK.................................................................................................................................. 30 JIGME SINGYE WANGCHUCK NATIONAL PARK ............................................................................................................. 32 ROYAL MANAS NATIONAL PARK............................................................................................................................... 34 WANGCHUCK CENTENNIAL PARK.............................................................................................................................. 38 COMMON INVASIVE SPECIES IN ECOLOGICAL HABITATS OF SANCTUARIES ................................................... 40 BOMDELING WILDLIFE SANCTUARY........................................................................................................................... 40 KHALING NEOLI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY ...................................................................................................................... 42 PHIPSOO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY ............................................................................................................................... 43 SAKTENG WILDLIFE SANCTUARY ............................................................................................................................... 45 TORSA STRICT NATURE RESERVE .............................................................................................................................. 46 FACTORS LEADING TO INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF INVASIVE SPECIES .................................................. 47 IMPACTS OF INVASIVE SPECIES ...................................................................................................................... 49 STATUS OF STUDY AND IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAMS IN BHUTAN ............................................................. 49 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................. 50 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................................... 51
Introduction
The Kingdom of Bhutan is a small southern Asian country. It is a landlocked country, bounded by India in South, East and South-West and Tibetan autonomous region of China in the North and NorthWest subsequently. It is about 300 km long and 150 km wide encompassing an area of 46,500 square kilometres. Virtually, the entire country is almost mountainous, and ranges in elevation as low as 97m along the Indian border to as high as 7,554m peak on the Tibetan border. These two extremes frame a landscape which stretches from sub-tropical to arctic like alpine conditions and making the country distinctively divisible into three lateral zones from South to North: Subtropical zone (100m-1200m), Temperate zone (1200m-4000m) and Alpine zone (above 4000m). One of Bhutan's significant natural resources in the late twentieth century is its rich forests and natural vegetation. Bhutan straddles two major biogeographic realms, the Indo-Malayan and Palearctic and is part of the eastern Himalayan region which contains parts of three global biodiversity hotspots, 60 ecoregions, 330 important bird areas, 53 important plant areas, and a large number of wetlands and 29 Ramsar sites. Today, the country has 70.46 percent of the total area under forest cover and 51.32 percent, secured as protected areas and biological corridors. The protected area system of Bhutan is regarded as one of the most comprehensive in the world. It encompasses a continuum of representational samples of all major ecosystems found in the country, ranging from the sub-tropical grasslands and forests in the southern foothills through temperate forests in the central mountains and valleys to alpine meadows in the northern mountains. Protected areas of Bhutan is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna including 5603 species of vascular plants, 400 lichens, 200 mammals and about 700 birds. In addition to the currently known 105 endemic plant species, Bhutan also hosts a number of globally threatened species including 27 mammals and 18 birds. Today, however, the rich biodiversity of the country is in the verge of decreasing in number. In Bhutan, loss of biodiversity is caused by several factors such as changes in land use, over exploitation of natural resources, destruction of natural habitats, urbanization, human wildlife conflict, forest fires, hydropower development, industrial development and one of the important factor includes introduction of invasive alien species in the country. The introduction of invasive species has also caused decline to economic status, environmental harm and harm to human health. Accordingly, the governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations in the country are working hard to alleviate these factors and come to proper solutions. The study of invasive species, finding approximate number and their effect are under process. There are over 200 invasive species including both plants and animals in the country, belonging mostly to Compostae and Graminae families. However, the knowledge of invasive are new to Bhutan due to which, currently a very few numbers of works are done to study it and essential mitigation activities against it. If such trends, where people are less aware and have limited knowledge, and again if detailed studies on invasive species are not soon being carried out, consequently, invasive species can bring greater harm to the biodiversity, the local communities and the country as a whole. Thus the present work is an attempt to reveal the countrys biodiversity and vegetational zones and study the invasive species found in the country with particular focus on those invasive species found in the ecological habitats of national parks of Bhutan.
Bhutan
The Kingdom of Bhutan is located in Southern Asia. It is a landlocked country, sandwiched between China to the north and India to the south. It is about 300 km long and 150 km wide encompassing an area of 46,500 square kilometres. Located between longitude 880 45' and 92010' East and latitudes 260 40' and 280 15' North in the Eastern Himalayas, it is bounded by India in South, East and South-West and Tibetan autonomous region of China in the North and North-West respectively ("Geography of Bhutan,"2012). Virtually, the entire country is almost mountainous, and ranges in elevation from 97m Drangme chhu1 along the Indian border to the 7,554m Kula Gangri 2peak on the Tibetan border. These two extremes frame a landscape which stretches from sub-tropical to arctic like alpine conditions. The maximum East-West stretch of the country is approximately 300 km and north-South about 150 km (Rosenberg, 2005).
Figure 1. Location of Bhutan, showing Chinese and Indian borders to north and south respectively ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012).
Physiography
Bhutan is distinctively divisible into three lateral zones from South to North. Incidentally, this zonation is more or less applicable to meteorological, ethnographical and geographical divisions of the country. Thus, the climatic zones are also divisible into three lateral zones, Subtropical zone (100m-1200m), Temperate zone (1200m-4000m) and Alpine zone (above 4000m).
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2
Drangme Chhu is one of the rivers in Bhutan, considered as lowest point of elevation. Kula Kangri is claimed by many authorities to be the highest mountain in Bhutan but this is disputed by others, who claim that Kula Kangri is wholly in Tibet.
Talking in geomorphologic terms, Bhutan is distinctively divisible into three lateral zones from South to North, as addressed below:
Drainage/River system
Rivers play an important role in Bhutan's physical, economic, social and cultural geography. Their enormous potential for hydroelectric power has helped in shaping the national economy. Since the central Himalayas of Bhutan receives the full brunt of the monsoon so the rivers are larger and have created much broader valleys than rivers further to the west in Nepal and India. In their upper reaches, most Bhutanese rivers have created large fertile valleys. As the rivers pass through the centre of Bhutan, the valleys become steeper and narrower, and roads have to climb high on the hillside ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012).The principal rivers of the country are; Amo chhu, Paro Chhu, Wang Chhu, Punatsang Chhu, Mangde Chhu, Pho Chhu, Mo Chhu, Dangme Chhu, Manas Chhu and Chamkhar Chhu.
Meteorology
Bhutan's climate varies widely depending upon elevation. In the southern region it is tropical, with a monsoon season and eastern part is warmer than the west. The central valley, which includes districts like Wangdue Phodrang and Punakha enjoys a semi-tropical climate with cool winters, whereas Paro, Thimphu, Trongsa and Bumthang have relatively harsher climate including snowfall in winter (Rosenberg, 2005).
Figure 2. Map showing central valleys and major river systems of Bhutan("Map of Bhutan," 2011).
Spring lasts from mid-March to the beginning of June, with temperatures warming gradually to 27-29 degree centigrade by day and about 18 degree centigrade at night ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012). However, cold spells are possible up until the end of April, with a chance of new snow on the mountains above the valleys. Strong, gusty winds start blowing almost every day from noon to early evening. The first storms break, and they become more and more frequent with the approach of the monsoon which arrives in mid-June (Rosenberg, 2005). The country receives abundant rain especially in the south, as it gets full face of monsoon coming from the Bay of Bengal. To which its mountains form a barrier. At the end of September, after the last of the big rains, autumn suddenly arrives and sky gets clear, a brisk breeze picks up and temperature starts falling towards freezing at night although bright sunshine continues to keep the days warm. Autumn is the magnificent season that lasts until mid-November ("Geography of Bhutan," 2012).
Biodiversity of Bhutan
Importance of Biodiversity
Biological diversity plays a paramount role in every sphere of human existence and provides us with a vast range of products and services. These are pivotal services such as food, water, timber, fibre, genetic resources, and medicines; regulating services such as regulation of climate and, water and soil quality, and pollination; cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling (Carlson et al., 2010). Biodiversity also plays a significant role in mitigating and adapting the impacts of climate change. Intact ecosystems such as forests and peat lands sequester carbon in their vegetation and soil thus supporting climate-regulating functions worldwide (Amend & Eibing, 2010). Bhutan straddles two major biogeographic realms, the Indo-Malayan and Palearctic and is part of the Eastern Himalayan region which contains parts of three global biodiversity hotspots, 60 ecoregions, 330 important bird areas, 53 important plant areas, and a large number of wetlands and 29 Ramsar sites(ICIMOD, 2010). Bhutan is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna including 5603 species of vascular plants, 400 lichens, 200 mammals and about 700 birds. In addition to the currently known 105 endemic plant species, Bhutan also hosts a number of globally threatened species including 27 mammals and 18 birds (Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas, 2011). Table 1.Different forest types and Characteristic Flora and Fauna in Bhutan (some species are subject to change).
Zones Dry Alpine Scrub Altitude (m) 4,000-4,600 Precipitation No information Characteristic Flora Ephedra Meconopsis Chesneya Tanacetum Saussurea Rheum nobile gerardiana, simplicifolia, nubigena, gossypinum, gossypiphora, Characteristic Fauna Mammals: Marmots, Snow leopard, Blue sheep, Pika, red fox, musk deer Birds: Tibetan snow cock, Snow partridge, Grandala, Lammergeier Himalayan monal pheasant Himalayan griffon, Alpine accentor, Oriental skylark, Blood Pheasant Mammals: Wild dog, Barking deer, Serow, Musk deer, Takin. Birds: white browed rose finch, Snow pigeon, White browed bush robin Golden bush robin, Blood Pheasant Fire tailed Sunbird. Mammals: Sambhar, Serow, Black Bear, Barking deer. Birds: Black throated tit, Black throated fulvetta, Greentailed sunbird, Rustyflanked tree creeper, Lesser cuckoo. Mammals: Sambhar, Birds: Black throated tit, Rusty flanked tree creeper, and Black throated fulvetta. Mammals: Leopard, Sambhar, and Goral. Birds: Green backed tit,
Juniper/Rhododendron scrub
3,700-4,200
No information
Juniperus recurva, J. squamata, Rhododendron lepidotum, Morina,nepalensis,Thalictrum, chelidonfi,Pedicularis megalalantha. or Tsuga dumosa,Larix griffithiana,Gaultheria fragrantissima, Panax puseudo-ginseng, Daphne bholua, Arundinaria griffithiana Picea brachytyla, Rosa macrophylla,Taxus baccata,Picea spinulosa Acer cappadocicum,Larix girffithiana,Hydrangea sp. Pinus wallichiana, Berberis asiatica, Cotoneaster griffithii,Lyonia ovalifolia,
Fir forest
3,100-3,300 (-3,800)
130 cm more
Spruce Forest
50-100
Blue pine
2,1003,00(3,100)
70-120
1,8002,000(;2,600)
200-300
Acer campbelli, Castanopsis hystrix, C. tribuloides, Elatostema hookerianum, Quescus lamellose, Skimmia arborescens Acercampbelli, alnoides, populnea. pulcherrima, clarkeana, dryophila Betula Exbuclandia Lindera Persea Symplocos
leaved
2,000-2,900
250-500
900-1,800 (- 2,00)
100-130
Pinus roxburghii, Cycas pectinata, Cymbopogon flexousus, Euphorbia royleana, Woodfordia fructicosa, Grewia sapida, Buddleja bhutanica, Rhododendron arboreum,
Yellow billed blue magpie, Grey backed shrike, Red billed cough, common kestrel, Collared blackbird, White throated laughing thrush. Mammals: Tiger, barking deer, sambhar, wild dog. Birds: Kaleejs pheasant, leaf warbler, Grey winged black bird, Green backed tit, chestnut breasted, wood snipe. Mammals: leopard, black bear, barking deer, red panda. Birds: white throated laughing thrush, rufous necked hornbill, chestnut, rowned laughing thrush, snowy browed fly catcher, mountain hawk eagle, tawny owl, ward's trogon Pygmy wren babbler, great babbler. Mammals: Goral, Yellow throated martin, Barking deer. Birds: Black bulbul, Mountain bulbul, Grey-tree pie, Rufous woodpecker, Red-vented bulbul, Bar-winged flycatcher shrike Saphire flycatcher, and Himalayan bulbul
leaved
1,0002,000(2,300)
230-400
Altingia excelsa, Bischofia javanica, Castanopsis indica, Engelhardia spicata, Macaranga postulata, Schima wallichii, Alnus nepalensis. Michelia exelsa, Morus sp., Amoora rhortica,
Mammals: Red panda, Barking deer, Sambhar, Tiger, Capped langur, Serow, Leopard. Birds: Rufous necked hornbill, Palla's fish eagle, Common Iora, white breasted kingfisher, Oriental turtle dove, Leaf warbler, Hodgson's hawk cuckoo, and Chestnut breasted partridges. Mammals: Golden langur, Capped langur, Pygmy hog, Marbled cat, Asiatic golden cat, Fishing cat, Tiger, Elephant, Clouded leopard. Birds: Large billed crow, Blue whistling thrush, Pin-tailed green pigeon, Orange breasted green pigeon, Spotted dove, Great coucal, Rose-ringed parakeet, Asian emerald , cuckoo, Blue bearded beeeater, Blue bearded barber, Large hawk cuckoo, Rufousnecked hornbill, Pallas's fish eagle.
Subtropical forest
200-1,000(1,200)
250-500
Acrocarpua fraxinifolius Ailanthus grandis, Bombax ceiba, Duabanga grandiflora, Shorea robusta, Pteroapermum acerifolium, Aquilaria agaloocha, Gmelia arborea, Terminalia sp., Michelia champaca, Acacia catechu, Chukrasia tabularis, Toona ciliata, Lagestroemia sp., Phoebe sp., Artocarpus sp.
Forestry in Bhutan
One of Bhutan's significant natural resources in the late twentieth century is its rich forests and natural vegetation. Bhutan's location in the eastern Himalayas, with its subtropical plains and alpine terrain, gives it more rainfall than its neighbours to the west, a factor greatly facilitating forest growth. The forests contain numerous deciduous and evergreen species, ranging from tropical hardwoods to predominantly oak and pine forests (Wangda & Oshawa, 2006). The small population and the general absence of overdevelopment in Bhutan contribute to forest preservation. Because of the terrain, the more accessible forests had been overcut whereas remote forests remain largely in their natural state. A progressive government-sponsored forestry conservation policy strives to balance revenue needs with ecological considerations, water management, and soil preservation. The Department of Forestry was established in 1952 to oversee conservation and exploitation of the country's significant forestry resources. After an initial decade of development, forestry resource exploitation increased with the start of the First Development Plan in 1961. Uncontrolled felling of trees in the 1970s by private companies in logging areas and by rural populations along roads and in main valleys stripped hillsides and caused serious erosion (BAP, 2009). In 1971 the Forestry School was established at Kalikhola in southern Bhutan. It was moved to Taba in the northern Thimphu Valley in 1977. The school provided basic instruction in forestry and forest management and trained foresters and Forest Guards. In 1981 some 3.3 million hectares, or between 70 and 74 percent of the land, were forested, but in 1991 foreign estimates indicated a shrinking forest of only 60 to 64 percent of the land. Even more conservative estimates indicated that closer to 50 percent of Bhutan's territory still was forested in the late 1980s, and about 15 percent of GDP was produced through the nation's important forest industry. Recognizing the potential value of its forestry resource, Bhutan became increasingly conscientious about forestry management in the 1970s. Starting in 1977, the World Wildlife Fund began supporting Bhutan's forest management through organizing forest ranger training programs, supplying funds for forest boundary demarcation, building guard posts, and constructing a patrol road for what was later to be designated the Royal Manas National Park. In the face of increasing denuded hillsides, private logging was banned, and strict standards for public-sector logging operations were established in 1979. Farmers were warned against burning off forests to clear land for tsheri4 cultivation, and forest guards were trained in increasing numbers to help preserve the valuable resources. Surveying, demarcation, conservation, and management plans for harvesting forest products were part of the Fifth Development Plan's focus on forestry preservation. Wildlife sanctuaries also were developed. One of the immediate results of forestry sector regulation, however, was a sharp decrease in revenues since the late 1970s. In 1991 the government, with assistance from UNDP and the World Wildlife Fund, established a trust fund for environmental conservation. Initially in the amount of US$20 million, the UNDP-administered fund was aimed at producing up to US$1 million per year for training in forestry and ecology, surveying forests, reviewing and implementing management plans for protected areas, and supporting government environmental offices, public awareness programs, and integrated conservation and development programs (BAP, 2009).
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However, the knowledge of invasive species and the effect of invasive species on biodiversity are new to Bhutan due to which, currently a very few numbers of works are done to study the invasive species and essential mitigation activities against it. Such a trend where people are less aware and have limited knowledge, and again if detailed studies on invasive species are not carried out, consequently, invasive species can bring greater harm to the biodiversity, the local communities and the country as a whole. 8
Invasive species
According to the National Invasive Species Council (NISC) and the Invasive Species Advisory Committee (ISAC), the United states (2006), invasive species is defined as, a species that is nonnative to the ecosystem under consideration and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. Today, all the nations around the globe are focusing on invasive species which are known to cause or likely to cause negative impacts and that do not provide an equivalent or greater benefit to society. In the technical sense, the term invasion simply denotes the uncontrolled or unintended spread of an organism outside its native range with no specific reference about the environmental or economic consequences of such spread or their relationships to possible societal benefits. For a non-native organism to be considered an invasive species, the negative effects that the organism causes or is likely to cause are deemed to outweigh any beneficial effects. Many non-native introductions provide benefits to society and even among species that technically meet the definition of invasive, societal benefits may greatly exceed any negative effects (for example crops and livestock raised for food). However, in some cases any positive effects are clearly overshadowed by negative effects, and this is the concept of invasive species, causing harm (NISC, 2006). The negative impact to a native species caused by an invasive species might trigger additional negative interactions for other associated native species; that is, there could be direct and indirect effects. For example, an invasive weed that is undesirable as a food source may outcompete and displace native grasses and broadleaf plants. These displaced native grasses and broadleaf plants may have been primary forage for animals, which subsequently would be displaced to a new location or have their populations reduced because the weed invasion decreased the availability of food in their native plant and animal community. However, negative effects are not always characterized by a cascade of impacts realized throughout the environment. For example, simple displacement of an endangered species by a non-native species might alone provide sufficient justification to consider the non-native organism an invasive (NISC, 2006).
During this period Bhutan underwent an enormous development especially the closure of Tibetan borders and opening roads and links to India.
Two of the major families contributing to the invasive alien herbaceous flora of Bhutan are the Compositae and Graminae. The Compositae is being well characterized by highly dispersible aerochorous seeds and/or long-lived seeds that tend to be persistent in soil seed banks. Contemporary surface soils of various habitats of Bhutan, including wetlands, woodlands, plantations, floodplains and farmlands have more or less accumulated viable seeds of such alien plant species, even if the above-ground vegetation contains no or few alien plant species. List of known invasive species in Bhutan till date are listed in the following subheading, according to Global Invasive species Database6 (2012) and Invasive species compendium (2012), currently there are about 200 invasive species found in the country irrespective of both plants and animals in all ecological habitats. Studies are still under process to update and find out the actual number of invasive species found in the country. However, the following listed invasive species accounts for only plant invasive species found in the country, which are listed as follows:
The Global Invasive Species Database is managed by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. It was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) and is supported through partnerships with the National Biological Information Infrastructure, Manaaki Whenua-Landcare Research and the University of Auckland.
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9. Imperata cylindrica (grass) Common Names: cogon grass, satintail, speargrass. 10. Borreria latifolia Common name: broadleaf button weed 11. Brachypodium sylvaticum Common name: slender false brome 12. Bryophyllum pinnatum Common name: air plant 13. Calotropis procera Common name: apple of sodom 14. Albizia julibrissin (tree) Common Names: mimosa, powderpuff tree, silk tree, silky acacia 15. Alternanthera sessilis (herb) Common Names: common roadside weed, dwarf copperleaf 16. Chenopodium album Common name: fat hen 17. Commelina diffusa Common name: spreading dayflower 18. Bacopa monnieri (herb) Common Names: coastal water hyssop, gundala, herb of grace, Indian pennywort 19. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub) Common Names: cat's claw, Mauritius thorn, Mysore thorn, shoofly, wait-a-bit 20. Commelina benghalensis (herb) Common Names: Benghal dayflower, bias-bias, blue commelina, dayflower hairy 21. Convolvulus arvensis Common name: bindweed 22. Dalbergia sissoo (tree) Common Names: Bombay blackwood, dalbergia, Himalaya raintree, shisham, sisso 11
23. Dioscorea bulbifera (herb, vine, climber) Common Names: oi, aerial yam, air yam, air-potato, bitter yam, cheeky yam, rook, wild yam, yam 24. Ficus microcarpus (tree) Common Names: Chinese banyan, curtain fig, laurel fig, Malay banyan, rong shu 25. Conyza bonariensis Common name: hairy fleabane 26. Conyza canadensis Common name: Canadian fleabane 27. Houttuynia cordata (shrub) Common Names: chameleon-plant 28. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) Common Names: East Indian hygrophila, Indian swamp weed, Miramar weed 29. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub) Common Names: Chinese bush-clover, Chinese lespedeza, hairy lespedeza, Himalayan bushclover, perennial lespedeza, silky bush-clover 30. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb) Common Names: ambulia, Asian marshweed, limnophila, 31. Lotus corniculatus (herb) Common Names: birdfoot deervetch, bird's-foot trefoil, cat's clover, common lotus 32. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) Common Names: Japanese climbing fern 33. Conyza sumatrensis Common name: tall fleabane 34. Melilotus alba (herb) Common Names: honey clover, honey-lotus, hubam clover, melilot, Melilotos, tree clover, white melilot, white millet, white sweet clover 35. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass) Common Names: burma reed, cane grass, false reed, silk reed
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36. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) Common Names: Chinese fever vine, skunk vine , stink vine 37. Crassocephalum crepidioides 38. Cuscuta campestris Common name: field dodder 39. Cuscuta europaea Common name: European dodder 40. Rubus niveus (shrub) Common Names: Ceylon raspberry, hill raspberry, Java bramble, Mahabaleshwar raspberry, Mysore raspberry, snowpeaks raspberry 41. Cuscuta reflexa Common name: dodder 42. Senegalia catechu (tree) Common Names: black catechu, black cutch, catechu, cutchtree, khair, khairtree 43. Cynodon dactylon Common name: Bermuda grass 44. Cyperus compressus Common name: annual sedge 45. Verbascum thapsus (herb) Common Names: Aaron's-rod, big taper , common mullein , flannel mullein , flannel plant , hag taper , mullein , torches , velvet dock , velvet plant , woolly mullein 46. Marsilea minuta Common name: pepperwort 47. Cyperus iria Common name: rice flatsedge 48. Pteridium aquilinum Common name: bracken
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49. Acacia farnesiana Common name: huisache 50. Acanthospermum hispidum Common: bristly starbur 51. Achyranthes aspera Common name: devil's horsewhip 52. Ageratina adenophora Common name: Crofton weed 53. Ageratum conyzoides Common name: billy goat weed 54. Albizia lebbeck Common name: Indian siris 55. Amaranthus hybridus Common name: smooth pigweed 56. Amaranthus spinosus Common name: spiny amaranth
57. Cyperus rotundus Common name: purple nutsedge 58. Datura stramonium Common name: jimsonweed 59. Delonix regia Common name: flamboyant 60. Digitaria ciliaris Common name: southern crabgrass 61. Digitaria longiflora Common name: false couch grass
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62. Echinochloa colona Common name: junglerice 63. Echinochloa crus-galli Common name: barnyard grass 64. Eclipta prostrata Common name: eclipta 65. Eichhornia crassipes Common name: water hyacinth 66. Elaeagnus umbellata Common name: autumn olive 67. Eleusine indica Common name goose grass) 68. Euphorbia heterophylla Common name: wild poinsettia 69. Euphorbia hirta Common name: garden spurge 70. Galinsoga parviflora Common name: gallant soldier 71. Gliricidia sepium Common name: mother of cocoa 72. Hedychium gardnerianum Common name: kahili ginger 73. Jatropha curcas Common name: physic nut 74. Lemna perpusilla Common name: duckweed
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75. Leucaena diversifolia 76. Leucaena leucocephala Common name: leucaena 77. Ludwigia hyssopifolia Common name: water primrose 78. Melia azedarach Common name: Chinaberr 79. Melinis minutiflora Common name: molasses grass 80. Mikania micrantha Common name: mile-a-minute 81. Mimosa pudica Common name:sensitive plant 82. Monochoria vaginalis Common name: pickerel weed 83. Murdannia nudiflora Common name: doveweed 84. Myriophyllum spicatum Common name: spiked watermilfoil 85. Oxalis latifolia Common name: sorrel 86. Parthenium hysterophorus Common name: parthenium weed 87. Paspalum conjugatum Common name: sour paspalum
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88. Paspalum distichum Common name: knotgrass 89. Paspalum scrobiculatum Common name: rice grass paspalum 90. Pennisetum clandestinum Common name: kikuyu grass 91. Pennisetum pedicellatum Common name: deenanath grass 92. Phalaris minor Common name: Little seed canarygrass 93. Phyllanthus urinaria Common name: leaf flower 94. Pithecellobium dulce Common name: Manila tamarind 95. Plantago lanceolata Common name: ribwort plantain 96. Poa annua Common name: annual meadow grass 97. Polygonum aviculare Common name: prostrate knotweed 98. Polygonum barbatum Common name: knot grass 99. Polygonum hydropiper Common name: marsh pepper 100. Polygonum nepalense Common name: Nepal persicaria
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101. Polygonum persicaria Common name: redshank 102. Pueraria montana var. lobata Common name: kudzu 103. Robinia pseudoacacia Common name: black locust 104. Rubus ellipticus Common name: yellow Himalayan raspberry 105. Samanea saman Common name: rain tree 106. Senna obtusifolia Common name: sicklepod 107. Senna occidentalis Common name: coffee senna 108. Solanum viarum Common name: tropical soda apple 109. Spergula arvensis Common name: corn spurry 110. Stellaria media Common name: common chickweed 111. Striga asiatica Common name: witch weed 112. Syzygium cumini Common name: black plum 113. Thlaspi arvense Common name: field pennycress
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114. Urochloa panicoides Common name: liverseed grass 115. Xanthium strumarium Common name: common cocklebur
The above listed invasive species accounts for species belonging to kingdom Plantae found in Bhutan. However, the following subtopics will address plant invasive species particularly belonging to kingdom Plantae found in different ecological habitats of protected areas in the country. Bhutan has about 51.32% of total areas designated as protected areas, which encompasses national parks, sanctuaries, nature reserves and biological corridors. Most of the forests are under the protected areas, and one of the unique characteristics about the protected areas of Bhutan is the human inhabitants inside the protected areas. People have been sustaining their livelihoods simply depending on forest and natural resources from times immemorial. The establishment of protected areas few decades ago aims to protect the forest as well as the sustainably manage without any bane on the local inhabitants, which has been challenging. The local inhabitants have been cooperating with the concerned authorities and organizations in protecting and sustainable use of natural resources in the protected areas. However, it is again the people who play the part in destroying forest; causing factors like forest fire, illegal cutting down of trees for timbers, illegal poaching and one way or another introducing non native plant and animal species, which is now seriously causing havocs in the forests and the lives of people too, for instance, weeds in agricultural fields.
In Bhutan, the protected areas network covers some of the important and critical ecosystems in the country stretching from sub-tropical to mid temperate to alpine zones. Protected areas of Bhutan is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna including 5603 species of vascular plants, 400 lichens, 200 mammals and about 700 birds. In addition to the currently known 105 endemic plant species, Bhutan also hosts a number of globally threatened species including 27 mammals and 18 birds.
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There are nine protected areas in the country covering 17 dzongkhags and consists of four national parks, four wildlife sanctuaries and one strict nature reserve.
Figure 4. Protected areas of Bhutan (source: Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012). Out of these nine protected areas, currently only six are operational. They are Jigme Dorji National Park, Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Royal Manas National Park, Thrumshingla National Park, Bomdeling Wildlife Sanctuary and Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary. The remaining three areas of Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary, Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary and Toorsa Strict Nature Reserve are yet to be operational. The parks of Bhutan are described briefly below, focusing on key features and their underlying importance to our natural heritage and conservation efforts.
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1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) Acacia melanoxylon is native in eastern Australia. This tree grows fast and tall, up to 45m height. It has a wide ecological tolerance, occurring over an extensive range of soils and climatic conditions, but develops better in colder climates. Control of its invasion of natural vegetation, commercial timber plantations and farmland incurs considerable costs, but its timber value and nursing of natural forest succession provides a positive contribution. Common Names: acacia rouge, blackwood, blackwood acacia. Australian blackwood,
2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) Woodland bittercress, Cardamine flexuosa is a highly variable perrenial herb which flowers vigourously and forms dense root mats that can exclude other species. Seeds possibly remain viable in the seed bank for up to seven years requiring intensive management for control/eradication. Common Names: wavy bittercress, wavy-leaved bittercress, wood bittercress, woodland bittercress Synonyms: Cardamine hirsuta ssp. flexuosa (With.)
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3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) Chromolaena odorata is a fast-growing perennial shrub, native to South America and Central America. It has been introduced into the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and the Pacific, where it is an invasive weed. Also known as Siam weed, it forms dense stands that prevent the establishment of other plant species. It is an aggressive competitor and may have allelopathic effects. It is also a nuisance weed in agricultural land and commercial plantations. Common Names: agonoi, bitter bush, chromolaena, hagonoy, jack in the bush, Siam weed, Siam-Kraut, triffid weed. Synonyms: Eupatorium affine Hook & Arn., Eupatorium brachiatum Wikstrom, Eupatorium clematitis
4. Imperata cylindrica (grass) Native to Asia, cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica) is common in the humid tropics and has spread to the warmer temperate zones worldwide. Cogon grass is considered to be one of the top ten worst weeds in the world. Its extensive rhizome system, adaptation to poor soils, drought tolerance, genetic plasticity and fire adaptability make it a formidable invasive grass. Increases in cogon grass concern ecologists and conservationists because of the fact that this species displaces native plant and animal species and alters fire regimes. Common Names: cogon speargrass.Synonyms: Imperata cylindricus L. grass, satintail, arundinacea, Lagurus
5. Albizia julibrissin (tree) Albizia julibrissin is commonly used as an ornamental tree because of its appealing fragrance, showy flowers and low maintenance requirement. It has escaped from the urban landscape and competes with native plants in disturbed habitats and occasionally in forested areas. Typical disturbed habitat may include roadsides, vacant lots and riparian areas. Albizia julibrissin prefers full sunlight but is salt and drought tolerant and can thrive in a wide range of soil types. Common Names: mimosa, powderpuff tree
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6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb) Alternanthera sessilis is a weed that inhabits many areas of the world. It occupies moist areas and can be found from sea level to over 2000m. Alternanthera sessilis is a pest of sugarcane, a weed of rice in tropical areas, and an agricultural weed that invades disturbed wet areas in tropical and subtropical regions. It has been used widely around the world for its medicinal uses, as well as for food. The plant has been readily used for food partly due to its abundance. Common Names: common roadside weed, dwarf copperleaf
Figure 10. Alternanthera sessilis
Synonyms: Achyranthes linearifolia, 7. Verbascum thapsus (herb) Verbascum thapsus is an erect herb in the family Scrophulariaceae. It is found in neglected meadows and pasture lands, along fencerows and roadsides. It can produce 100,000-180,000 seeds per individual plant and seeds may remain viable for over 100 years. Verbascum thapsus threatens natural meadows and forest openings, where it adapts easily to a wide variety of site conditions and an established population can be extremely difficult to eradicate. Verbascum thapsus was once used as a herbal remedy for bronchitis, colds and congestion. Common Names: Aaron's-rod, big taper , common mullein , flannel mullein , flannel plant , hag taper, mullein , torches21. 8. Commelina benghalensis (herb) Believed to be native only to tropical Asia and Africa, Commelina benghalensis is a widely distributed herbaceous weed that commonly invades agricultural sites and disturbed areas. Though not commonly reported to invade natural areas, this rapidly reproducing plant is considered one of the most troublesome weeds for 25 crops in 29 different countries. Common Names: : Benghal dayflower, bias-bias, blue commelina, dayflower hairy honohono Synonyms: Commelina canescens Vahl
Figure 12. Commelina benghalensis
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9. Bacopa monnieri (herb) Bacopa monnieri is a small sprawling herb common in fresh and brackish waters. It is found growing in freshwater wetlands, wet pastures and margins of ponds on Grand Cayman where it is listed as an invasive species. Common Names: coastal water hyssop, gundala, herb of grace, Indian pennywort Synonyms: Bramia monnieri (L.)
Figure 13. Bacopa monnieri
10. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub) Mysore thorn (Caesalpinia decapetala ) originates from tropical and eastern Asia but is now a serious weed in many locations such as South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Hawaii, Portugal, New Zealand and Norfolk Island. It has become a major invasive plant in South Africa and Hawaii, where it has the capability to take over large areas of agricultural land, limiting animal movement. This sprawling, thorny and noxious shrub also invades forest margins, smothering native vege tation. Common Names: cat's claw, Mauritius thorn, Mysore thorn, shoofly, wait-a-bit
Figure 14. Caesalpinia decapetala pods
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11. Dioscorea bulbifera (herb, vine, climber) Dioscorea bulbifera is a highly invasive plant and presents a management problem in many parts of the world. Despite some medicinal and agricultural uses, D. bulbifera is widely characterized as an organism that outcompetes and smothers native vegetation. Common Names: aerial yam, air yam, air-potato, bitter yam, cheeky yam, rook, wild yam, yam Synonyms: Dioscorea hoffa
12. Ficus microcarpus (tree) Ficus microcarpa is a woody plant species that is native to the Asia-Pacific region. Commonly known as Chinese banyan and the laurel fig, it is a popular ornamental tree that grows in tropical and temperate regions of the world. F. microcarpa has small, tiny seeds that are easily spread by birds, bats and rodents, and which are capable of germinating almost anywhere they land - even in cracks in concrete. F. microcarpa is considered to be a major invasive species in Hawaii, the Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands, Florida, Bermuda and Central down to South America. Common Names: Chinese banyan, curtain fig, laurel fig, Malay banyan, rong shu Synonyms: Ficus microcarpa 13. Dalbergia sissoo (tree) Dalbergia sissoo is a perennial tree that is economically important for its value in forestry, agroforestry, and horticulture. It provides timber, fuel wood, fodder, has medicinal value, used extensively as an ornamental tree as well as for shading, erosion control, and soil fertility. Native to the Indian sub-continent it is a member of the legume family and can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere through bacteria nodules on its root system. It has been introduced in various countries throughout the world, but has known to be invasive in Australia and in Florida (Congress). Common Names: Bombay blackwood, dalbergia, Indian dalbergia, shisham, sisso Synonyms: Amerimnon sissoo (Kuntze), Dalbergia pseudo-sissoo (Miq.)
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14. Houttuynia cordata (shrub) Houttuynia cordata is a perennial plant that has been introduced as an ornamental for gardens. While the plant has apparently not escaped confinement, there is much fear that it will eventually present a huge risk to native habitats. It has a high reproductive and vegetative growth rate and quickly overtakes the gardens where it is planted. Control of this species is difficult as it will reproduce rhizomatically from fragments. Common Name: chameleon-plant Synonyms: Gymnotheca chinensis,
Figure 18. Houttuynia cordata
15. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) The herbaceous perennial Hygrophila polysperma, commonly known as the Indian swamp weed, is a freshwater amphibious herb that was most likely introduced through the aquarium trade. It is found in warmer climates and prefers flowing streams, but may also be found in slow-moving waters and in lakes. It is a fastgrowing and fast-spreading species that out-shades and outcompetes other submersed plants. Hygrophila polysperma interferes with navigation and has been known to compete with other aggressive non-native invasive plants. Hygrophila polysperma is difficult to control. Mechanical harvesting only fragments the plants and increases its distribution. Typical biological control agents for aquatic invasive species do not affect this species and most registered aquatic herbicides only provide marginal control. Common Names: East Indian hygrophila, hygro, Indian swamp weed, Miramar weed
Figure 19. Hygrophila polysperma
16. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub) Lespedeza cuneata is a long-lived perennial that grows well in grasslands, pastures, along roadsides, drainage areas, fence rows and in other disturbed areas. It is often found as a weed in cultivated areas, fallow and abandoned fields, meadows and marshes. It is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions and is tolerant of drought. Lespedeza cuneata can survive freezing winter temperatures, but is often damaged by late spring freezes. Lespedeza cuneata grows best in deep soils, such as deep sands with organic matter or sandy loams with clay loam subsoil. It will also grow on strongly acidic to neutral soils. Dispersal is aided by animals that consume the fruits then pass the seeds; autumn dispersal is aided by the collection of hay in infested fields. Common Names: Chinese bush-clover, Chinese lespedeza, Himalayan bush clover Synonyms: Anthyllis cuneata, Aspalathus cuneata
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17. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb) Limnophila sessiliflora is an aquatic perennial herb that can exist in a variety of aquatic habitats. It is fast growing and exhibits re-growth from fragments. Limnophila sessiliflora is also able to shade out and out compete other submersed species. 2-4, D reportedly kills this species. Common Names: ambulia, limnophila, shi long wei Asian marshweed,
18. Lotus corniculatus (herb) Lotus corniculatus (bird's foot trefoil) is a low growing perennial legume that has long been valued as an agricultural crop. Lotus corniculatus is native to much of Europe, Asia and parts of Africa, but now has a near global distribution. Over most of its range, Lotus corniculatus is not considered invasive, although in a few areas it has outcompeted native vegetation. Common Names: birdfoot deervetch, bird's-foot trefoil, cat's clover, common lotus, devil's fingers, Synonyms: Lotus ambiguous, Lotus ambiguus, Lotus japonicus
Figure 21. Lotus corniculatus
19. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) Lygodium japonicum is a vine-like fern with a highly developed ability to climb herbs, shrubs and trees. Its invasiveness arises from its ability to climb to heights of 30m and can smother vegetation by forming dense mats which displace native species, alters fire ecology and impacts rare, threatened and endangered species. Common Names: Japanese climbing fern Synonyms: Hydroglossum japonicum
Figure 22. Lotus corniculatus
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20. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) Paederia foetida is an aggressive, competitive vine. It can grow high into the canopy of trees in a variety of habitats. The vines climb over shrubs and trees, weighing them down and impeding regeneration. It also invades pastureland and is troublesome along roads and on power lines. Chemicals are often used as an effective method of controlling Paederia foetida. The seeds may be dispersed by birds and are also spread by the transport of rooted fragments. Common Names: Chinese fever vine Synonyms: Paederia chinensis 21. Melilotus alba (herb) Native to Asia, Europe, and northern Africa, flowers Melilotus alba (commonly known as white sweet clover) was introduced to the United States and first recorded in 1739.
Figure 25. Paederia foetida, skunk vine showing its leaves and
Common Names: honey clover, honey-lotus, tree clover, white melilot, white millet Synonyms: Melilotus alba, Melilotus alba L., Melilotus albus
22. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass) Neyraudia reynaudiana presents a threat to ecosystems due to its ability to promote frequent fires and outcompete with native vegetation. Neyraudia reynaudiana thrives from sea level to altitudes of 1980 metres. It is remarkably tolerant with respect to edaphic and light regimes, although it seems to prefer open, high light areas. Most invasions of Neyraudia reynaudiana have been preceded by some form of disturbance. It has often been collected in marshy areas, or areas with brackish water, and is becoming increasingly common in dry pinelands. It spreads via rhizomes and reproduces by seeds, which are dispersed by wind. Common Names: Burma reed, cane grass, false reed, Synonyms: Arundo reynaudiana Kunth.
Figure 24. Neyraudia reynaudiana
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23. Senegalia catechu (tree) Common Names: black catechu, black cutch, catechu, cutch tree, khair, khairtree Synonyms: Acacia catechu
24. Rubus niveus (shrub) Rubus niveus is a shrub native to Asia that may form dense, impenetrable, thorny thickets that can displace native species. It produces sweet; palatable fruit enjoyed by birds, rodents, reptiles and humans and has been cultivated in many regions throughout the world for this reason. It is also used as a living fence. Mechanical management of the species is difficult due to its growth form and persistent seed bank, but chemical methods have been developed and biological means of management are being explored. Common Names: Ceylon raspberry, hill raspberry, Java bramble, Mysore raspberry, snow peaks raspberry Synonyms: Rubus albescens pedunculosus, Rubus
Figure 27. Hill raspberry
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On one side of the monastery, there are broad-leaved forests boasting of oak, rhododendron, maple and walnut trees and on the other side, there are conifer forests having spruce trees, fir, hemlock and the Himalayan yew. The River Thimphu Chhu that originates in the Jigme Dorji National Park is quite furious in summer, when it is fed by the melting snow, and its white torrential waters form emeraldgreen pools throughout the park. The blood-red flowers of rhododendron and other blooming flowers around the monastery present a colourful view in the spring season ("Jigme Dorji National Park," 2012). Several bird species are spotted in the park such as rare black-necked cranes, white-capped water redstarts, blue whistling thrushes, white-throated laughing thrushes, yellow-billed blue magpies, Himalayan monal and the spotted nutcracker. Cheri goral can easily climb the rock-face, which provides them the escape point from predators such as tigers, leopards and dogs. The altitudes vary widely throughout the park, from 1400 m to 7000 m, covering eight of the eleven vegetation zones found in Bhutan. Jigme Dorji National Park has more than 30 species of mammals, 300 species of birds, and 1400 species of plants. Black bears, markot, sambar, barking deer, takin and musk deer are also found in this preserved area. Semi-nomadic people living here are mostly yak herders; harvests medicinal and aromatic plants and subsist on marginal agriculture and forest products (Bhutan Trust Fund Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation, 2012).
It is the countrys most active geothermic region and Himalayan herbs found here are used in traditional Bhutanese medicines. Trekkers love this place and the hot springs of the park, known as Gasa Tsachhu, are famous for their therapeutic effects. One of the most biologically rich areas in the Eastern Himalayan region, Jigme Dorji National Park boasts of warm broad-leaved forests, permanent ice fields and even glaciers. Sacred peaks such as Jomolhari, Tsherimgang and Jichu Drakey are some of the most significant landmarks in the park and its glaciers and glacial lakes are source of some of the Bhutans main rivers. In the alpine region, one can see the rare blue poppy, edelweiss, orchids and rhododendrons and it is perhaps the only place in the world where one can find snow leopards and the Royal Bengal tiger existing together ("Jigme Dorji National Park," 2012).
It has the distinction of being the seat of the first monastic body in Bhutan. Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, a Tibetan holy man, built it in 1620.
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However, the rich biodiversity of the park constantly faces many threats, of which one of threat is rapidly spreading invasive species. The common invasive species found in Jigme Dorji National Park are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb) 31 trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
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H. Invasive species in scrub/shrub lands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 5. Psittacula krameri (bird), 6. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 7. Rubus niveus (shrub) I. Invasive species in ice: 1. Lotus corniculatus (herb)
Seven of the bird species that make this National Park their home are listed among the globally endangered species. Rainfall varies too in different areas of the National Park and thus, this wildlife sanctuary arbors wide diversity of climatic conditions, making it suitable for many different flora and fauna species. Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park has one of the highest coverage of mature fir, pine and other types of broadleaf forests that are considered to be the one of the few virgin and undisturbed tracks of forests in the Eastern Himalayas. The terrestrial fauna found here includes rare and endangered species such as musk deer, Himalayan black bear, golden langur endemic to Bhutan, clouded leopard, red panda and Royal Bengal tiger ("Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park," 2012) The eastern part of this National Park boasts of 20% of Bhutans tiger population and is said to be an important link between the northern and southern tiger population in Bhutan. Phobjikha valley, situated to the northwest of the park (which is considered to be the buffer zone of the park), is the winter habitat of the black-necked cranes. More than 260 cranes migrate to this place every year in winter. It is under the Royal Society for Protection of Nature. About 6000 people live inside the park whereas about 15000 people are estimated to find their homes within 5 km periphery of the Park. These people produce crops such as paddy, maize, wheat, buckwheat, millet and potato and raise livestock consisting of cattle, yaks, sheep, horses and goats ("Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park," 2012). The common invasive species found in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park are as follows: A. Invasive species in natural forests:
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia 33
cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
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1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub),
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15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird)
B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) E. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) F. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
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1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 37 trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant)
E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb)
H. Invasive species in scrub/shrub lands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 5. Psittacula krameri (bird), 6. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 7. Rubus niveus (shrub) I. Invasive species in ice: 1. Lotus corniculatus (herb)
38
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
39
E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb) H. Invasive species in scrub/shrub lands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 5. Psittacula krameri (bird), 6. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 7. Rubus niveus (shrub) I. Invasive species in ice: 1. Lotus corniculatus (herb)
40
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird)
41
1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands:
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) G. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed:
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb)
42
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
43
1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal)
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 44
12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird)
B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in wetlands: trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) E. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) F. Invasive species in ruderal/disturbed:
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Columba livia (bird), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 6. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 7. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Commelina benghalensis (herb), 10. Corvus splendens (bird), 11. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 12. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 13. Melilotus alba (herb), 14. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 15. Paederia foetida (vine, climber), 16. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird), 17. Rubus niveus (shrub), 18. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 19. Lotus corniculatus (herb), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird)
45
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird) B. Invasive species in marine habitats:
46
C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in lakes: 1. Ctenopharyngodon idella (fish), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (fish), 4. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (fish), 5. Salmo trutta (fish), 6. Hygrophila polysperma (aquatic plant) E. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) F. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Chromolaena odorata (herb), 3. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 4. Hemidactylus frenatus (reptile), 5. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 6. Houttuynia cordata (shrub), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 9. Macaca mulatta (mammal), 10. Melilotus alba (herb), 11. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 12. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) , 13. Pycnonotus jocosus (bird) , 14. Rubus niveus (shrub), 15. Suncus murinus (mammal), 16. Viverricula indica (mammal), 17. Corvus splendens (bird), 18. Dalbergia sissoo (tree), 19. Ficus microcarpus (tree), 20. Gallus gallus (bird)
47
B. Invasive species in marine habitats: 1. Salmo trutta (fish), 2. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism) C. Invasive species in estuarine habitats: 1. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 2. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 3. Salmo cholerae (micro-organism), 5. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) D. Invasive species in wetlands: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree), 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb),3. Cyprinus carpio (fish), 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Vibrio cholerae (micro-organism), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Lespedeza cuneata (herb, shrub), 8. Limnophila sessiliflora (herb), 9. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern) 10. Neyraudia reynaudiana (grass), 11. Paederia foetida (vine, climber) E. Invasive species in riparian zones: 1. Acacia melanoxylon (tree) 2. Cardamine flexuosa (herb) 3. Chromolaena odorata (herb) 4. Imperata cylindrica (grass), 5. Albizia julibrissin (tree), 6. Alternanthera sessilis (herb), 7. Anas platyrhynchos (bird), 8. Caesalpinia decapetala (tree, shrub), 9. Corvus splendens (bird), 10. Lygodium japonicum (vine, climber, fern), 11. Porphyrio porphyrio (bird), 12. Rubus niveus (shrub), 13. Streptopelia decaocto (bird), 14. Viverricula indica (mammal) trutta (fish), 4. Vibrio
previously inaccessible areas, as facilitated by forest roads, cause many environmental problems including the possible introduction of alien species (Kiritani & Moromoto, 2004). Forest sector activities can promote the emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases which degrade human health and that of other species. Clear-cutting and road building may increase exposure of workers to infectious diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Ebola hemorrhagic fever, and Marburg hemorrhagic fever, yellow fever, leishmaniasis, malaria and Ross River virus disease. Logging Figure 29. Forest workers in tropical forest. can change the abundance, extent and quality of aquatic larval habitats for the Anopheles mosquito vectors of malaria and by disturbing the forest floor, creating depressions that catch and hold water, thus creating new sites for the development of more mosquitoes (Kiritani, 2002). Deforestation can result in humans coming into closer contact with the vectors for such diseases as leishmaniasis, yellow fever, trypanosomiasis (both African sleeping sickness and Chagas disease), and Kyasanur forest disease. Similarly, some animal reservoir hosts increase in abundance near the edges between forests and human settlements thus increasing the risk of human exposure to pathogens. The destruction of forest habitat may result in the removal, replacement or eradication of dominant vector species and sometimes, the replacement species are more effective vectors of disease as observed with loa loa (tropical eyeworm) and onchocerciasis (river blindness). Deforestation and desertification may also be accompanied by changes in the distribution of vectors such as ticks, blackflies, tsetse flies and Anopheles mosquitoes (Asao, 1998). Forest workers, such as this worker in the tropical forests, can experience increased exposure to infectious diseases and their vectors Refforestation activities can also affect the population dynamics of vectors and reservoirs which can promote the emergence of infectious diseases. The forest sector itself is a major source of invasive species. Many of the tree species used in commercial forestry in many parts of the world are alien or non-indigenous to the area. Hundreds of species have also been widely and successfully planted for a variety of purposes including afforestation, desertification and erosion control, and for the supply of fuelwood and other forest products. Such intentional introductions however, can bring about many unintended and costly consequences when these species escape cultivation and invade natural ecosystems. Alien tree plantations can have negative effects on the biodiversity and water resources of afforested areas. Alien species that spread from plantations to natural and semi-natural areas, and also into areas set aside for conservation and water production, have considerable impacts on ecosystem properties and functions (Kiritani & Moromoto, 2004).
49
50
Conclusion
The ecosystems we manage as protected areas provide people with their most fundamental need. They ensure the flow of high quality water to cities and rural farmers and settlements, irrigation works, power plants, fisheries and navigation. Soil nutrients flow from them to adjacent food production areas. Their wild genetic resources are being explored as the basic for future foods and medicines. The sacred sites they contain harbour values critical to the spirituality of many individuals and societies. Their wild environments and historic landscapes are providing solace to millions of visitors, and helping to build personal character in our young people, and personal and cultural identity. These areas also serve to integrate peoples, their economies and their cultures. Today, these protected areas around the world are under many threats. The protected areas in Bhutan are also under the similar global threats. These threats include those activities which are caused mainly by human beings like forest fires, forest utilization, in particular practices such as timber harvesting, extraction of non-timber products, the construction of logging and transport roads and facilities for logging camps, and the conversion of natural forest to plantations, can have direct and indirect negative impacts on the ecological functions of forests and on forest biodiversity. Such kinds of activities lead to disturbaces and alterations of function in ecosystem. It leads to decline of biodiversity and subsequently total loss or extinction of species. One of such threat today in Bhutan like any other countries in around the globe, which has mainly resulted from human interventions in nature, is the introduction of invasive species. Invasive species invades niches which are away from its habitat and has ability to occupy other niches. It competes for food and spaces with the native species. Mass invasions more or less cause structural and functional changes in ecosystems, including alterations in nutrients and/or structural condition. These changes in dominant plant species may lead to the replacement of dominant plant consumers, followed by their predators, and further cause a chain of changes in species compositions at every trophic level, and thus disrupt food webs and other structural and functional features of the ecosystem. The introduction of invasive species has also caused decline to economic status, environmental harm and harm to human health. The study of invasive species, finding approximate number and their effect are under process. There are over 200 invasive species including both plants and animals in the country, belonging mostly to Compostae and Graminae families. However, the knowledge of invasive are new to Bhutan due to which, currently a very few numbers of works are done to study it and essential mitigation activities against it. Accordingly, the governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations in the country are working hard to alleviate these factors and come to proper solutions
51
References
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Carlson, M., Chen, J., Elgie, S., Henschel, C., Montenegro, A., Roulet, N., Well, J. (2010). Maintaining the role of Canada's forests and peatlands in climate regulation. The Forestry Chronicle, 86(4), 17. Climate Summit for a Living Himalayas. (2011). Congress. (2011). Geography Retrieved 4th October, 2012, from http://countrystudies.us/bhutan/14.htm FAO. 2011. Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture: Contributing to food security and sustainability in a changing world. Geography of Bhutan. (2012). Retrieved 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.visitbhutan.com/geography_of_bhutan.html Global Invasive Species Database.(2012). Retrieved on 2nd October, 2012, from http://www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?sts=sss&st=sss&fr=1&x=47&y=8&sn=&r n=Bhutan&hci=-1&ei=-1&lang=EN
Goriup, P. (1999). Parks. The international journal for protected areas managers, 9(3), 60.
Grierson, A., & Long, D. (1999). Flora of Bhutan (Vol. 3). Edinburgh: Royal Botanic Gardens.
Gyeltshen, N. (2008). The Conceptual paper on the study of Invasive Alien Plant Species. Thimphu. Harper, J.L. (1977). Population Biology of Plants. Academic Press, London.
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