Groups of Elements

One reason the periodic table of the elements is so useful is because it is a means of arranging elements according to their similar properties. There are multiple ways of grouping the elements, but they are commonly divided into metals, semimetals, and nonmetals. You'll find more specific groups, like transition metals, rare earths, alkali metals, alkaline earths, halogens, and noble gases. In chemistry and atomic physics, main group elements are elements in groups (periodic columns)

whose lightest members are represented by helium,lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, andfluorine as arranged in the periodic table of the elements. Main group elements include elements (except hydrogen) in groups 1 and 2 (s-block), and groups 13 to 18 (p-block). Group 12 elements are usually considered to be transition metals; however, zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) share some properties of both groups, and some scientists believe they should be included as main group elements.
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In older nomenclature the main group elements are groups IA and IIA, and groups IIIB to 0 (CAS groups IIIA to VIIIA). Main group elements (with some of the lighter transition metals) are the most abundant elements on the earth, in the solar system, and in the universe. They are sometimes called the representative elements.

In chemistry, periodic trends are the tendencies of certain elemental characteristics to increase or decrease as one progresses along a row or column of the periodic table of elements.

All periodic trends of the chemicals are based on Coulomb's law energy, electronegativity decrease.

. As distance between the

protons in the nucleus decrease from the valence electrons attributes such as electron affinity, ionization

The three fundamental laws of chemistry is the following: A. Law of conservation of mass- mass is neither created nor destroyed during an ordinary chemical reaction or physical reaction. B. Law of definite porportions- a chemical compound contains the same elemtents in exactly the same proportions by mass regardless of the sample of the source of the compound. C. Law of multiple proportions- if two or more different compounds are composed of the same two elements, then the ratios of the masses of the second element, combined with a certain mass of the first element is always a ratio of small whole numbers

Egyptian Art and Style

Egyptian Art and Style, the buildings, sculpture, painting, and decorative arts of ancient Egypt from about 5000 BC to the conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC. Today, we look at Egyptian art primarily in museums or in books. For the Egyptians, however, the objects now regarded as art were made to serve a particular purpose, usually a religious one. For example, temples were decorated with paintings and filled with statues of gods and kings in the belief that doing this served the gods, showed devotion to the king, and maintained the order of the universe. The Egyptians wore jewelry and amulets (charms) not only as decoration, but because they believed these items protected them against harm. They buried their dead with jewelry and amulets for the same reason: to protect against the perils of the afterlife. Most Egyptians never saw the art that is now displayed in museums, because only kings and members of the ruling elite were allowed to enter temples, tombs, and palaces. But the Egyptians had in mind another audience for their art: the gods and, for the art in tombs, the spirits of people who had died. Artists in ancient Egypt joined workshops and worked in teams to produce what their patrons the king and the eliteneeded. For this reason, few works can be attributed to individuals. Religious beliefs largely dictated what artists created, especially the paintings and statues that filled Egyptian temples and tombs. Artists endlessly repeated the same themes and subjects, changing them only when beliefs changed. (A rare change came around 1350 BC, for example, when the sun god Aton gained more prominence than ever before.) The style of depicting these themes and subjects, by contrast, changed from one generation of artists and patrons to the next. For example, during the 18th dynasty (1550-1307 BC) there was a shift from painting the human figure in a rather stiff and rigid posture to using curved lines and varied poses. But most of the changes were more subtle. The Egyptians created their art and architecture to affirm a distinctive social, political, and religious system. After the Roman conquest of Egypt, Alexandria became an important center of Christianity, and what Christians regarded as pagan art ceased to be produced. Existing monuments were viewed negatively and their images defaced. The Arab conquest of Egypt in AD 640 brought a new language (Arabic) as well as new cultural and religious traditions. This event removed the Egyptians even further from their ancient past. Although curiosity about ancient Egypt never died out completely in Europe, there was little informed knowledge about it. Renewed interest in Egypt during the 18th century led to the use of Egyptian motifs in art and architecture. Notable for their incorporation of these motifs were Italian graphic artist Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Scottish-born architect Robert Adam, English potter Josiah Wedgwood, and English furniture designer Thomas Sheraton.

Greek Art and Style

Greek Art and Style, paintings, sculpture, buildings, and decorative arts produced in ancient Greece, from about 1050 BC to 31 BC. Greek civilization encompassed not only mainland Greece but also nearby islands in the Aegean Sea, the western coast of Turkey (known as Ionia), southern Italy and Sicily (known as Magna Graecia, or Great Greece), and by the late 300s BC, Egypt, Syria, and other Near Eastern lands. Among its best-known monuments are stone temples, statues of human figures, and painted vases. The importance of Greek art and architecture for the history of Western civilization can hardly be overstated, for the Greeks established many of the most enduring themes, attitudes, and forms of Western culture. The stories told in Greek art and literature of gods and heroes have been retold ever since and continue to form a common ground for the art, literature, and even popular culture of the Western world.

Greek artists were the first to establish mimesis (imitation of nature) as a guiding principle for art, even as Greek philosophers debated the intellectual value of this approach. The repeated depiction of the nude human figure in Greek art reflects Greek humanisma belief that 'Man is the measure of all things,' in the words of Greek philosopher Protagoras. Architecture is another Greek legacy that the West has inherited, as Greece established many of the structural elements, decorative motifs, and building types still used in architecture today.

Renaissance Art and Style

Renaissance Art Andzzsculpture, architecture, and allied arts produced in Europe in the historical period called the Renaissance. Broadly considered, the period covers the 200 years between 1400 and 1600, although specialists disagree on exact dates. The word renaissance literally means rebirth and is the French translation of the Italian rinascita. The two principal components of Renaissance style are the following: a revival of the classical forms originally developed by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and an intensified concern with secular lifeinterest in humanism and assertion of the importance of the individual. The Renaissance period in art history corresponds to the beginning of the great Western age of discovery and exploration, when a general desire developed to examine all aspects of nature and the world. During the Renaissance, artists were no longer regarded as mere artisans, as they had been in the medieval past, but for the first time emerged as independent personalities, comparable to poets and writers. They sought new solutions to formal and visual problems, and many of them were also devoted to scientific experimentation. In this context, mathematical or linear perspective was developed, a system in which all objects in a painting or in low-relief sculpture are related both proportionally and rationally. As a result, the painted surface was regarded as a window on the natural world, and it became the task of painters to portray this world in their art. Consequently, painters began to devote themselves more rigorously to the rendition of landscapethe careful depiction of trees, flowers, plants, distant mountains, and cloud-filled skies. Artists studied the effect of light out-of-doors and how the eye perceives all the diverse elements in nature. They developed aerial perspective, in which objects become increasingly less distinct and less sharply colored as they recede from the eye of the viewer. Northern painters, especially those from Flanders and the Netherlands, were as advanced as the Italians in landscape painting and contributed to the innovations of their southern contemporaries by introducing oil paint as a new medium.