Eur J Appl Physiol (1997) 76: 400 ± 408 Ó Springer-Verlag 1997

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

M. Handel á T. Horstmann á H.-H. Dickhuth

R.W. GuÈlch

Effects of contract-relax stretching training

on muscle performance in athletes

Accepted: 1 March 1997

Abstract The e€ects of an 8-week unilateral contract-

relax (CR) stretching training program (passive stretch
Introduction
after isometric contraction) on muscular performance
In recent years, muscle stretching exercises have begun
were investigated in a group of 16 athletes. The ¯exi-
to play an important role in rehabilitation, public sports,
bility, maximum torque and angular position as well as
and especially in high-performance sports. In rehabili-
contraction work in movements of the knee joint were
tation gymnastics, stretching exercises are frequently
determined before training and after 4 and 8 weeks of
applied to alleviate chronic muscle shortening (Spring
training. The torque measurements were performed
1985). In sports, stretching exercises ± chie¯y recom-
under isokinetic conditions, eccentrically at angular
mended during warm-up (Anderson and Burke 1991;
velocities of 60° á s)1 and 120° á s)1, isometrically at ®ve
Williford et al. 1986) ± exhibit the following e€ects:
di€erent joint positions, and concentrically at angular
improved ¯exibility in the sense of an enlarged range of
velocities of 60, 120, 180 and 240° á s)1 using an iso-
motion (ROM) in the trained joint (Anderson and Burke
kinetic dynamometer. A surface electromyogram
1991; Lucas and Koslow 1984; Sady et al. 1982); pre-
(EMG) of the thigh muscles (quadriceps and ham-
vention of strain injuries (Bixler and Jones 1992; Stanish
strings) was recorded simultaneously. As compared to
and Hubley-Kozey 1984); and shortening of the mus-
untrained control limbs, signi®cant improvements in
cular contraction and relaxation time as a basis for the
active and passive ¯exibility (up to 6.3° in range of
facilitation of faster movements (HortobaÂgyi et al.
motion), maximum torque (up to 21.6%) and work (up
1985). In addition, the sti€ness of muscle series elasticity
to 12.9%) were observed, and these were especially
has been observed to be reduced, with the consequence
pronounced under eccentric load conditions. A com-
that the storage of elastic energy is more ecient in
parison between integrated EMG recordings during ec-
certain ``stretch-shorten cycle'' movements (Wilson et al.
centric and concentric loads, as well as the interpretation
1992). Stretching as a protection against ``delayed onset
of the training-induced changes in the EMG, suggest
muscle soreness'' (DOMS; High et al. 1989) is still a
that muscular activity under eccentric loads may be
controversial theme.
impaired by mental processes.
The e€ects of stretching on ¯exibility, i.e. on ROM,
have been investigated by numerous authors. Here, a
Key words Skeletal muscle á Contract-relax stretching
distinction has been made between alterations due to
training á Flexibility á Isokinetic dynamometry á
stretching that is performed repeatedly over longer pe-
Force-velocity relationship
riods of time (investigated by, among others, Holt et al.
1970; Lucas and Koslow 1984; Sady et al. 1982; Wie-
mann 1991) and short-term e€ects as measured imme-
diately after stretching exercises (Cornelius et al. 1992;
Etnyre and Abraham 1986a; Moore and Hutton 1980).
M. Handel á R.W. GuÈlch (&) In these investigations, ¯exibility was not measured in a
Institute of Physiology II, uniform way. Cornelius et al. (1992) and Starring et al.
University of TuÈbingen, Gmelinstrasse 5,
D-72076 TuÈbingen, Germany (1988) determined ROM under passive load conditions;
the subjects were asked to voluntarily relax their muscles
T. Horstmann á H.-H. Dickhuth
Medical Clinic V, Department of Sports Medicine,
while the joint was moved for measurement by the ex-
University of TuÈbingen, HoÈlderlinstrasse 11, perimentalist. In contrast, other authors performed the
D-72074 TuÈbingen, Germany measurement of ¯exibility actively, that is the subjects

were asked to move the joint of interest to its end position
by supreme e€ort using the muscle antagonistic to the
one being stretched (Etnyre and Abraham 1986a; Holt et
al. 1970; Lucas and Koslow 1984; Sady et al. 1982).
Generally, stretching is classi®ed according to ®ve
di€erent techniques (SoÈlveborn 1983; Wydra 1993): dy-
namic stretching (DS), static stretching (SS), stretching
immediately after a short and almost maximal isometric
contraction of the muscle (CR), stretching by antagonist
contraction (AC), and stretching by antagonist con-
traction after agonist contraction (CR-AC) as a combi-
nation of CR and AC. In evaluating the individual
techniques, increases in ¯exibility were measured in most
cases. In this respect, di€erent authors reported con-
troversial results: whereas some authors stated a higher
e€ectiveness of techniques including contraction of ag-
onist or antagonist (Cornelius et al. 1992; Etnyre and
Abraham 1986a; Holt et al. 1970; Moore and Hutton
1980; Osternig et al. 1990; Sady et al. 1982), others
found no di€erences between the individual stretching
techniques (de Vries 1962, Lucas and Koslow 1984). In
contrast to this, Schober et al. (1990) found positive
e€ects of DS, but negative e€ects of SS. Wydra et al.
(1991) found a highly signi®cant superiority of DS after
2 weeks. Starring et al. (1988) preferred cyclic passive
stretching rather than a single sustained stretch.
As a reason for the higher e€ectiveness of the CR and
CR-AC stretching exercises, Etnyre and Abraham
(1986b) as well as Guissard et al. (1988) described an
attenuation of the H-re¯ex that occurred immediately
after muscle contraction, which should improve
distensibility of the muscle. This e€ect was demonstrated
by Etnyre and Abraham (1986b) only during the ®rst
seconds after the beginning of the stretch. Guissard et al.
(1988) found a 20% attenuation of the H-re¯ex lasting
at least 30 s that was independent of the duration of the
preceding muscle contraction (between 1 and 30 s).
The possible e€ects of regular stretching training on
various muscle parameters have rarely been subject to
systematic investigations. Wiemann (1991) obtained
partly contradictory results: whereas the isometric
maximum force increased signi®cantly in female volun-
teers, a non-signi®cant decrease in ``explosive force'' was
observed in male subjects. Worrell et al. (1994) found a
signi®cant increase in torque of the ¯exors in the knee
joint under eccentric load conditions at velocities of 60
and 120° á s)1 and under concentric load conditions at
120° á s)1, but not under concentric load conditions at
60° á s)1. Wiktorsson-MoÈller et al. (1983) described a
non-signi®cant decrease in maximum torque during
¯exion and extension of the knee joint under isometric
and concentric load conditions at velocities of 30 and
180° á s)1 immediately after CR stretching.
The question as to whether the observed positive
changes in muscle parameters are to be considered as
consequences of structural alterations of the muscle, in
the sense of length increases or hypertrophy, rather than
as consequences of changes in re¯ex activity or other
electrophysiological adaptations, is also controversial.
401
The e€ects of regular stretching training on muscle
performance have not yet been systematically investi-
gated on a wider scale. Thus, the aim of the present
study was to determine the changes in various relevant
parameters of muscle performance due to CR stretching
training lasting several weeks. In particular, the follow-
ing questions were broached:
1. Can certain contractile properties of muscles be af-
fected by stretching training in such a way that the
force-velocity relationship is changed?
2. Does stretching change the force development or the
torque pro®le in the respective joint movement?
3. Can possible alterations in muscle properties be ex-
plained by a process of morphological reorganiza-
tion, or can they be considered to be functional
changes in muscle electrical activity, in the sense of a
neurophysiological adaptation process?
Methods
Subjects
Sixteen male athletes (eight league swimmers, six amateur foot-
ballers, two long-distance runners) collaborated in this study [age:
23.6 (3.9) years; body mass: 82.0 (10.3) kg; height: 182.7 (8.6) cm;
mean (SD)]. The swimmers belonged to a ®rst-division swimming
club and trained at least three times a week; the amateur footballers
were members of a district league club, training twice a week with
matches each weekend. The long-distance runners trained ap-
proximately three times a week. The volunteers were fully informed
about the training and experimental procedures and gave their
consent to participate.
Stretching training
A 10-min CR stretching training program (contract-relax stretch-
ing), according to Anderson and Burke (1991) and SoÈlveborn
(1983), was performed regularly three days per week over a period
of eight weeks. In part, the exercises had been modi®ed so as to
prevent training of the contralateral side and to adapt the protocol
to the subjects' sports-speci®c training conditions. The stretching
exercises were performed after a short warm-up period of at least
2 min of, for example, running and jumping prior to the athletes'
speci®c training program. The stretching exercises were restricted
to the extensors and ¯exors of the knee joint and the adjacent
muscles of one side of the body; the contralateral muscle groups
served as controls. Within the stretching program, each muscle
group was subjected to eight CR stretching cycles comprising a 10-s
strong contraction (the athletes were told to contract their muscles
with at least 70% of their maximum force), 1±2 s of relaxation and
10±15 s of passive stretching. After two cycles of CR stretching, the
muscles were brie¯y limbered up by shaking. The extensors and
¯exors were stretched alternately with two di€erent exercises each
and one complete repetition of the program.
Measurement of ¯exibility
Flexibility was measured by reading the extreme knee joint angles
(using an elongated orthopaedic goniometer above the bone points:
trochanter major, epicondylus lateralis and malleolus lateralis)
during active as well as passive movement. Flexibility in ¯exion was
determined at a hip joint angle of 0° (standing position, leaning
against a wall); ¯exibility in extension was determined at a 90° hip
joint angle (with the subject in a sitting position, ®xed to a mea-
suring chair).
402
Experimental set-up
The e€ects of stretching training on the performance of the muscles
acting on the knee joint were investigated using an isokinetic dy-
namometer (LIDO-Active 2.1 dynamometer, Loredan, USA).
Muscle performance was assessed on the basis of eccentric, iso-
metric and concentric torque measurements under preset isokinetic
velocities to obtain torque-angular velocity relationships. Torque
curves and joint angles were recorded during de®ned isokinetic
movements, thereby allowing the work done during such move-
ments and the angular position of maximum torque to be moni-
tored. In addition, the electromyographic (EMG) activity was
taken into account by recording the surface EMG of the thigh
muscles. The evaluation of the stretching training was based on the
¯exibility as determined by the active and passive ROM.
In recording the force-velocity relationship, it was necessary to
analyse a wide range of velocities. Therefore, in preliminary ex-
periments the technical limits of the dynamometry were investi-
gated, especially for high velocities (Handel et al. 1996). In order to
record torques under the highest possible velocities with acceptable
accuracy, a muscle group that was able to produce high torques
had to be used. In addition, the muscles under consideration had to
be accessible to stretching training. For our investigations, we
chose the extensors and ¯exors of the knee joint, since they meet
both of the above requirements.
Since we wanted to investigate the e€ects of long-term
stretching training, the in¯uence of the regular training speci®c to
the athletes' primary sport as well as possible ¯uctuations in their
physical conditions had to be kept under control. For this reason,
the stretching training was applied to one extremity only (as, for
example, by Grady and Saxena 1991). The contralateral side served
as the individual's control. In this way it was possible to ®lter out
in¯uences that uniformly a€ect the state of both legs (e.g. the
general improvement in ®tness in the course of the training season;
``adaptation'' to the measuring procedure) by examining the dif-
ferences in muscle performance between the stretch-trained and the
control leg.
Torque measurement
The torque curves of the knee joint during muscle contraction were
recorded using a LIDO-Active 2.1 dynamometer. In preliminary
experiments it was frequently found that in the concentric mode
high velocities (adjustable up to 400° á s)1) could not be attained
since the torque produced by the subjects could not overcome the
relatively large resistance of the dynamometer during the acceler-
ation phase. Therefore, in a ®rst series of measurements the reli-
ability of the isokinetic diagnostics in general and of the
dynamometer in particular were investigated (Handel et al. 1996).
From these ®ndings, a restriction to velocities up to 240° á s)1 had
to be observed with respect to the expected strength of the subjects,
thus guaranteeing isokinetic conditions over the angular range of
movement under consideration.
Torque measurement in the subjects
The isokinetic measurements were performed by encouraging the
subjects while in a sitting position, to develop maximum force
covering the whole angular range of movement between knee joint
angles of 8° (extension) and 108° (¯exion) (all angles cited ac-
cording to the neutral zero method commonly used in or-
thopaedics). The tests were performed under eccentric conditions
( passive mode) at angular velocities of 60 and 120° á s)1, concen-
trically at 60, 120, 180 and 240° á s)1, and isometrically at ®ve
di€erent joint positions (108°, 83°, 58°, 33°, 8°). Torque maxima, as
well as their angular positions, were read from the individual curves
using the cursor function of the LIDO software. The values repre-
sentative for the eccentric and concentric tests are means of the
three highest values out of a series of ®ve experiments at each
angular velocity. In the isometric measurements we used the
maximum torque reached during a 4-s muscle contraction. In ad-
dition, the work performed in the eccentric and concentric tests
during the movement between joint angles of 30° and 90° was
calculated using the LIDO software.
EMG recording
For monitoring the EMG activity, in each case a surface EMG was
measured between two recording points (bipolar) at the extensors
and the ¯exors of the knee joint using the Myosystem 2000 (No-
raxon, Finland). The recording points were located proximally and
distally, adjacent to a line half-way between the epicondylus lat-
eralis and trochanter major in the middle of the muscle belly at the
front and back of the thigh (rectus femoris of the quadriceps fe-
moris, or caput longum of the biceps femoris, respectively). We
used circular adhesive electrodes (``blue sensor P-00-S''; Medico-
test, Denmark) that had an active diameter of 1 cm. The electrodes
were attached at a distance of 3 cm between their centres and an
indi€erent electrode was axed to the left olecranon. All of the
recording points on the skin were shaved, degreased with alcohol
and permanently marked. The EMG was sampled at a rate of
1000 Hz per channel. Simultaneous recording of joint angle and
torque using the dynamometer permitted assignment to the corre-
sponding phase of movement. The EMG data were integrated over
time using the Myosoft 2000 software (Noraxon) and averaged
over the isokinetic phase of the movement between joint angles of
30° and 90° .
Experimental protocol
The three test series were taken immediately in the pre-training
period, and after 4 and 8 weeks of training. To make sure that the
results represented training-induced long-term rather than short-
term e€ects, no stretching exercises were performed for at least 24 h
before the tests. Prior to each series, the subjects passed a 5-min
warm-up exercise on a bicycle ergometer at 80 W and 90 rpm. In
addition to the morphometric data (body mass and height), thigh
circumference was measured half-way between the trochanter major
and the epicondylus lateralis at hip joint and knee joint angles of 90°
using a measuring tape. The EMG recording points were marked at
the same positions. After attachment of the adhesive electrodes, the
subjects were ®xed to the dynamometer chair with two belts at the
shoulder and one at the hip. The thigh was ®xed at a joint angle of
90° with a padded clamp to avoid any movement of the hip.
Each measurement started with ®ve extensions and ¯exions of
the trained leg under concentric conditions at angular velocities of
240, 180, 120 and 60° á s)1. The subjects were encouraged to exert
maximum force against the lever arm over the whole range of
movement. After each measurement at a particular velocity a 1 min
pause was enforced to minimize any fatigue e€ect. The complete
concentric procedure was repeated in the contralateral extremity.
Thereafter, measurements were performed under isometric load
conditions. Starting with a joint angle of 108° (¯exion), the subjects
were asked to push against the lever arm of the dynamometer with
maximum force at ®ve di€erent joint positions, ®rst in the direction
of extension for 4 s and then, after a break of 2 s, in the direction of
¯exion. Each isometric test was followed by a break of 10 s.
The eccentric investigations were performed subsequently with
®ve movements of the knee joint at a velocity of 120° á s)1.
Thereby, the subjects were encouraged to decelerate the lever arm
of the dynamometer with maximum force. After a 1-min pause the
measurement was repeated at the slower velocity of 60° á s)1 and,
thereafter, on the contralateral leg.
Statistical methods
Averages and standard deviations were calculated from individual
measurements for di€erent groups of measurements. To judge the
signi®cance of changes occurring between the time before and after
4 and 8 weeks of training, the di€erences in the measured values
were tested for signi®cance (P < 0.05) using a ``one-dimensional
 403

repeated measurement analysis of variance'', the Kolmogoro€-

Smirnov test for normal distribution having yielded no signi®cant
deviations. For the assessment of the di€erence between two de-
pendent groups of measurements, Student's ``paired t-test'' was
applied. Di€erences were termed signi®cant if the corresponding
tests yielded an error probability of P < 0.05, and highly signi®-
cant if P < 0.01. In order to compensate for ®tness ¯uctuations
and improvements induced by basic club training during the test
period, measurements on the stretched leg were additionally nor-
malized with respect to the contralateral extremity. The normalized
alterations were related to the results of the pre-training test series.

Results

The increase in ¯exibility due to the stretching training

proved signi®cant or highly signi®cant (see Table 1) if
evaluated by the index ROM whereby the passive ROM
increased without exception more markedly than that
under the active condition.
In the athletes, a slight but signi®cant increase in
thigh circumference was observed, amounting to an
average of 0.8 cm (1.1) after 8 weeks [0.3 cm (0.9) after
4 weeks, non-signi®cant]. Changes in body weight
[)0.3 kg (1.8) after 4 weeks, +0.5 kg (1.8) after 8 weeks],
however, were not signi®cant.
The di€erences detected in the mean torque-angular
velocity curve of the stretched extremities before and
after 4 and 8 weeks of training (Fig. 1a) and their sta-
tistical evaluation are given in Table 2. The torque in-
crements under eccentric load conditions were
signi®cant in both the extensor (up to +56 Nm, or
23.0% as related to the initial value) and the ¯exor (up
to +29 Nm, or 18.2%). The increase in maximum iso-
metric torque was signi®cant in the ¯exor only
(+19 Nm, or +11.3% after 8 weeks). Under concentric
load conditions, a signi®cant increase in torque was
found in the ¯exor at velocities of 60, 180 and 240° á s)1 Fig. 1 Torque-velocity relation of the stretch trained leg (a) and
(up to +13 Nm, or +9.4%). In the control leg, in all averaged integrated electromyograms (iEMG) obtained during the
torque measurements (b). (Open symbols ¯exor, solid symbols
cases no signi®cant di€erences could be found between extensor, triangles measurements prior to training, squares after 4
the pre-training period and after 8 weeks of training. weeks of training, circles after 8 weeks of training. (ecc Eccentric load,
As can be seen from the integrated EMG (iEMG) iso isometric load, con concentric load)
shown in Fig. 1b, much smaller values were measured in
the extensor under eccentric load as compared to con-
centric load conditions at the same velocity. These dif- leg did not change signi®cantly (data not shown). The
ferences were highly signi®cant and the values became changes in iEMG under isometric and concentric loads
smaller after several weeks of stretching training, re- were also non-signi®cant. In addition, the absolute
sulting in a signi®cant increase in the iEMG values at changes in the ¯exor iEMG were non-signi®cant.
eccentric loads. The corresponding values for the control Moreover, in the latter case no signi®cant di€erences
could be found between the eccentric and concentric
load conditions.
Table 1 Increase in the range of active and passive motion in the Figure 2 shows the changes related to the control leg.
knee joint [mean degrees (SD)] By evaluating the training e€ects with regard to di€er-
ences between the two legs, errors should be eliminated
Type of motion after 4 weeks after 8 weeks
due to in¯uences equally a€ecting both legs, irrespective
Active extension +0.4 (4.0) +1.1 (2.9) of the CR training of only one leg. However, in the
Passive extension +3.1* (5.2) +5.6** (6.6) eccentric measurements no substantial qualitative devi-
Active ¯exion +3.5** (4.6) +2.6* (4.9) ations from the examination of the trained extremity
Passive ¯exion +4.6** (6.3) +6.3** (7.5)
alone ± mentioned above in the context of the force-
* Signi®cant change velocity relationship ± were found. With both the ex-
** highly signi®cant change tensor and the ¯exor, the increase in torque under the
404

Table 2 Changes in torque under di€erent loading conditions in the second measurement related to the torque of the ®rst one. (ecc
the stretched leg [mean value (SD); the percentile value is given Eccentric torque, isom max isometric maximum torque, conc con-
below in brackets] as related to the ®rst measurement in the con- centric torque)
sidered time period, e.g. D21 represents the di€erence in torque of

Type of loading Changes in torque [Nm] under extensor loading Changes in torque [Nm] under ¯exor loading

D21 D32 D31 D21 D32 D31

)1
ecc 120° á s +22.4** (21.1) +33.5* (45.7) +55.9** (43.7) +11.5 (22.9) +14.3 (24.2) +25.8** (22.7)
(+9.5%) (+12.4%) (+23.0%) (+7.6%) (+8.2%) (+16.5%)
ecc 60° á s)1 +24.2 (35.2) +25.5* (30.9) +49.7** (44.8) +20.4** (15.0) +9.0 (18.7) +29.4** (26.7)
(+9.0%) (+9.0%) (+18.9%) (+12.6%) (+5.0%) (+18.2%)
isom max +26.9 (50.7) )4.8 (44.1) +22.1 (40.9) +16.6* (4.2) +2.6 (15.8) +19.1** (19.7)
(+10.4%) ()1.4%) (+8.8%) (+10.1%) (+1.0%) (+11.3%)
)1
conc 60° á s +4.1 (8.2) +11.4 (22.0) +15.5 (3.0) +5.1 (12.1) +8.4* (10.6) +13.5** (10.0)
(+1.8%) (+5.0%) (+6.9%) (+3.6%) (+5.6%) (+9.4%)
conc 120° á s)1 )0.5 (10.3) +1.4 (16.2) +0.9 (17.6) +4.4 (6.5) +1.0 (20.4) +5.4 (18.1)
(0%) (+0.5%) (+0.5%) (+3.2%) (+0.7%) (4.0%)
conc 180° á s)1 +2.9 (4.9) +3.1 (12.4) +6.0 (9.6) +6.3** (5.8) +2.7 (11.2) +9.0* (6)
(+1.8%) (+1.8%) (+3.7%) (+5.3%) (+2.5%) (+8.0%)
conc 240° á s)1 +2.1 (11.5) +0.5 (13.9) +2.6 (12.9) +11.6** (7.6) )1.3 (9.7) +10.3** (10.6)
(+1.4%) (0%) (+1.4%) (+11.4%) ()0.9%) (+10.4%)

* Signi®cant change;
** highly signi®cant change

eccentric load was particularly striking (up to 21.6%).
The increase under isometric load conditions at di€erent
joint positions was more pronounced in the ¯exor than
in the extensor. In the concentric tests slight changes
were observed, of which only a few were signi®cant.
Figure 3 shows the relative changes in work per-
formed under di€erent loads (as related to the control
leg). Under eccentric load conditions, greater increases
were found when compared to the concentric load (up to
12.9%). The relative increase in concentric work, in most
cases not signi®cant, was slightly higher than that in
concentric maximum torque (see Fig. 2a and b).
Analysis of the joint angle at the peak torque of the
movement yielded signi®cant changes only for an eccen-
tric load at 120° á s)1 (see Table 3). Under eccentric load
conditions the torque maximum was shifted towards joint
angles corresponding to increased muscle length.
Table 4 shows the angular position prior to the
training period where the torque maximum was attained
under the di€erent loads. It is striking that the torque
maximum under ¯exor loading occurred at a relatively
straight position of the knee joint. At higher velocities,
the ¯exor torque maximum was shifted towards joint
angles that are reached later in the course of the move-
ment (towards greater joint angles under concentric
loads, and towards smaller angles under eccentric loads).
Discussion
On the basis of the signi®cant (P < 0.05) and, in some
cases, highly signi®cant (P < 0.01) improvement in
¯exibility by the CR stretching training performed in our
experiments this form of training can be considered to be
an e€ective method for improving ¯exibility in man. The
increase in ROM was similar to that observed by Wallin
et al. (1985), who found increases of 5±10° in the same
joint after 30 days of CR stretching training. In addition,
in the sense of a side-e€ect, the stretching training
caused an improvement in muscle performance as
characterized by the torque-angular velocity data of the
concentric, isometric or eccentric mode. When com-
pared to the increases in torque recently reported by
Worrell et al. (1994), the e€ects observed in our in-
vestigations were twice as large in the eccentric range,
and were similar in the concentric case. The di€erences
between our ®ndings and those of Worrell et al. may be
due to the type of stretching training applied, as well as
to the individually loaded and pre-trained muscle groups
of the subjects. This would also account for the di€erent
e€ects of training on the extensors and ¯exors.
The control leg showed no signi®cant changes in the
torque-velocity relationship between the ®rst and the
third measurement. A contralateral transfer, as observed
by Smith (1970) for example, after ``myotatic strength
training'' (a type of re¯ex training induced by abrupt
muscular stretch), and by Kannus et al. (1992) after
combined isokinetic and isometric training, appears
rather improbable in our case. If such a transfer had
occurred in our training, it would have been very small
so as to remain lower than the limit of detection. The
insigni®cant alterations in the control leg argued against
any cross-over e€ects. Therefore, it is justi®able to relate
the changes that occurred during the stretching training
to the control muscles in order to eliminate any change
a€ecting equally both legs. For the same reason any
alteration in isokinetic muscle performance a€ecting
both legs in a similar way when repeating the test series
after a certain time can also be eliminated.
According to the classical physiological force-velocity
concept of Hill, the eccentric torque should de®nitively,
exceed the isometric level (Edman et al. 1978). This is

not valid for the torque-velocity relationships seen in
Fig. 1a, however, particularly in the pre-training state.
These ®ndings can be explained by the fact that the
iEMG values, at least for the extensor, under eccentric
load are highly signi®cantly lower than those under the
corresponding concentric load at the same angular ve-
locity (Fig. 1b). This may be interpreted as mental in-
hibition, since many subjects only developed
submaximal forces, probably because of the rather dis-
agreeable or even painful eccentric intervention they
described after the tests. Such ``inhibitory neural in¯u-
Fig. 2a±d Relative changes in maximum torque and corresponding
iEMG values as compared to the control leg. a Torque during
extensor load, b torque during ¯exor load, c averaged iEMG during
extensor load, d averaged iEMG during ¯exor load. The bars indicate
standard deviation. The open/solid columns symbolize the state after 4/
8 weeks of training, (e Eccentric load, i isometric load, c concentric
load). * Signi®cant change P < 0.05
405
ences'' in man have already been postulated by GuÈlch
(1994) as a possible cause for the reduction in torque at
high eccentric velocities. Since these in¯uences have been
found to be weakened by stretching training, this may be
considered to be an indication that the neuromuscular
activity is positively in¯uenced by stretching. It is con-
ceivable that after stretching training the often painful
extending of the muscle during eccentric tests can be
better tolerated, resulting in improved eccentric perfor-
mance as shown in Fig. 1 and Table 2.
Komi et al. (1978) found a 38% increase in iEMG
after 12 weeks of isometric strength training, with an
increase in the isometric maximum force of 20%. It
should be noted that, strictly speaking, CR stretching
also involves a kind of isometric strength training during
the active phase, and that the changes in the torque,
muscle size and iEMG observed in our investigations
may thus likewise be due to a kind of isometric training.
Findings supporting a more ecient muscle activation
have been reported by Moritani and de Vries (1980).
406

Fig. 3a, b Relative changes in contraction work compared to the control leg. a Extensor load, b ¯exor load. The bars indicate standard
deviation. The open/solid columns symbolize the state after 4/8 weeks of training. (e Eccentric load, c concentric load)

Table 3 Changes in the angular

position of the torque max- Type of loading Extensor Flexor
imum [in deg. (SD)] as related
to the value of the control leg after 4 weeks after 8 weeks after 4 weeks after 8 weeks
(positive values=shift towards
eccentric 120° á s)1 +7.2* (12.6) +5.7 (9.1) +1.4 (20.6) ) 2.7 (13.2)
greater joint angles, negative
eccentric 60° á s)1 +2.3 (7.5) +2.0 (9.1) ) 6.8 (26.6) ) 2.5 (26.2)
values=shift towards smaller
concentric 60° á s)1 ) 1.3 (6.5) ) 0.2 (3.6) +1.4 (8.1) +3.5 (8.4)
angles
concentric 120° á s)1 +0.9 (7.0) ) 0.1 (8.4) ) 1.4 (6.9) +0.2 (8.6)
concentric 180° á s)1 +0.9 (7.3) +0.6 (5.8) +0.1 (7.7) +2.3 (5.3)
concentric 240° á s)1 +1.9 (9.8) ) 2.6 (6.1) ) 2.3 (9.6) +0.3 (9.8)

* Signi®cant change

Table 4 Angular position at

torque maximum measured Type of loading Extensor Flexor
prior training period
control leg stretched leg control leg stretched leg
)1
eccentric 120° á s 65.5 (7.2) 63.6 (8.2) 38.0 (11.7) 35.1 (8.4)
eccentric 60° á s)1 68.1 (4.9) 67.1 (6.4) 42.8 (15.8) 40.1 (9.0)
concentric 60° á s)1 63.7 (4.3) 64.0 (7.0) 29.9 (6.7) 29.2 (4.1)
concentric 120° á s)1 59.0 (4.3) 58.2 (4.8) 34.3 (6.2) 37.1 (8.2)
concentric 180° á s)1 58.5 (4.7) 57.1 (5.9) 38.0 (5.6) 39.1 (6.7)
concentric 240° á s)1 61.8 (5.3) 59.9 (4.7) 46.5 (8.0) 50.6 (6.7)

After an 8-week isotonic strength training, these authors
observed a force increase of 30%, but an improvement
in the iEMG of only 12%, corresponding to an actual
improvement in the force-iEMG ratio.
Structural adaptations of the muscle, however, are
considered to be responsible for the improved resistance
to eccentric loads. This can explain the e€ects of stretch-
ing training on the reduction of muscle strain injuries
which, according to Glick (1980) and Zarins and Ciullo
(1983), should occur predominantly under eccentric load
conditions. Such a reorganization may, for instance, oc-
cur in the form of an increase in the length of the muscle,
with the consequence that longer muscles are not so easily
overstretched. An increase in muscle length would also
concur well with the observed improvement in ¯exibility
(see above), since its measurement was performed in such
a way that the muscle distensibility could be considered to
be the essentially limiting factor of the ROM.
In animal experiments, various authors (e.g. Williams
et al. 1986) described muscle hypertrophy as a growth in
thickness, indicated by an increase in muscle circum-
ference, as well as a lengthening of muscle after sus-
tained stretches that were sometimes combined with
electrical stimulation. The slight increase in thigh cir-

cumference we observed would therefore speak in favour
of an increase in muscle thickness due to hypertrophy.
Even when underestimating the increase in muscle cross-
section on the basis of an increase in thigh circumference
(Young et al. 1983), this may not be sucient to explain
the enhanced torque observed, since the measured cir-
cumferential changes were too small. The results ob-
tained by other authors also support the idea of a
functional rather than a structural induction of strength
improvement during strength training.
Stretching training may comprise various stimuli that
lead to muscle hypertrophy. The contraction phase of
CR stretching may have the same e€ect as isometric
muscle training. Furthermore, it is possible that during
the second CR stretching cycle the isometric contraction
of the pre-stretched muscle acts as a particularly strong
trigger in a similar way as in animal experiments where
muscles were stimulated under stretched conditions
(Williams et al. 1986). In the so-called AC stretching
technique, the muscle is stretched by the antagonist. In
most of these stretching programs agonist and antago-
nist are stretched alternately through the application of
active tension. This may also act as isometric muscle
training. To single out those di€erent components of a
stretching program responsible for the hypertrophic ef-
fects, comparative studies would be necessary on the
e€ects of a purely isometric training program without
any stretching, and purely passive stretching without
agonistic or antagonistic activation.
In our training protocol, a total contraction time
(TCT) of the extensor and ¯exor muscles of 1920 s each
was attained (eight times 10 s on 24 days of training).
Comparing that with the protocol of Komi et al. (1978),
where a 48-day isometric training of the quadriceps with
a TCT of 1200 s yielded a maximum voluntary con-
traction increase of 20%, the torque increases under
isometric load found in our investigations could be ex-
plained suciently by the isometric component of the
CR stretching performed.
Structural alterations of the muscle may also provide
an explanation for the changes in the torque pro®le
during motion. The basic evidence is derived from the
fact that a muscle develops maximum force at an opti-
mal degree of ®lament overlapping (Gordon et al. 1966).
If we assume, for simplicity, that the lever arm condi-
tions of the investigated joint do not change during
muscle shortening, then the angular position where the
maximum torque is attained characterizes the optimum
degree of actin-myosin overlapping.
If a stretching training program were to lengthen the
muscle tendons alone without a€ecting the muscle itself,
then the torque maximum would be shifted towards
greater lengths, with no e€ect on the shape of the torque
curve. On the other hand, an exclusive increase in muscle
length due to an increase in the number of linearly ar-
ranged sarcomeres would have to lead to a widening of
the torque curve (torque vs joint angle) during con-
traction, and would therefore essentially e€ect an in-
crease in work without a€ecting the magnitude of the
407
torque maximum. An isolated increase in thickness with
an increase in the number of ®brils would lead to an
improved torque maximum and a proportional increase
in work. A combined increase in both length and
thickness with parallel and serial addition of sarcomeres,
however, e€ects the work more than the torque. This
was observed in the extensor as well as in the ¯exor
under concentric load conditions (see Figs. 2a, b and
3a, b). A signi®cant change in the angular position of the
torque maximum has not been found (except for ec-
centric movement at 120° á s)1) (see Table 3), although
this would be dicult to detect due to the rather low
reproducibility of this parameter and the comparably
small di€erences due to changes in ¯exibility. A ten-
dency in the shift of the torque maximum towards
muscle lengthening was observed under eccentric loads.
Altered biomechanical conditions in the joints due to
stretching training must also be considered. If there was
a lengthening of joint-stabilizing structures it would then
be possible that, despite the same angle in the joint,
di€erent lever conditions may occur not only due to a
shift of the rotational axis, but also to di€erent angles of
the tendon. Consequently, the torque curve may be
changed during movement in such a way that the joint
angle and the magnitude of peak torque are a€ected
without any change in muscle properties.
A change in the angular position of the peak torque
may also be caused by electromechanical alterations.
Since under high shortening velocities of the ¯exor its
torque maximum is shifted towards later phases of the
movement (see Table 4), the time to maximum activation
of the muscle may be of importance, at least at higher
velocities. Therefore, training e€ects in¯uencing this time
interval should also a€ect the angular or time course of
the torque. Principally of course, it cannot be ruled out
that the subjects were highly motivated and thus pro-
duced higher torques after the stretching training.
Concluding remarks
Our results show that CR stretching training may fa-
vourably in¯uence the force-velocity relationship of the
trained muscle as well as shape of the torque curve
during movements at a given velocity. This appears to be
a positive side-e€ect of stretching which in the ®rst place
is considered to be and is applied as a method for im-
proving ¯exibility. The extent to which the observed
improvements in muscle performance can be applied
successfully to competitive sports or within the frame-
work of rehabilitation programs, as well as establishing
which persons would bene®t most from it, could not be
clari®ed conclusively in this study. More distinct results
might be expected by increasing the number of volun-
teers from the same sport in additional studies. Further
comparative investigations are necessary to determine
the proportion of the improvement in muscle perfor-
mance due either to the stretching stimulus or to the pure
isometric contraction manoeuvre without stretching.
408
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