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Ross V. Weatherman,
Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology and the Purdue Cancer Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
doi: 10.1002/9780470048672.wecb229
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The Basic Biology of Hormone Signaling Chemical Applications in the Study of Hormone Signaling Chemical Tools and Techniques Major Challenges and Future Direction
Hormone signaling has always been a eld that has required working at the chemistrybiology interface. The development of new chemical tools plays a major role in understanding the molecular mechanisms of hormone signaling and the physiologic outcomes of hormone receptor action. This article will outline the relevance of molecular endocrinology to the eld of chemistry and the use of chemical approaches to solving problems in hormone research. The basic biologic outline of a hormone signaling system and the different classes of hormone molecules and their receptors will be discussed. In addition, several research areas in which new chemical tools have been playing key roles will be described in more detail, including the discovery of ligands for orphan hormone receptors, the development of non-natural hormone receptor mimics, and the use of selective hormone receptor modulators to understand the role of specic hormone receptor signaling pathways. Hormone signaling systems that will be discussed include the thyronamines and trace amine receptor, the liver X and farnesol X receptors, small molecules capable of binding to peptide hormone receptors, the melanocortin receptor family, the estrogen receptor, and chemically orthogonal hormone receptorligand pairs. Major challenges facing the eld as well as some different experimental methods used to study hormone signaling will also be discussed.
At a fundamental level, multicellular life would not be possible if it were not for the ability of different cells to communicate and coordinate using a language based on biomolecular interactions. From the simplest two-component signaling systems found in primitive multicellular colonies to the complicated networks of overlapping signaling cascades found in higher vertebrates, hormone signaling is dependent on the production, diffusion, and recognition of small molecules and peptides. As such, hormone signaling has always been a productive area of study for people working at the chemistrybiology interface. Chemistry has played an important role in elucidating the molecular mechanisms and consequences of hormone signaling and will continue to be a vital tool in tackling the complicated new challenges that face the eld. This advanced review will introduce some key features of hormone signaling that are relevant to the chemical biology interface and then detail several examples in which chemical approaches have provided the key solutions to very challenging problems. In addition, this review will focus on current and future challenges in the study of hormone signaling and on possible opportunities for people working at the chemistrybiology interface to assist in overcoming these challenges.
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labeled with strange names and acronyms. These sorts of signal transduction schemes can be daunting to decipher and often discourage people with more chemically oriented backgrounds from pursuing research in the eld. This reaction is unfortunate because a hormone-centric view of hormone signaling would reveal a structurally diverse set of hormones, many of them small molecules, that can act as molecular switches for large cascades of proteinprotein interactions simply by changing the conformation of their hormone receptors. As will be discussed in greater detail later, subtle changes in hormone structure can affect hormone signaling and have dramatic physiologic consequences. The pathways that lead to those physiologic changes can be complex, but they all arise from the interaction of molecules. Understanding, mimicking, and controlling those molecular interactions are clearly areas where chemistry continues to play a major role. Beyond the potential scientic appeal of hormone signaling to the chemist, obvious practical applications of chemistry in the eld exist. Many signicant leaps in knowledge in endocrinology occurred after the development of new chemical tools. Advances in chromatography and analytical chemistry were fundamental for the discovery and characterization of many hormones, and the development of radiolabeling techniques and molecular biology led to the isolation and characterization of many hormone receptors (15). As will be discussed, the development of new compounds with selective modulation of specic hormone signaling pathways has greatly increased our knowledge of the molecular underpinnings of hormone action (1012). Hormones also play a key role in the development and treatment of a large number of diseases ranging from breast and prostate cancer to diabetes and obesity (13, 14). A signicant percentage of the top-selling drugs in the United States target hormone signaling, including drugs used to treat inammation, diabetes, hypertension, hypothyroidism, and other hormone-related indications (1315).
Figure 1 The basic features of a hormone signaling pathways. Each feature can be potentially modulated using chemical tools.
transport and bind to intracellular receptors. Once bound to the receptor, the signal must be transduced into a biologic response. Finally, if the desired biologic response has been accomplished, some sort of feedback signal is commonly sent back to the hormone-producing cell to halt hormone production. As mentioned, it is possible to modulate each of these processes using chemical tools and to affect the whole signaling loop. Sometimes this modulation can be intentional, such as the use of aromatase inhibitors to halt the production of estrogens and block estrogen signaling (18), or it can be unintentional, as is often the case with hormone receptor antagonists also blocking negative feedback inhibition and causing overproduction of the natural hormone (19). As such, it is important for any chemist who wishes to apply chemical tools to the study of hormone signaling in whole organism models, as in the case of new therapeutics, to consider hormone signaling as a system with many different components.
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receptors tend to be intracellular nuclear receptors, although extracellular receptors for steroid hormones have been proposed (20). The third family of hormones covers all remaining small molecules and, as such, targets several different extracellular receptors or intracellular receptors depending on the particular hormone. One class of hormones synthesized from amino acids includes biogenic amines such as dopamine, serotonin, histamine, and epinephrine. Although most of these biogenic amines are more closely identied as neurotransmitters, the biogenic amines are present in physiologically relevant concentrations in circulation and have receptors located in several tissues in the cardiovascular, digestive, and immune systems (2124). Molecules well known to chemical biologists for other roles, such as adenosine and ATP, also are known to have hormone signaling functions (25). Also several hormone receptors exist for which no hormone has ever been discovered. These so-called orphan receptors are numerous, and discovering ligands to match these orphan receptors is one important area of hormone research that requires chemical tools.
an important impact on the understanding of different hormone signaling systems. The types of approaches used in these studies can be applied to several different types of hormone signaling systems and hopefully will serve as examples of the potential of studying hormone signaling at the chemistrybiology interface.
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present at sufcient concentrations in vivo for a sufciently long enough period of time to qualify as an endogenous ligand. Another strategy to discovering ligand matches for orphan receptors is to start with metabolites of known hormones, assuming that only a limited number of hormone structures exists that an organism can synthesize. This approach was used with great success in nding hormone ligands for the orphan nuclear receptors liver X receptor (LXR) and farnesoid X receptor (FXR). Based on expression patterns of the receptor in different tissues, Manglesdorf et al. hypothesized that LXR and FXR played some sort of role in cholesterol and bile acid metabolism. Through a combination of tissue extracts and screening and organic synthesis, they discovered that LXR could be regulated by sterols such as 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol and that FXR could be modulated by bile acids such as chenodeoxycholic acid at physiologically relevant concentrations (29, 30). The matching of ligands with these two receptors has had a huge impact in the eld of lipid metabolism and has led to the development of potentially promising therapeutic candidates. Another example of using hormone metabolites to discover new hormone signaling pathways is the case of a metabolite of thyroid hormone. Scanlan et al. noted the similarities between 3,3 ,5-triiodothyronine (T3 ), the highest afnity endogenous ligand for the thyroid hormone receptor, and various biogenic phenethylamines such as dopamine if T3 were to be enzymatically decarboxylated to a thyronamine (see Fig. 3). Several different thyronamines were synthesized with different degrees of iodination and screened against GPCRs thought to bind to biogenic amines. One of these compounds, 3-iodothyronamine, was bound with high afnity to an isoform of the trace amine receptor (TAAR1), an orphan GPCR with no previously identied endogenous ligand (31). Additional biologic characterization of this interaction showed that the ligand was found endogenously in rat and guinea pig brain and that when the compound was administered to mice it caused rapid slowing of heartbeat and an almost 8-degree drop in body temperature. The effects were reversible over time with no deleterious long-term effects on the mice. Interestingly, the effects of 3-iodothyronamine on the organism were opposite to those of T3 . The thyroid hormone receptor is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily and exerts most of its effects at the transcriptional level where it causes an increase in body temperature and heart rate. It seems like T3 and its iodothyronamine metabolite act in concert to maintain a balance in homeostasis as it relates to body temperature and heart ratetwo of the most fundamental processes of an organism. Higher potency analogs have also been synthesized to explore this whole new area of hormone signaling research that was made possible by new chemical tools (32).
can be used as a tool to block hormone signaling. Another reason that is especially relevant to peptide hormones is the need to change the physical properties of the hormone. Although several peptide hormones are used therapeutically, such as insulin and oxytocin, peptides generally are not orally bioavailable and usually are administered parenterally (33). The ideal hormone mimic would be orally available and would show increased half-life in the circulation. Most successes in designing non-natural hormone mimics have come from nonpeptide hormone families. Nonsteroidal ligands exist for almost all steroid hormone receptors, and many are used therapeutically (34, 35). The same is true for hormones based on amino acids and lipids. The one hormone class where mimicry has been difcult to achieve is the peptide hormone class. Several strategies have been employed using peptide scaffolds to alter the physical properties of peptide hormones, including truncation, cyclization, and substitution with non-natural amino acids (36). These sorts of strategies have been greatly aided by the development of rapid peptide synthesis and screening techniques such as phage display (37). Many attempts have been made to create nonpeptide mimics of peptide hormones. It is a well-known problem that proteinprotein interfaces are difcult interactions to mimic or block with a small molecule (38), but some notable successes exist in the eld of hormone signaling (39, 40). A small molecule capable of mimicking the biologic activity of granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) can induce the oligomerization of the hormone receptor in a manner similar to the endogenous peptide hormone (41). Also, small-molecule mimics have been discovered for the insulin receptor (42), broblast growth factor (43), and interleukin 2 (44). Although these mimics all seem to possess the functional equivalence of the endogenous hormones, it is still possible that these small molecules achieve their biologic effects by mechanisms other than direct binding to the hormone-binding site on the receptor.
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Figure 3 Comparison of the highest potency thyroid hormone, T3 , and its thyronamine metabolite, a potent ligand of a trace amine receptor subtype.
the GPCR superfamily and bind to several similar peptide hormones, ,, and -melanocyte stimulating hormones (MSHs) (51). The receptors are expressed at different amounts in a wide variety of tissues and seem to have roles in obesity, inammation, and cardiovascular function, as well as the more expected role of controlling skin pigmentation. To better understand what specic receptor subtypes are doing, as well as to explore the potential of using melanocortin receptors as drug targets, several attempts have been made to design and synthesize selective receptor modulators. The different receptor subtypes have different binding preferences for the various hormones, which suggests that it might be possible to differentiate the receptor subtypes on the basis of ligand-binding afnity. Several selective ligands have been reported, although few of them are specic for just one subtype. Enough selectivity has been achieved, however, to start to understand the roles that some receptor subtypes are playing in the melanocortin hormone signaling system. Because the melanocortin receptor subtypes are peptide hormone receptors, great effort has gone into using various peptide synthesis and screening methods to uncover selective ligands (52). This work has led to the development of several compounds with different patterns of selectivity toward the different receptor subtypes. One of the rst reported selective compounds, a peptide termed MTII, showed selectivity for both the MCR3 and the MCR4 subtypes (53); it was an anti-inammatory agent in a rodent model and could block overeating in an animal obesity model, which suggests that the two subtypes may play a role in both energy homeostasis and inammation (54, 55). In addition, another peptide, labeled SHU9119, acted as an antagonist at the MC3 R and MC4 R subtypes, acted as an agonist at the MC1 R and MC5 R subtypes, and was able to block the anti-inammatory and anti-obesity effects of MTII. Selective nonpeptide ligands have also been developed for the MC1 R subtype, which prevented inammation in acute inammatory mouse models (56), as well as for the MC4 R subtype, which seemed to affect sexual function (see Fig. 4) (57). Although the various compounds are not quite selective enough to precisely determine what each melanocortin receptor subtype is doing, the development of selective chemical tools has greatly increased understanding of this complex hormone signaling network. In some cases, it seems that different responses to a given hormone can come from just one receptor subtype. In such cases, the hormone is binding to the same receptor variant, but the response is different depending on the cell or tissue context. This has been reported for several hormone receptors, but the classic example is the estrogen receptor (ER) (58). Estrogens have a variety of responses in different tissues ranging 5
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Figure 4 Selective nonpeptide modulators of melanocortin receptor subtypes. The MC4 R selective compound seems to affect sexual function, and the MC1 R selective compound possess anti-inammatory activity.
from proliferation in some tissues to inhibition of proliferation in others. Although several different receptors for estrogen hormones exist, including the orphan GPCR GPR30 and the ER subtype ER beta, several tissue-dependent responses result from binding to a single receptor subtypeER alpha (59). The challenge is to understand how the receptor can bind identically to the same compound but have totally different signaling responses depending on the cell context. Fortunately, several chemical tools that show patterns of selective modulation, called selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), have been developed and can help dissect this challenging problem. Some of the most widely used SERMs have already been clinically validated: tamoxifen, the most widely used drug to treat and prevent hormone-responsive breast cancer, and raloxifene, used for the prevention of osteoporosis and being considered as a breast cancer preventive (60). Both compounds act as anti-estrogens in the breast and block estrogen-induced proliferation but act as estrogens in the bone where they prevent osteoporosis. In the uterus, they have different activities: tamoxifen is estrogenic and induces proliferation in the uterus, whereas raloxifene blocks proliferation (61). Other compounds have different patterns of responses in different tissues, and all seem to be able to bind to the estrogen receptor with high afnity. So key questions remain: How can one receptor have so many different responses that are dependent on cell context? How can it be controlled? The combination of chemical tools and structural biology are beginning to provide the answers to these important questions. When comparing mechanisms to explain estrogenic responses versus anti-estrogenic responses, the structures of the ligand-binding domain of the estrogen receptor bound to estradiol, tamoxifen, or raloxifene were compared (see Fig. 5) (62). The SERMs tamoxifen and raloxifene cause a major perturbation in one alpha helix of the domain. The cleft created by that helix when an estrogen binds is recognized by a coactivating protein that allows further buildup of a complex that activates transcription at a particular promoter. The cleft is obstructed when tamoxifen or raloxifene binds to the ligand domain; this binding leads to an interaction with a corepressor protein that, in turn, promotes the buildup of a complex that represses transcription. This mode of antagonism has become a common feature in drug design for nuclear receptors (10). 6
Although this structural comparison only reveals possible mechanisms by which estradiol can differ from tamoxifen and raloxifene, it also suggests that a single receptor can have several different biologic responses caused by different downstream effectors that interact with different parts of the receptor. Differential expression of those effectors can then dictate different responses to the same drug in different cells and tissues. Even though the tamoxifen and raloxifene structures are similar, the crystal structures contain only one domain of a three-domain receptor; the other domains could be playing a role in transducing slight changes in conformation of the ligand-binding domain into more signicant changes in the overall receptor conformation. It is also known that the estrogen receptor modulates many different pathways, including the activity of different transcription factors (63). Some success has been reported at developing inhibitors to block interactions between ER and downstream effectors (64). Finding more chemical approaches like these to identify ligand-selective effectors as well as developing new chemical tools that can nd new downstream estrogen signaling pathways are key areas where chemical biology will play a key role in untangling a complicated and therapeutically important hormone signaling network.
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Figure 5 A representation of the estrogen receptor alpha ligand-binding domain bound to estradiol, 4-hydroxytamoxifen, or raloxifene. Key helix 12 is highlighted in white. The hatched area indicates the coactivator-binding cleft formed upon estradiol binding, which is blocked by helix 12 upon 4-hydroxytamoxifen or raloxifene binding.
One caveat to these types of binding assays is that receptor binding afnity in vitro does not always correlate well to binding afnity in cells.
Reporter assays
Most hormone signaling studies will also need some assay to measure the cellular effects of the ligand being developed. These studies usually are performed in cultured cells and can range from transcriptional reporter assays using luciferase reporter plasmids (69) to enzymatic assays for the activation of various kinases and cyclases (70, 71) to cellular sensor assays looking for changes in the concentration of markers such as intracellular calcium (72). In these assays the cells are typically dosed with a compound for a certain period of time in multiwell culture plates; then the cells are lysed, and the reporter is measured using some sort of spectrophotometric technique. Also whole-cell and whole-animal imaging techniques are beginning to be used to perform more complex reporter assays (73).
different approaches, but some sort of high-throughput screening of receptor binding or activity must be used in order to achieve thorough coverage (74). Mutageneis has been used extensively to study the interaction between the human growth hormone and its receptor (75, 76). It has also been used with peptide hormones such as insulin and vasopressin (77, 78), as well as nonpeptide hormone receptors such as the vitamin D receptor (79).
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abovematching ligands to orphan receptors, nding unnatural mimics of hormones, and improving and understanding selective receptor modulationwill continue to remain major challenges in the eld and to require the development of new chemical tools. The other major challenges are the development of real-time techniques for detecting the biological responses to hormones and hormone mimics, as well as the development of compounds and techniques to dissect the roles of multiple hormone signaling systems in a particular physiological response. It is becoming abundantly clear that most hormone receptors crosstalk with other receptors from the same hormone family as well as with other hormone families. For instance, the crosstalk between growth factor receptor signaling and estrogen receptor signaling is believed to play a major role in the development of several kinds of antiestrogen resistance in breast cancer (83). Major health problems facing western populations, such as obesity, are also endocrine disorders and will involve several different hormone receptor systems (84). These tough problems require people trained in the chemical sciences to develop the tools necessary to solve them. If the past is any guide, it is likely that a new chemical tool will be behind every great push forward in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of hormone signaling.
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Further Reading
Here are a few textbooks that cover a number of the specic hormone signaling systems and protocols for both measuring receptor-ligand interactions and cell-based assays. Baulieu EE, Kelly PA. Hormones: From Molecules to Disease. 1990. Springer, Berlin. Bolander FF. Molecular Endocrinology. 2004. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego, CA. Dingermann T, Steinhilber D, Folkers G. Molecular Biology in Medicinal Chemistry. 2004. Weinheim, Wiley-VCH. Nienhaus GU. Protein-Ligand Interactions: Methods and Applications. 2005. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. Norman AW, Litwack G, Hormones, 2nd ed. 1997. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
See Also
Cellular Communication Through Signal Transduction, Chemistry of Nuclear Receptors Receptor-Ligand Interactions Peptidomimetics Small Molecules to Elucidate GPCR Signaling Pathways
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WILEY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMICAL BIOLOGY 2008, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.