SULPHURIC ACID / SULFURIC ACID

Sulphuric acid or sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive, strong mineral acid. It has a molecular formulae of H2SO4 (2 hydrogen atoms,1 sulfur atom and 4 oxygen atoms) and mostly colorless (other variants include pale yellow & dark brown). It has the molar mass of 98.079g/mol. No matter how concentrated it is, it is still soluble in water. The chemical structure of sulfuric acid is as below:

As sulphuric acid is a kind of diprotic acid too, it also chows different properties depending on its concentration. As it has a strong acidic nature, it is god darn corrosive and is able to corrode metals, living tissue and even stable substances like sand and rock. And if the concentration of sulphuric acid is high, it will gain the properties of strong dehydration and oxidization and it will also be more dangerous. This is because it will not only cause chemical burns (via hydrolysis) but will also cause secondary thermal burns (via dehydration). The increase in concentration will also cause sulphuric acid to become more hygroscopic, making it easier for it to absorb water vapour from the air.

A little bit of history

The old name for sulphuric acid was oil of vitriol. (vitriol usually refers compounds of sulphur in ancient times). Ancient doctors in the east and west have long ago tried to use the oil of vitriol for medical use. The name oil of vitriol was coined by European alchemist because they prepared it by roasting green vitriol :iron (II) sulphate on an iron retort. Earlier recipes on the way to produce sulphuric acid as found in the Compositum de Compositis and Summa Perfectionis both involve the distillation of alum, but the recipe stated there was not quite right and was misinterpreted. 17th century chemist Johann Glauber successfully prepared sulphuric acid through burning sulphur together with saltpeter (a.k.a. potassium nitrate, KNO3) in the presence of steam. The decomposition on saltpeter oxidized the sulphur to turn into SO3 and after adding water, it had a reaction and therefore produce sulphuric acid. Joshua Ward began using this method to mass produce sulphuric acid in 1736. Sulphuric acid was produced in glass bottles several pounds at a time. Later in 1746 ,John Roeback adapted this method to produce sulphuric acid using lead-lined chambers (stronger & less expensive) that produced more than the previously used glass containers. This process enabled sulphuric acid to be industrailized affectively. Moreover , this process managed to produce sulphuric acid approaching the concentration of 65%.This method, the lead chamber process or chamber process remain the standard way to produce supluric acid for the next 200 years. Refinements to the lead chamber process by Joseph L. Gay-Lussac and John Glover improved the concentration of sulphuric produced by this process to 78%. However, the manufacture of some dyes and other chemical processes require a more concentrated product. Throughout the 18th century, highly concentrated sulphuric acid could only be made through the process of dry distilling minerals, a similar technique used in the original alchemical processes. But, this process was costly and prevented a large scale production of concentrated sulphuric acid. Pyrite (iron disulphate,FeS2) was heated in air to obtain iron(II) sulphate (FeSO4), which was oxidized through further heating in air to form iron(III) sulphate ,Fe(SO4)3. When iron (III) sulphate was heated to 480C, it

decomposes into iron(II) sulphate and sulphur trioxide. The concentration of sulphuric acid produced will be inversely proportional to the amount of water that was passed through. The contact process, a far more economical process for producing sulphur trioxide and sulphuric acid of a variety of concentrations and also pure sulphuric acid was patented in 1831 by Peregrine Phillips and this process has since become the main method to produce sulphuric acid today.

Physical properties of sulphuric acid

There are many different concentrations of sulphuric acid, there are: a) 10% concentration: Dilute sulphuric acid, with the density of 1.07kg/L and a concentration of approximately 1mol/L. b) 29-32% concentration: Used as electrolytes in leadacid batteries. The battry acid. Has the density of 1.23-1.28kg/L and the concentration of 4.2-5 mol/L. c) 62-70% concentration: Produced during the chamber process, called chamber acid. Also used as fertilizer. Has the concentration of 1.52-1.60kg/L and concentration of 9.6-11.5mol/L. d) 78-80% concentration: Can be obtained from the bottom of the Glover tower during the lead chamber process. The acids are tower acid and Glover acid. Has the density of 1.70-1.73kg/L and a concentration of 13.5-14mol/L. e) 98% concentration: Known as concentrated sulphuric acid. Has the density of 1.83kg/L and the concentration of 18mol/L. Besides that, in a pure state, sulphuric acid (L) has a density 1.84g/cm 3 and a molar mass of 98.079g/mol. The melting point of the sulphuric acid is 10C and the boiling point of 337C, but when the acid gets heated above 300C, the sulphuric acid shall decompose slowly. Pure sulphuric acid has a vapour pressure of <0.001 torr (1torr= 133.32 Pascal) at 25 C and 1 torr at 145.8 C and 98% sulphuric acid has a 1 mmHg vapour pressure. Pure sulphuric acid is vicious and clear and has the viscosity similar to oil Sulphuric acid can also combine with water and form hydrates. They are 9 hydrates known. Among them are tetrahydrate (H2SO44H2O), hemihexahydrate (H2SO46 12H2O) and octahydrate (H2SO48H2O). Sulphuric acid can also react with its anhydride, SO3, to form H2S2O7, a substance called pyrosulphuric acid, fuming sulphuric acid, Disuphuric acid or oleum , or less commonly,4 Nordhausen acid. Concentrations of oleum are either expressed in terms of % SO3 (called % oleum) or as % H2SO4 (the amount made if H2O were added); common concentrations are 40% oleum (109% H2SO4) and 65% oleum (114.6% H2SO4). Pure H2S2O7 is a solid with melting point 36 C.

Anhydrous (no water) H2SO4 is a very polar liquid, having a dielectric constant of around 100 this makes it have a high electrical conductivity, caused by a process known as autoprotonlysis (dissociation through protonating itself).

Chemical properties of sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid has hydration properties. Sulphuric acid is highly exothermic (releases heat when undergoing a process) because of its hydration reaction. As the reaction that occurs is in an equilibrium that favours the rapid protonation (adding of proton, a process of molecule autoionization), sulphuric acid is added into the water during dilution of sulphuric acid rather than adding water into sulphuric acid as this ensures sulphuric acid is the limiting agent. This reaction forms hydronium ions. H2SO4 + H2O H3O+ (hydronium ions) + HSO4 (bisulphate anion) The product formed has an acid dissociation constant of 2.410 6 [a strong acid] HSO4 + H2O H3O+ (hydronium ions) + SO42- (sulphate anion) The product formed has an acid dissociation constant of 1.010 2 [acid has become weaker] The hydration property of sulphuric acid is significantly strong since it is thermodynamically favourable and has strong affinity of water. It can remove water (H2O) from other compounds such as carbohydrates, thus producing heat, steam, carbon and a more diluted acid with increased amounts of hydronium and bisulphate ions. The following demonstrates the hydration property of sulphuric acid when reacted with sugar:

Table sugar (sucrose) is mixed with sulphuric acid. The white sucrose changes from white to
black (formation of carbon).The carbon would smell like caramel due to the heat produces. The following chemical reaction happens: Sucrose (C12H22O11)+sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Black foam(12 C)+ Steam(11 H2O)+ acid/water mix

The reaction of copper (II) sulphate with sulphuric acid changes the blue copper (II) sulphate
crystals into white power as water is dehydrated. The following reaction happens: Blue crystal (CuSO45H2O ) + sulphuric acid (H2SO4) white powder (CuSO4) + Water (5 H2O) Similarly, mixing starch into concentrated sulphuric acid will react and produce carbon and water as absorbed by the sulphuric acid (which becomes slightly diluted). The effect of this can be seen when concentrated sulphuric acid is spilled on paper which (composed of cellulose). The cellulose reacts and becomes burnt , the carbon appears much as soot would in a fire. Although less dramatic, the action of the acid on cotton, even in diluted form, will destroy the fabric. As sulphuric acid is obviously an acid, it will react with most bases and will produce its corresponding sulphate. A notable example is the preparation of blue copper salt copper (II) sulphate can be prepared through a reaction between copper (II) oxide with sulphuric acid. Copper (II) sulphate is commonly used for electroplating and as a fungicide. The following is the chemical equation: Copper (II) oxide [CuO](s) + Sulphuric acid [H2SO4](aq) copper(II) sulphate[CuSO4](aq) +water [H2O](l)

Also, the displacement of weaker acids from their salts can be done by using sulphuric acid. An example of this process is the displacement of acetic acid when sulphuric acid reacts with sodium acetate. The process also produces sodium bisulphate.
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) + Sodium acetate (CH3COONa) Sodium bisulphate (NaHSO4)+ Acetic acid (CH3COOH)

Similarly, the reaction between sulphuric acid and potassium nitrate and displace nitric acid and potassium bisulphate precipitate. When sulphuric acid combines with nitric acid, sulphuric acid acts as both acid and dehydration agent, forming the nitronium ion (NO2 +) which is important in nitration reactions involving electrophilic aromatic substitution (an atom in a hydrocarbon with alternating double/single bonds between carbon atoms forming rings which has been replaced by an electron lover -a regent/substance that is attracted to electrons-). This type of reaction involves the protonation of oxygen atoms. When sulphuric acid reacts with superacids (acids with acidity greater than 100% sulphuric acid), sulphuric acid would act as a base and would be protonated, forming an [H 3SO4]+ ion.

Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metals through a single displacement reaction, producing hydrogen gas and salts (metal sulphates). It is especially reactive with reactive metals from the reactivity series, above copper (iron, aluminium, zinc, manganese, magnesium, nickel). Iron [Fe](s) + Sulphuric acid [H2SO4](aq) Hydrogen gas [H2](g) + Iron sulphate [FeSO4](aq) Since concentrated sulphuric acid is a strong oxidising agent, it does not react with metals the same way other acids react. Its strong oxidising agent makes sulphuric acid evolves into water, sulphur dioxide & SO42- ions instead of hydrogen and salts.
2 molecules of H2SO4 + accepts 2 electrons (2e-) (Sulphur dioxide)SO2 + 2 molecule of water(H2O) + sulphate ion (SO42-)

Concentrated sulphuric acid is also capable of oxidising non-active metals like tin & copper, depending on temperature. Lead & tungsten are however resistant to sulphuric acid. Copper (Cu) + 2 molecules of sulphuric acid (H2SO4 ) Sulphur dioxide (SO2)+ 2 molecules of water (H2O) + sulphate ion (SO42-)+ copper ion (Cu2+) High temperature sulphuric acid is also able to react and oxidise non-metals like carbon & sulphur. -Carbon (C) + 2 molecules of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Carbon dioxide (CO2)+ 2 molecules of sulphur dioxide (SO2)+ 2 molecules of water (H2O) -Sulphur (S) + 2 molecules of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) 3 molecules of sulphur dioxide (SO2)+ 2 molecules of water (H2O) Reaction with sodium chloride: - Sodium chloride (NaCl) + Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

Sodium bisulphate (NaHSO4)+Hydrogen chloride gas (HCl)

The manufacturing of sulphuric acid

a) The lead chamber process The first known method to mass produce sulphuric acid efficiently was conceived by Englishman John Roebuck in 1746. As stated before, sulphuric acid was produced by using lead-lined chambers that were more stronger and more economical than glass chambers that was used previously. Several refinements were done in this process to produce a variety of concentration of sulphuric acid. Since sulphuric acid was extremely exothermic, the lead chambers was designed in a way to dissipate heat formed during the reactions.This process was used for almost 2 centuries until it got replaced by the contact process. Type 1 The original process was highly similar to the methods used by Johann Gaubler. Sulphur and saltpeter (potassium nitrate) was ignited in a room lined with lead foil. Saltpeter (potassium nitrate) acts as a oxidising agent that oxidises sulphur to become sulphur trioxide. Based on the following reaction: 6 molecules of potassium nitrate [KNO3](s) + 7 molecules of sulphur [S](s)
3 molecules of potassium sulphite (K2S) + 6 molecules of nitrogen monoxide [NO](g) + 4 molecules of sulphur trioxide [SO3](g)

The room itself would have a floor covered with water and the sulphur trioxide would react with the water, thus producing sulphuric acid. Based on the following equation: Sulphur trioxide[SO3](g) + Water [H2O](l) Sulphuric acid [H2SO4](aq) However, this process was a batch process (1 time use) and it would result in the permenant consumption of saltpeter (potassium nitrate). Early plants used very large lead-lined wooden rectangular chambers (Faulding box chambers) that were cooled by ambient air. The internal lead sheathing served to contain the corrosive sulphuric acid and to render the wooden chambers waterproof. Type 2 Later Joseph Gay-Lussac and John Glover both refined the original process in 1835. Both of them had found a way to recover the nitrogen from the nitrogen monoxide that was produce during the reaction. The recycling of nitrogen through this process sharply reduced the dependence on expensive saltpeter (potassium nitrate) as a source for nitrogen and reduce the nitrogen monoxide emission. The equation of this process is shown below: *4 molecules of nitrogen monoxide [NO](g) + Oxygen gas [O 2](g) + 2 molecules of water [H2O](l) 4 molecules of nitrous acid [HNO2](l) *4 molecules of nitrous acid [HNO2](l) + 2 molecules of sulphur dioxide [SO2](g)

2 molecules of sulphuric acid [H2SO4](aq) + 4 molecules of nitrogen dioxide [NO](g) Both of them also refined the whole process by replacing the traditional rectangular chambers into stoneware packed masonry cylinders. Also they successfully managed to make a process that produced a specific concentration of sulphuric acid. This led to the making of the classical lead chamber process. The classical lead chamber process consisted of 3 main components: a) The Glover tower b) The lead chambers c) The Gay-Lussac Tower The following is the process: 1) Hot sulphur dioxide gas enters the bottom of the Glover tower. 2) The sulphur dioxide gas will be washed with nitrous vitriol [a solution consisting of sulphuric acid with recycled nitrogen monoxide (NO) and dissolved nitrogen dioxide (NO 2)] and mixed with nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide gas. 3) Sulphuric acid with a concentration of 62%-68% (chamber acid) is achieved when the hot gases evaporates water from the sulphuric acid.

4) Some of the sulphur dioxide are oxidized to become sulphur trioxide and dissolves in the acid wash to form tower acid (sulphuric acid with concentration of 78% to 80%) . 5) Denitration occurs. The nitrogen monoxide from the acid wash is stripped back into gaseous state in the Glover tower and is carried out to enter the lead chamber.(?) 6) A mixture of gases (including nitrogen monoxide, sulphur dioxide & trioxide, nitrogen, water & steam) enter the lead chamber where these substances reacts with more water. The chamber is a large, boxliked room that is enclosed in a form of a truncated cone. 7) Here, sulphuric acid is formed through numerous complicated reactions: It condenses on the walls of the chamber and is collected at the floor of the chamber. The number of chambers used is usually between 3-12. Sulphuric acid with a concentration of 62%-68% (chamber/fertilizer acid) is produced and drawn out from the chambers.
8) The

following reactions occur in the lead chamber chronologically:

a) Nitrogen monoxide (NO) + oxygen gas (O2) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

b) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) + Nitrogen monoxide (NO) + water (H2O) 2 molecules of nitrous acid (HNO2) c) Sulphur dioxide (SO2) + Water (H2O) Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) d) Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) Bisulphite ion (HSO3-) + Hydrogen ion (H+) e) Nitronium ion (NO+) + Bisulphite ion (HSO3-) NOSO3- + Hydrogen ion (H+) f) Nitronium ion (NO+) + NOSO3- 2 molecules of nitrogen monoxide (NO) + sulphur trioxide (SO 3) g) 2 molecules of nitrous acid (HNO 2) + 2 hydrogen ions (H+) 2 molecules of nitrogen monoxide (NO) + 2 molecules of water (H 2O) h) Sulphur trioxide (SO3) + water (H2O) sulphuric acid (H2SO4) --------------------------------------------------------Overall reaction-----------------------------------------------------Sulphur dioxide (SO2) + oxygen gas (O2) + water (H2O) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

There is also another variant to this process: a) 2 molecules of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) + water (H2O) Nitrous acid (HNO2) + Nitric acid (HNO3) b) Sulphur dioxide [SO2] (l) + Nitric acid (HNO3) Nitrosylsulfuric acid (NOHSO4) c) Nitrosylsulfuric acid (NOHSO4) + Nitrous acid (HNO2) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) + Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) + Nitrogen monoxide (NO) d) Sodium dioxide [SO2] (l) + 2 molecules of nitrous acid (HNO2) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) + 2 molecules of nitrogen monoxide (NO) ------------------------------------------------------------Overall reaction--------------------------------------------------2 molecules of sulphur dioxide (SO2) + 2 molecules of water (H2O) + Oxygen gas (O2) 2 molecules of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9) Finally, after the gases pass through the lead chambers, they go through the last component, the

Gay-Lussac tower. Here, the gases shall be washed & cooled by the Glover/tower acid (that is drawn from the cooled acid stream.) 10) The nitrogenous oxides and the unreacted sulphur dioxide dissolve in sulphur dioxide to form the nitrous vitriol that will be used in the Glover tower. The waste gases exiting the Gay-Lussac tower discharged into the atmosphere. 11) The process shall repeat itself again and again continuously. The losses in nitrogen is compensated with nitric acid which is added into the Glover tower that was formed through the catalytic oxidation of ammonia. Sulphur dioxide can be produced by burning sulphur or roasting pyritic ore (Iron pyrite) with presence of oxygen. The equation for generation of sulphur dioxide is as follows. - S8 + 8 oxygen gas (O2) 8 sulphur dioxide molecules (SO2) - 4 molecules of iron pyrite (FeS2) + 11 molecules of oxygen gas (O2) 2 molecules of iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) + 8 Molecules of sodium dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen dioxides can be produced decomposition of nitre in the presence of sulphuric acid or hydrolysis of nitrosylsulphuric acid: - 2 molecules of nitre (NaNO3) + sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4)+ water (H2O) + nitrogen monoxide (NO) + nitrogen dioxide (NO2) + oxygen gas (O2)

- 2 molecules of nitrosylsulphuric acid (NOHSO4) + water (H2O) 2 molecules of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) + nitrogen monoxide (NO) + nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Since nitrogen oxides serve as a catalyst, they are absorbed and regenerated during the process. b) The contact process The contact process is the most commonly used process to produce sulphuric acid today. Patented in 1831 by Englishman Peregrine Phillips, the contact process was found to be much more economical and efficient in producing concentrated sulphuric acid than the lead chamber process. This process involves the use of the catalyst Vanadium oxide (V2O5). Platinum is actually a more efficient than Vanadium oxide but since platinum is especially vulnerable to catalyst poisoning when exposed to arsenic impurities in the sulphur feedstock, also Vanadium oxide is much more cheaper than platinum. This makes Vanadium oxide a better choice of catalyst rather than platinum. Also the catalyst process gives a greater purity of sulphuric acid up to 100%. Process Stage 1

Sulphuric acid is produced through the combustion of sulphur in air or the combustion of pyrite to produce sulphur dioxide. * S8 + 8 oxygen gas (O2) 8 sulphur dioxide molecules (SO2) * 4 molecules of iron pyrite (FeS2) + 11 molecules of oxygen gas (O2) 2 molecules of iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) + 8 Molecules of sodium dioxide (SO2) Stage 2 This stage is the purification process which is where sulphur dioxide is purified to avoid catalyst poisoning from occurring during the catalyst stage. The purification unit consists of 6 processes. Note that oxygen has also entered. First, the sulphur dioxide gas enters the dust chamber to have the dust particles in it removed. Then, the sulphur dioxide gas flows to the cooler where it is cooled. Afterwards, it enters the scrubber chamber to be washed. After that, sulphur dioxide shall enter the drier where water vapour in the sulphur dioxide is removed to prevent the water vapour from reacting with the sulphur trioxide later on. Finally, sulphur dioxide enters the arsenic purifier where its arsenic impurities shall be removed to prevent catalyst poisoning from occurring that will make the catalyst become ineffective. During the purification process, sulphuric acid can also be formed. The sulphuric acid shall be directly sent to the absorption tower to assist in the production of oleum. The gases are sent into the testing box to ensure their purification. The impure sulphur dioxide shall be sent to the dust chamber again to be reprocessed while the pure sulphur dioxide gas will be sent to the catalyst chamber for it to undergo catalystization. Stage 3 This is the most important process in the contact process because this is where the catalyst Vanadium oxide reacts with oxygen gas and sulphur dioxide to produce sulphur trioxide. But, for the reaction to occur, some requirements are needed. There requirements can be determined through the application of Le Chatelier's Principle. There requirements are: a) Sulphur dioxide & oxygen gas both must have volumes with the ratio of 1:1 b) A high temperature between 450C - 550C is required. (Thats why gas is heated beforehand) c) The medium standard atmospheric (atm) of 1 (pressure of 101,325 pascals) d) The presence of Vanadium oxide catalyst (V2O5) All of there requirements is to ensure 96% to 98% of the sulphur dioxide is converted into sulphur trioxide. The reasons of these requirements shall be explained later on below. The following shows what happens during the reaction:

2 molecules of sulphur dioxide [SO2] (g) +Oxygen gas [O2] (g) 2 molecules of sulphur trioxide [SO3] (g) The reaction has a total thermodynamic system energy of -197 kJ mol1. The following shows the mechanism of catalyst reaction that happens in the process. a) Oxidation of SO2 into SO3 by V5+. This is what mainly happens: 2 molecules of sulphur dioxide (SO2) + 4 vanadium ions (V5+) + 2 oxygen ions (O2-) 2 molecules of sulphur trioxide (SO3) + 4 vanadium ions (V4+) b) Oxidation of V4+ back into V5+ by oxygen. This is where the catalyst regenerates back into its original form as shown below: 4 vanadium ions (V4+)+ oxygen gas (O2) 4 vanadium ions (V5+) + 2 oxygen ions (O2-) Stage 4 Even though directly dissolving sulphur trioxide into water would enable us to obtain sulphuric acid as shown: Sulphur trioxide (SO3) + water (H2O) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) BUT, since sulphur trioxide itself is exothermic, the addition of water might trigger its hydration property and turn it into gaseous sulphur dioxide in the form of foggy aerosol that is highly uncontrollable and will not bring any good for production as it becomes harder to contain. The gas itself is also corrosive and difficult to condense, making it a threatening pollutant. In order to avoid any of that from happening, after sulphur trioxide is produced in the catalization chamber, it is sent into the absorption tower where the deposited concentrated sulphuric acid is waiting. These event occur in the absorption tower: Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)(l) + Sulphur trioxide (SO3)(g) Oleum (H2S2O7)(l) The reason why oleum is produced is because it is more stable than sulphuric acid and not as exothermic as sulphuric acid. The oleum will be collected in a chamber where water shall be placed into it. The following reaction happens: Oleum [H2S2O](l) + Water [H2O](l) 2 molecules of sulphuric acid [H2SO4](l) Through this reaction, the producer shall get a profit of x2 since 2 molecules of sulphuric acid is produced rather than 1 molecule. The sulphuric acid made is concentrated (98%) and shall finally undergo the process of bottling in the factories to be sent for commercial use. Le Chateliers principal (The law of equilibrium) This principal is defined as: If a chemical system at equilibrium experiences a change in concentration, temperature, volume, or partial pressure, then the equilibrium shifts to counteract the imposed change and a new equilibrium is established. Any change in status quo prompts an opposing reaction in the responding system.

This principal is used to predict chemical equilibrium in a chemical equation and in applies to reactions in a state of dynamic equilibrium. It also explains how catalysts have no effect in on the position of equilibrium. How does this work during the contact process?

2 molecules of sulphur dioxide [SO2] (g) +Oxygen gas [O2] (g) 2 molecules of sulphur trioxide [SO3] (g)

a) The proportions of sulphur dioxide and oxygen Why must it have an equal proportion in volume? Since Avogadros Law states that gases at an equal volume at a same pressure contain the equal number of particles, this would mean the reaction takes place in a ratio of 1 sulphur dioxide molecule to 1 oxygen molecule. There is however an excess of sulphur dioxide gas relative to oxygen gas as demanded by the equilibrium equation. But according to Le Chateliers Principle, by increasing the concentration of oxygen gas in the mixture, the position of equilibrium shall shift to the right. Since oxygen is easily obtained in our atmosphere, it is very simple and cheap way to increase the conversion and yield of sulphur trioxide. Through Le Chatelies Principle, through increasing the proportion of oxygen gas in the equation is possible and can virtually turn every molecule of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide since there is more oxygen gas than sulphur dioxide, but there is a major drawback. Increasing the proportion and assuredly increase the conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide but at the same time the amount of sulphur trioxide produce will be reduced because too much oxygen would cause the excess oxygen to have nothing to react with. So, in conclusion, the volume ratio of 1:1 is the most suitable in obtaining the best overall yield. b) The suitable temperature needed for the reaction to occur? Why must the temperature have to be suitable? According to Le Charteliers principal, the forward reaction (production of sulphur trioxide) is favoured when the temperature is lowered. The system shall respond by tilting the position of equilibrium to the right to counter react this, thus, producing more heat in the process ( H< -196 kg/mole). By shifting

the position of equilibrium as far as possible to the right, the maximum amount of sulphur trioxide would be produced. But, the temperature of 450C to 550C isnt a low temperature, why use such a high temperature as low? As the temperature goes lower, yes you will produce more sulphur trioxide. But, this will make the reaction to produce sulphur trioxide take a very, very, very, VERY long time. This is a major loss for manufactures since they want to make sulphur trioxide in a suitable amount of time since consumers have no time to wait for so long (it would take several years). The gases need to reach equilibrium within a short period of time so that they would be able to be in contact with the catalyst in the reactor. That is why the temperature of 450C - 550C is

used as a compromise temperature as it produces a fair amount of sulphur trioxide in the equilibrium mixture in a short amount of time. Increasing the temperature however is totally not an option because instead of producing sulphur trioxide, you would be getting back sulphur dioxide and oxygen gas because the point of equilibrium tilts to the left. After forming sulphur trioxide, the temperature will cause the sulphur trioxide to absorb heat and make it change back into more sulphur dioxide and more oxygen gas. No manufacturer wants that to happen right? Because that would be quite silly. c) The suitable pressure needed Why is the pressure of 1atm needed in this reaction? It should be noted beforehand that based on the reaction above, there are 3 molecules on the left and 2 molecules on the right. According to Le Charteliers Principal, as the pressure increases, the equilibrium system shall respond by favouring the reaction that produces lesser molecules. As seen in the reaction above, more sulphur trioxide can be produced as the pressure increases. Not only that, the rate of reaction also increases. But, the reaction above is done at a pressure close to the atmospheric pressure. (1 atm = 101.325 kPa) Even though at relatively lower pressure, we are still able to conversion 99% from sulphur dioxide and oxygen to sulphur trioxide. Due to economical restraints, increasing the pressure is irrelevant and such insignificant change of 1% is not needed and manufactures can save more money. Thus, the reaction above takes place at a pressure close to 1 atm.
If you decrease the pressure though, the point of equilibrium shall tilt to the left, thus producing more sulphur dioxide and oxygen gas which is not what the manufacturer wants. *Please note that if the reactant and product have the same amount of molecules, the equilibrium of pressure shall NOT apply. The reason why the presence of catalyst (vanadium oxide) is needed Catalysts do not affect the position of equilibrium in an equation or increase the production of products, it only speeds up the reaction (like enzymes in our bodies) The absence of catalysts would make the reaction so slow until the point there is virtually no reaction happening. That is catalysts are needed to ensure the reaction is fast enough so that the dynamic equilibrium (changing to obtain equilibrium) can be set up so that the products can be produced faster in the reactor.

c) The wet sulphuric acid (WSA) process The most modern process to date. Patented by Danish company Haldor Topse in 1980, this process was found by the founder of the company, Haldor Topse. This process involves the extraction of sulphur dioxide from sulphur compounds to be made into sulphur trioxide. After that, sulphur trioxide is directly placed into water to produce sulphuric acid mist and energy (measured by kg/mole). Special counter measures are taken to prevent the gases from escaping. Lastly, the acid mist is cooled back into liquid state to be bottled. The whole process is found to be more environmental friendly due to it has a low sulphur dioxide emission and the thermal energy and molecular energy involved in the process is conserved and the energy could be used to make the process go on. This process can remove 95%-99% of the sulphur content in sulphur compounds and is able to produce sulphuric acid with a maximum concentration of 99.6%. Catalysts are also involved in the process (Vanadium oxide, V2O5 or Topsoe VK Series). Due to my lack of understanding, I am unable to give an accurate description on the processes that happens in the wet sulphuric acid process, though it is highly similar to the contact process. Features of the Wet Sulphuric Acid (WSA) process

95% - 99% recovery of sulphur from a sulphur compound. Produces clean and concentrated sulphuric acid of commercial quality. Heat produced during the reactions of the substances can be recovered 100% as superheated
and saturated steam and can be reused. Making the process autothermic.

Very low consumption of cooling water & no consumption of process water. Minimal to none consumptions of chemicals (except for the optional DeNOx) Optional DeNOx for gases with high content of Ammonia (NH3) & hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Wide range turnout
Process of Wet Sulphuric Acid (WSA) process Let us use hydrogen sulphide (H2S) as an example of sulphur feed gas. First, hydrogen sulphide is combusted under high temperatures (with oxygen of course!). This would make the following reaction happen: Hydrogen Sulphite (H2S)+3/2 Oxygen Gas (O2) Sulphur dioxide (SO2)+ Water (H2O) +518kJ/mole

H= -518kJ/mole
Then the processed gas shall move to the SO2 reactor, where it shall be oxidised by oxygen. The chemical reaction below happens: Sulphur dioxide (SO2) +1/2 Oxygen gas (O2) Sulphur trioxide (SO3) +99kJ/mole

H= -99kJ/mole
After that the processed gas enters the SO2 converter where it is hydrated as follows: Sulphur trioxide (SO3) + Water (H2O) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) [g] + 101kJ/mole

H= -101kJ/mole
Finally, the processed sulphuric acid gas now enters the WSA condenser where it is condensed into liquid: Sulphuric acid (H2S04) [g] + 0.17molecules of steam (H2O) [g] Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)[l] + 69kJ/mole

H= -69kJ/mole
*If the feed gas contains high amounts of ammonia, hydrogen cyanide or other nitrogen compunds, nitrogenous oxides shall be formed. It may be necessary to remove the nitrogenous compounds, and this can be done by adding ammonia in relative to the nitrogenous compounds and this reduces the nitrogenous compounds into nitrogen gas and water. This is shown by the following: Nitrogenous compound (NO) + Ammonia (NH3) + 1/4 molecules of oxygen gas (O2) Nitrogen gas (N2) + 3/2 molecules of water (H2O) + 410kJ/mole

H= -410kJ/mole

d) Methods to produce sulphuric acid manually The following methods are all hazardous and dangerous in nature. When attempting to produce sulphur acid, please be cautious when doing so. The following processes does not require a catalyst because catalysts are expensive and home chemist cant purchase it. I) Combustion of sulphur In the laboratory, sulphuric acid can be produced by combusting sulphur in air to produce sulphur dioxide. After that the gas is dissolved in hydrogen peroxide to produce sulphuric acid. The whole process occurs in a gas jar. The gas jar must be covered at all times. Sulphur (S) + Oxygen gas (O2) Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Sulphur dioxide (SO2) + Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) The method to conduct this process is illustrated below

II) The metabisulphite/oxidizer method The procedure in conducting this process is highly dangerous because of the involvement of toxic gases and highly corrosive acids. All apparatus used must be ensured to be made from glass to withstand the acids. This process has reaction similarities with the lead chamber process. Potassium metabisulphate or sodium metabisulphite both can be used in this experiment. It is relatively easy to obtain metabisulphates because they can be found in home brewers and used in homemade dyeing. To make sulphuric acid, first we must make a reaction that generates sulphur dioxide.50mg of metabosulphate and a stir bar is placed at the bottom of the flask before adding 50ml of water. A pressure equalizer dripping funnel is placed on to the flask. 50 ml of hydrochloric acid (with a concentration of approx.12 molar) is then added into the funnel. Connect the flask with a gas adapter that has a glass tube at the end. Prepare a beaker and measuring cylinder that has almost the same height and place the measuring cylinder into the beaker and the place the glass tube end into the measuring cylinder.

Next, fill the measuring cylinder with 25 ml of concentrated/pure nitric acid (a good oxidizer and indicator). The beaker is then filled with ice (make sure the ice does not overlap the measuring cylinder containing nitric acid) to conduct an ice bath. Now, carefully open the dripping funnel to let the hydrochloric acid out drop by drop. Make sure to turn on the stir bar to ensure the reaction that occurs is properly done. This would produce sulphur dioxide and the gas would be transported into the measuring cylinder. Do not mix too fast to ensure the nitric acid does not splutter out. Stage 1 is complete. As sulphur dioxide reacts with nitric acid, copious amount of nitrogen dioxide would be obtained (Which shall act as a catalyst)*Note that sulphur dioxide is still being produced. The nitric acid which is originally red brown shall gradually change its colour, slowly turning yellow-green before finally turning transparent. When the nitric acid turns completely transparent, this indicates that all the nitric acid has been converted into sulphuric acid. Stage 2 is complete. To obtain a desirable concentration of sulphuric acid, the measuring cylinder is taken out and warmed back to room temperature. As it warms, the excess sulphur dioxide present in the sulphuric acid will bubble out into the atmosphere. After that, boil the sulphuric acid to get the concentration you want and also remove the remaining sulphur dioxide. As the heating continues and its concentration rises, sulphuric acid fumes can be seen coming out. (indicates sulphuric acid has reached 70% concentration). To get a near pure concentration of above 95%, the sulphuric acid would need to be heated up to the temperature of 300 C. After cooling the acid to room temperature, you have now obtained sulphuric acid! Below shows the chemical reactions that happen during the process: Below shows an illustration of the process being carried out:

III) Copper Sulphate Electrochemical Method

As stated here, the process here involved electrolysis, a part of electrochemistry. Copper sulphate consists of copper and sulphur. The process here makes it evident that breaking down copper sulphate can produce the products: copper and sulphuric acid. First we shall need carbon electrodes (can be obtained from batteries) or preferably a platinum electrode (platinum coated is fine) . Attach and tape in a wire to the top of the electrode so it can be connected to the power source. Now, we shall need a solution of sulphate (best if concentrated). Then place a copper electrode into the solution and attach it to the negative terminal of the power supply. The platinum electrode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and is suspended mid air. The carbon electrode acts as the anode and the platinum electrode acts as the cathode. The setup is now completed. Now, the power source is turned on. A adjustable power source is preffered so the current can be adjusted to find a current level that minimizes the corrosion of the anode (platinum is very hard to corrode, so there is no worry, but this action must be done if electrodes from the electrochemical series is used.An eroded would make the solution impure and the solution has to be filtered). The time taken for the copper in the copper sulphate the convert back into copper depends on the:

Current applied

 Efficiency of the electrical charge (coulomb) Number of moles in copper sulphate solution
The reaction would take some time. It is observed that the blue copper ions are being electrolysed out of the copper sulphate solution and is attracted to the negative copper cathode. A spongy looking lump of copper is seen forming around the copper cathode. At this time, the solution shall gradually become lighter as the copper sulphate solution is gradually converted into sulphuric acid. The electrodes used in this process is the best one you can use because the usage certain kinds of electrodes would not produce sulphuric after the electrolysis process. Finally, after the electrolysis process is complete, it is observed that the solution is totally clear and transparent and a lump of copper is available inside. This clear solution is diluted sulphuric acid. Filter off the copper and boil the dilute sulphuric acid to increase the concentration of the sulphuric acid. As stated in the statement in the experiment above, sulphuric acid with 95% concentration can be obtained after being heated up until 300 C. This process is remarkably easier than the metabisulphide process above. Below shows the chemical reactions that occur during the process: Below shows the illustrated of the setup of the apparatus:

Uses of sulphuric acid Manufacturing of fertilizers

The following fertilizers can be produced through the involvement of sulphuric acid: a) Calcium dihydrogen phosphate It is sometimes referred as monocalcium phospahte. Since plants need phosphorus for the health of their roots, this compound is beneficial to plants. When together with calcium sulphate, theyre called superphosphate. Superphosphates are made through the reaction between powdered phosphate rock and sulphuric acid. The reaction is shown below: Tricalcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2](s) + 2 molecules of sulphuric acid [H2SO4](l) 2 molecules of calcium sulphate [CaSO4](l) + Calcium dihydrogen phosphate [Ca(H 2PO4)2](l) b) Potassium sulphate A kind of fertilizer that does not contain chloride, which is why it is used in tobacco corps. Sensitive corps need potassium sulphate for optimal growth if the soil has accumulated chloride from irrigated water. Potassium sulphate can be manufactured through the reaction between potassium chloride and sulphuric acid as according to the Leblanc process. The following reaction occurs: 2 molecules of potassium chloride (KCl) + Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) 2 molecules of hydrochloric acid (HCl) + Potassium sulphate (K 2SO4)

c) Ammonium sulphate It is an inorganic salt used commonly for fertilizing alkaline soil. However, its function is the opposite of alum. It lowers the pH balance of alkaline soil for in to become neutral. Not only that, it also provides nitrogen which are good for the leaf growth. However, the disadvantage of this fertilizer is that the nitrogen content relative to the ammonium nitrite is low, somehow making it expensive to transport. Ammonium sulphate can be produced through the reaction between ammonia gas (by product of cokeoven) with sulphuric acid. Fine droplets of sulphuric acid is sprayed into a chamber filled with ammonia gas. Since the reaction is exothermic, all the water is evaporated and the products are in the form of powdery salt. The following reaction occurs: 2 molecules of ammonia gas (NH3) + Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2SO4] d) Aluminium sulphate As a fertilizer, aluminium sulphate has the same function as ammonium sulphate: reducing the pH value of soil. It hydrolyses to form aluminium hydroxide precipitate and dilute sulphuric acid. Because of this, the fertilizer is used by gardeners to produce flowers with a variety of colours. Eg: The flower of hydrangea macrophylla changes colour according to the pH value of the soil. Aluminium sulphate can be produce through the reaction between aluminium hydroxide and sulphuric acid as shown below: 2 molecules of aluminium hydroxide [Al(OH)3] + 3 molecules of hydrochloric acid (H2SO4)
Aluminium sulphate [Al2(SO4)3]6 molecules of water [H2O]

Catalyst
Sulphuric acid is used as an acid catalyst to convert cyclohexanone oxime into caprolactam that is usend foe the making of nylon. It is also used in the Mannheim process that produces hydrogen chloride and sodium sulphate (salt cake)

Electrolyte
Sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte in car batteries (lead-acid accumulators) where it acts as a medium between the anode (Lead) and the cathode (Lead dioxide). The reaction itself produces lead (II) sulphate and water. The molecular weight that is obtain is 642.6 which produces 2 faraday of charge. Simply saying, energy is produced due to some factors. The electrochemical chemistry that happens in the lead-acid accumulator is as follows: At the anode: Pb+SO42-PbSO4+2eAt the cathode: PbO2+4H++DO42-+2e- PbSO4 +2H2O Overall:

Pb+PbO2+4H++2SO42- 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

Manufacturing of white pigment in certain paints

This white pigment, barium sulphide is an inorganic compound. It appears as a white and odourless crystallite substance. It is used to produce a paint called blanc fixe (permanent white) after being combined with titanium white pigment (titanium oxide). It is also used in coating certain photographic papers white. Sulphuric acid here is used for producing pure barium sulphate. The chemical equation that happens is seen below: Barium sulphide (BaS )+ Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) + Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)

Drain cleaners
Sulphuric acid is widely used in producing acidic drain cleaners. The strong dehydrating property present in sulphuric acid makes it a perfect substance in removing grease, hair tissue papers (dehydrates into carbon) in the drain. Through hydrolysis, it also can remove fats and proteins. Because the reaction between sulphuric acid and water is vigorous, that is why these kinds of cleaners should be added carefully and slowly into drains to clean them. The following processes (acid hydrolysis) happen: Proteins or amides + H2O+ Acid NH4+ + RCOOH Ester or fats + H20 + Acid RCO2H + R'OH Negative effects caused by sulphur The pollution of the environment caused by sulphur elements is mainly caused by sulphur dioxide, a molecular compound thats formed through the covalent bonding between sulphur and oxygen. The main sources of sulphur dioxide include emission from combustion of fossil fuels and waste gases from factories. Sulphur dioxide is also made naturally. Natural sources of sulphur dioxide include volcanoes, decaying matter, solar action on sea water and oxidation of dimethyl sulphide emitted from the ocean. Decaying matter emits hydrogen sulphite that would be oxidised into sulphur dioxide within hours. Sulphur dioxide is a kind of gas that is colourless and non-flammable, yet its odour is pungent, sharp strong irritating and also might cause choking. Sulphur dioxide also dissolves in water and this would change the pH value of water. On average, sulphur dioxide exist in a concentration ranging from 0.03 to o.3g/m3. This number is obviously higher in urban and industrialized areas. The concentrations of sulphur dioxide ranges from place to place. Oxidation of sulphur dioxide (aka how acid rain happens) can occur in the atmosphere in the gas phase and aqueous phase (raindrops) homogeneously and heterogeneously on the surface of the particles of all 3 states of water. The rate of oxidation of sulphur dioxide is affected by photochemistry and temperature. The rate of sulphur dioxide oxidation is especially high on warm and hot weathers. The oxidation process is determined by the humidity and concentration and composition of the atmosphere.

Homogeneous gas phase of sulphur dioxide involves 3 mechanisms: a) Oxidation by photochemically generated reactive substances. b) Oxidation by thermally generated reactive substances. c) Direct photooxidation of the exited sulphur dioxide molecules. The most important photochemical oxidation reaction is the reaction of sulphur dioxide with hydroxyl radical (OH). SO2 + OH (+ X) HSO3 The x molecule represents nitrogen dioxide, oxygen gas or water molecules present in air that functions to transport excess energy away from the reaction. The HSO3 is eventually involved in the formation of sulphuric acid aerosol. HSO3 + O2 SO3 + H2O SO3 + H2O H2SO4 The sulphur dioxide that is present in clouds are removed through a process called washout, basically where sulphur is deposited from the clouds during rain, forming acid rain. This process involves the formation of sulphur particles, coagulation and diffusional uptake. Whereas, the rainout process involes the interception of sulphur dioxide molecules during raining, the sulphur dioxide thus diffuses into the raindrops, also forming acid rain. Washout and rainout are general processes that occur during wet deposition. Dry deposition is affected by:

Type of precipitate Intensity of sulphur dioxide Duration and frequency of rainfall Amounts of sulphur dioxide relative to sulphate in air Size distribution of sulphate particles
The direct collection of gaseous and particulate sulphur dioxide on land or water is called dry deposition. This process removes sulphur from the atmosphere. Dry deposition of sulphur particles can occur:

Directly onto plants Gravitational settling Physical/chemical capture of sulphur dioxide particles by moist surfaces.
Sulphur dioxide usually resides in the atmosphere for 1-5 days,where it shall be deposited occationally through rainfall. Sulphur dioxide is proven to be harmful to the ecosystem and the environment. For example, exposure to sulphur dioxide by animals or lifestocks shall lead them to suffer from broichiel constriction and the

narrowing of the breathing airways. Chronic exposure to sulphur dioxide would result in the swelling of the mucosal tissues and also aggravate pulmonary diseases.

http://environment.gov.ab.ca/info/library/6615.pdf http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1287148063808

Ammonia/ azane
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Haber_process http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber-Bosch_process http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/haber.html

http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/Kinetics/Haber.htm http://haberchemistry.tripod.com/ http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Chemical_Equilibrium/Case_Studies /Haber_Process

Glass and ceramics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silica https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glass https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_properties_of_glass https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_silica https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borosilicate_glass https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glass https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_glass

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparent_conducting_film https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochromic_lens http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity

Sulfur dioxide is introduced with steam and oxides of nitrogen into large chambers lined with sheet lead where the gases are sprayed down with water and chamber acid. The sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide dissolve and over a period of approximately 30 minutes the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfuric acid. The presence of nitrogen dioxide is necessary for the reaction to proceed. The process is highly exothermic, and a major consideration of the design of the chambers was to provide a way to dissipate the heat formed in the reactions. Early plants used very large lead-lined wooden rectangular chambers (Faulding box chambers) that were cooled by ambient air. The internal lead sheathing served to contain the corrosive sulfuric acid and to render the wooden chambers waterproof. Around the turn of the nineteenth century, such plants required about half a cubic meter of volume to process the sulfur dioxide equivalent of a kilogram of burned sulfur. In the mid 19th century, French chemist Gay-Lussac redesigned the chambers as stoneware packed masonry cylinders. In the 20th century, plants using Mills-Packard chambers supplanted the earlier designs. These chambers were tall tapered cylinders that were externally cooled by water flowing down the outside surface of the chamber. Sulfur dioxide for the process was provided by burning elemental sulfur or by theroasting of sulfur containing metal ores in a stream of air in a furnace. During the early period of manufacture, nitrogen oxides were produced by the decomposition ofniter at high temperature in the presence of acid, but this process was gradually supplanted by the air oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide in the presence of a catalyst. The recovery and reuse of oxides of nitrogen was an important economic consideration in the operation of a chamber process plant. In the reaction chambers, nitric oxide reacts with oxygen to produce nitrogen dioxide. Liquid from the bottom of the chambers is diluted and pumped to the top of the chamber and sprayed downwards in a fine mist. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are absorbed in the liquid and react to form sulfuric acid and nitric oxide. The liberated nitric oxide is sparingly soluble in water and returns to the gas in the chamber where it reacts with oxygen in the air to reform nitrogen dioxide. Some percentage of the nitrogen oxides are sequestered in the reaction liquor asnitrosylsulfuric acid and as nitric acid, so fresh nitric oxide must be added as the process proceeds. Later versions of chamber plants included a high temperature Glover tower to recover the nitrogen oxides from the chamber liquor, while concentrating the chamber acid to as much as 78% H2SO4. Exhaust gases from the chambers are scrubbed by passing into a tower through

which some of the Glover acid flows over broken tile. Nitrogen oxides are absorbed to form nitrosylsulfuric acid which is then returned to the Glover tower to reclaim the oxides of nitrogen. Sulfuric acid produced in the reaction chambers is limited to about 35% concentration. At higher concentrations, nitrosylsulfuric acid precipitates on the lead walls as chamber crystals and is no longer able to catalyze the oxidation reactions.

Acid-base properties [edit]

As an acid, sulfuric acid reacts with most bases to give the corresponding sulfate. For example, the blue copper salt copper(II) sulfate, commonly used forelectroplating and as a fungicide, is prepared by the reaction of copper(II) oxide with sulfuric acid: CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) Sulfuric acid can also be used to displace weaker acids from their salts. Reaction with sodium acetate, for example, displaces acetic acid, CH3COOH, and forms sodium bisulfate: H2SO4 + CH3COONa NaHSO4 + CH3COOH Similarly, reacting sulfuric acid with potassium nitrate can be used to produce nitric acid and a precipitate of potassium bisulfate. When combined with nitric acid, sulfuric acid acts both as an acid and a dehydrating agent, forming the nitronium ion NO+
2, which is important in nitration reactions involvingelectrophilic aromatic

substitution. This type of reaction, where protonation occurs on an oxygen atom, is important in many organic chemistry reactions, such as Fischer esterification and dehydration of alcohols.

Solid state structure of the [D3SO4]+ ion present in [D3SO4]+[SbF6]-, synthesized by using DF in place of HF. (see text)

When allowed to react with superacids, sulfuric acid can act as a base and be protonated, forming the [H3SO4]+ion. Salt of [H3SO4]+ have been prepared using the following reaction in liquid HF: ((CH3)3SiO)2SO2 + 3 HF + SbF5 [H3SO4]+[SbF6]- + 2 (CH3)3SiF The above reaction is thermodynamically favored due to the high bond enthalpy of the SiF bond in the side product. Protonation using simply HF/SbF5, however, have met with failure, as pure sulfuric acid undergoes self-ionization to give [H3O]+ ions, which prevents the conversion of H2SO4 to [H3SO4]+ by the HF/SbF5 system:[16] 2 H2SO4 [H3O]+ + [HS2O7]-

Reactions with metals and strong oxidizing property [edit]

Dilute sulfuric acid reacts with metals via a single displacement reaction as with other typical acids, producinghydrogen gas and salts (the metal sulfate). It attacks reactive metals (metals at positions above copper in thereactivity series) such as iron, aluminium, zinc, manganese, magnesium and nickel. Fe (s) + H2SO4 (aq) H2 (g) + FeSO4 (aq) However, concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong oxidizing agent[17] and does not react with metals in the same way as other typical acids. Sulfur dioxide,water and SO42- ions are evolved instead of the hydrogen and salts. 2 H2SO4 + 2 e- SO2 + 2 H2O + SO42It can oxidize non-active metals such as tin and copper, depending upon the temperature of it like the nitric acid. Cu + 2 H2SO4 SO2 + 2 H2O + SO42- + Cu2+

Lead and tungsten, however, are resistant to sulfuric acid.

Reactions with non-metals [edit]

Hot concentrated sulfuric acid oxidizes non-metals such as carbon and sulfur. C + 2 H2SO4 CO2 + 2 SO2 + 2 H2O S + 2 H2SO4 3 SO2 + 2 H2O

Reaction with sodium chloride [edit]

It reacts with sodium chloride, and gives hydrogen chloride gas and sodium bisulfate: NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl

Electrophilic aromatic substitution [edit]

Benzene undergoes electrophilic aromatic substitution with sulfuric acid to give the corresponding sulfonic acids:[18]

Although nearly 99% sulfuric acid can be made, the subsequent loss of SO3 at the boiling point brings the concentration to 98.3% acid. The 98% grade is more stable in storage, and is the usual form of what is described as "concentrated sulfuric acid." Other concentrations are used for different purposes. Some common concentrations are:[9][10] "Chamber acid" and "tower acid" were the two concentrations of sulfuric acid produced by the lead chamber process, chamber acid being the acid produced in lead chamber itself (<70% to avoid contamination with nitrosylsulfuric acid) and tower acid being the acid recovered from the bottom of the Glover tower.[9][10] They are now obsolete as commercial concentrations of sulfuric acid, although they may be prepared in the laboratory from concentrated sulfuric acid if needed. In particular, "10M" sulfuric acid (the modern equivalent of chamber acid, used in many titrations) is prepared by slowly adding 98% sulfuric acid to an equal volume of water, with good stirring: the temperature of the mixture can rise to 80 C (176 F) or higher.[10]

2 H2SO4

H3SO4+ + HSO4