Instrumentation & Control Engg

VISCOSITY
Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

U-Tube Viscometer

Reverse flow

Consists of a U-shaped glass tube held vertically. In one arm of the U is a vertical section of precise narrow bore (the capillary). Above this is a bulb; with it is another bulb lower down on the other arm. In use, liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by suction, and then allowed to flow down through the capillary into the lower bulb. Two marks (one above and one below the upper bulb) indicate a known volume. The time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between these marks is proportional to the kinematic viscosity.

Laboratory and for testing use (Ethanol, Ethylene glycol, Motor oil for SAE 10 etc..)

Introduce a sample of sufficient volume to fill the reference bulb and part of the lower receiving bulb so that when the sample drains into the lower bulb, the liquid levels at start and finish will traverse the center portion of that bulb; this will neutralize surface tension error. Place the viscometer in a constant temperature bath which can maintain at least 0.02C. Use a thermometer which has recently been checked for deviation from ice point (C) and correct results accordingly to attain proper bath temperature. Check your stopwatch for gross error against an electric clock. This will detect inaccuracies at the 0.2% -0.5% level. Introduce the sample through the large tube; tilt the tube slightly and allow the sample to run smoothly down the side to avoid entrapping air. Immerse the tube in the constant temperature bath so that all indicia are covered and allow to stand 15 minutes before making a determination. Whether it is better practice to apply positive or negative pressure to charge the reference bulb, depends on the sample. It is customary to report data in terms of centistokes. The API oils are calibrated in centistokes so that the constant of the instrument will be in like terms and is called the Kinematic Viscosity (Cs) or Kv. Kv = C T where C = Instrument constant , T = Reflux time sec.

Instrumentation & Control Engg

Instrument Type Operation The piston is periodically raised by an air lifting mechanism, drawing the material being measured down through the clearance (gap) between the piston and the wall of the cylinder into the space which is formed below the piston as it is raised. The assembly is then typically held up for a few seconds, then allowed to fall by gravity, expelling the sample out through the same path that it entered, creating a shearing effect on the measured liquid. The time of fall is a measure of viscosity, with the clearance between the piston and inside of the cylinder forming the measuring orifice. The viscosity controller measures the time of fall (time-of-fall seconds being the measure of viscosity) and displays the resulting viscosity value. Application Calibration

Process control Environments (flow, temperature)

The controller can calibrate the time-offall value to cup seconds (known as efflux cup), Saybolt universal second (SUS) or centipoise.

Procedure For Industrial use (due to its Simplicity, repeatability, Longevity and low maintenance used in paper sizing, printing, coating, polymerization, starch conversion, textile siz-ing, and blending process applications 1. Select the appropriate spindle and attach to the Viscometer (refer to table below). 2. Transfer standard oil to clean test vessel. 3. Insert and centre spindle in standard in standard until level is at the immersion groove on the spindle shaft. 4. Ensure that the temperature of the oil is noted. I.e. Note that the oils supplied by QC Labs are calibrated over various temperatures. 5. To take the viscosity reading, turn the viscometer motor on at the recommended speed and wait for the reading to stabilise.

Falling Piston Viscometer

Direct Flow or Reverse flow

Instrumentation & Control Engg

Instrument

Type

Operation

Application

Calibration

Capillary Viscometer

Pipet type or glass type (Reverse flow)

The determination of viscosity using a suitable capillary viscometer is carried out at a temperature of 20 0.1 C, unless otherwise prescribed. The time required for the level of the liquid to drop from one mark to the other is measured with a stop-watch to the nearest one-fifth of a second. The result is valid only if two consecutive readings do not differ by more than 1 per cent. The average of not fewer than three readings gives the flow time of the liquid to be examined.

Used in oil refineries to control various products such as fuel oils, hydraulic oils, lubricating oils, fuels, and various grades of asphalts. They are also used in fuel oil viscosity control to optimize atomization in the power industry.

Instrumentation & Control Engg DENSITY

Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

Hydrometer

Operation of the hydrometer is based on Archimedes' principle that a solid suspended in a fluid will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid Reverse displaced by the submerged part of flow the suspended solid. Thus, the lower the density of the substance, the farther the hydrometer will sink.

Keep a trial jar with water near your brew. The idea is that this water have the same temperature as your brew so leave it there all the time. Before using your hydrometer (every time!): Check the reading of the water. It should be around 1000 s.g. (0 on hydrometers showing oechsle degrees) but it will vary depending on temperature and scale errors.

Used in Soil analysis

Uses in Brewing and Winemaking

If your hydrometer shows, say 1002 (+2) you obviously need to take your reading minus 2 to get it right. Then simply take all your wine/beer readings minus 2 and thats it!

Similarly of course, if your hydrometer shows 997 (3) on the water - just add 3 to all your readings.

Instrumentation & Control Engg

DENSITY
Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

HydrostaticPressure based instrument

Digital density meter

This technology relies upon Pascal's Principle which states that the pressure difference between two points within a vertical column of fluid is dependent upon the vertical distance between the two points, the density of the fluid and the gravitational force.

Used in milk, sugar and alcohol industries

Can be calibrated using controllers, pressure transducers and an independent density meter.

Can be also used on tank gaging applications as a convenient means of liquid level and density measure.

Instrumentation & Control Engg

DENSITY
Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

Pycnometer (Pyknometer)

Liquid or gas based

If the flask is weighed empty, full of water, and full of a liquid whose specific gravity is desired, the specific gravity of the liquid can easily be calculated. The particle density of a powder, to which the usual method of weighing cannot be applied, can also be determined with a pycnometer. The powder is added to the pycnometer, which is then weighed, giving the weight of the powder sample. The pycnometer is then filled with a liquid of known density, in which the powder is completely insoluble. The weight of the displaced liquid can then be determined, and hence the specrific gravity of the powder.

Procedure
Used for laboratory and testing Used for handling dangerous materials, such as acid, lead acid, antifreeze agent Clean, dry, weigh pcynometer. Fill pcynometer. Fill pycnometer with distilled water. Weigh pycnometer and water carefully to 3 decimals, = Wa. Determine temperature of water to nearest degree = Ti. From the weight Wa determined at temperature Ti prepare a table of value of weights Wa for a series of temperatures that are likely to prevail for later testing. Calculate each value of Wa as follows:

Instrumentation & Control Engg

TEMPERATURE
Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

Thermometer

A thermometer has a glass tube sealed at both Used in ends and is partly filled Heating, with a liquid like mercury Ventilation, or alcohol or any working and Air bimetal. As the Conditioning temperature around the (HVAC) thermometer's bulb heats Liquid up, the liquid rises in the filled or glass tube. The glass tube bimetal is mounted on a Used in Power backboard that is marked Plants, Ship and trains in units called degrees. boilers. When it is hot, the liquid inside the thermometer will expand and rise in the tube. The opposite happens when it is cold. Manufacturing, Automotive The temperature on a and almost all thermometer is read by industrial finding the level of the process (e.g liquid in the tube and the Cement, number on the Brewery, temperature scale across metals, Sugars) from it.

Procedure
The traditional method of putting a scale on a liquid-in-glass or liquid-in-metal thermometer was in three stages: 1. Immerse the sensing portion in a stirred mixture of pure ice and water at 1 Standard atmosphere (101.325 kPa; 760.0 mmHg) and mark the point indicated when it had come to thermal equilibrium. 2. Immerse the sensing portion in a steam bath at 1 Standard atmosphere (101.325 kPa; 760.0 mmHg) and again mark the point indicated. 3. Divide the distance between these marks into equal portions according to the temperature scale being used. Thermometers can be calibrated either by comparing them with other calibrated thermometers or by checking them against known fixed points on the temperature scale. The best known of these fixed points are the melting and boiling points of pure water

Instrumentation & Control Engg TEMPERATURE

Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

An RTD (resistance temperature detector) is a temperature sensor that operates on the measurement principle that a materials electrical resistance changes with temperature. The Traditional relationship between (uses an RTDs resistance and metallic the surrounding sensing temperature is highly elements) predictable, allowing for Or accurate and consistent thermistors temperature measurement. (uses a Semi By supplying an RTD with a constant current and conductor measuring the resulting sensor) voltage drop across the resistor, the RTDsresistance can be calculated, and the temperature can be determined.

Procedure

Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing Food Processing Stoves and grills Textile production Plastics processing Petrochemical processing Micro electronics Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement Exhaust gas temperature measurement

Characterization is the method that is most often used for medium to high accuracy PRT calibration. With this method, a new resistance vs. temperature relation-ship is determined anew with each calibration. Generally, with this type of calibration, new calibration oefficients and a calibration table are provided as a product of the calibration. There are five basic steps to perform as listed below:

1. Place the reference probe1. Place the reference probe and the UUTs in the temperature source in close proximity to one another. 2. Connect the leads to the readout(s) ensuring proper 2-, 3-, or 4-wire connection. 3. Measure the reference probe and determine the temperature. 4. Measure and record the resistance of the UUT(s). 5. 5. Fit the data.

Instrumentation & Control Engg TEMPERATURE

Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

Pyrometer

Optical and thermo electric type

A modern pyrometer has Procedure an optical system and a detector. The optical Suited system focuses the thermal especially to radiation onto the detector. Calibrate the radiation pyrometer by The output signal of the the means of a conventional black body detector (temperature T) is measurement enclosure placed within a furnace and related to the thermal maintained at uniform temperatures of of moving radiation or irradiance j* of 490, 500, and 510 C (914, 932, and objects or any the target object through 950 F). The black body enclosure may surfaces that the StefanBoltzmann law, consist of a closed chromel metal can not be the constant of cylinder with a small sight hole in one proportionality , called reached or can end. Sight the radiation pyrometer the Stefarn-Boltzmann not be touched. upon the opposite end of the cylinder constant and where a thermocouple indicates the (Metallurgical the emissivity of the black body temperature. Place the Industry, object. thermocouple within a drilled hole and Geology, Steam in good thermal contact with the black generators, body. When the black body enclosure Hot Air has reached the appropriate This output is used to infer temperature equilibrium, read the Balloons) the object's temperature. output of the radiation pyrometer. Thus, there is no need for Repeat for each temperature. direct contact between the
pyrometer and the object, as there is with thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs).

Instrumentation & Control Engg

Instrumentation & Control Engg TEMPERATURE

Instrument Type Operation
It comprises of two dissimilar metals, A and B. These are joined together to form two junctions, p and q, which are maintained at the temperatures T1and T2 respectively. Remember that the thermocouple cannot be formed if there are no two junctions. Since the two junctions are maintained at different temperatures the emf is generated within the circuit and it is the function of the temperatures of two junctions. If the temperature of both the junctions is same, equal and opposite emf will be generated at both junctions and the net current flowing through the junction is zero. If the junctions are maintained at different temperature, the emfs will not become zero and there will be net current flowing through the circuit. The total emf flowing through this circuit depends on the metals used within the circuit as well the temperature of the two junctions. The total emf or the current flowing through the circuit can be measured easily by the suitable device.

Application

Calibration

Procedure
Step 1

Thermocouple

Numerous types (depending on the combination of alloys use, e.g Type J, K)

Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and petroleum refineries

Fill the thermo bath container with water. Heat the water to 30 degrees Celsius and turn the thermocouple device on. This multimeter should be able to measure a voltage of 1 microvolt. Step 2 Place one junction of the thermocouple into the water and allow the voltage to stabilize. Record the stable portion of the voltage from the multimeter. Step 3 Increase the temperature to 35 degrees Celsius and record the voltage on the multimedia again. Repeat this procedure for each 5-degree increase in temperature from 35 to 60 degrees Celsius. Step 4 Measure the room temperature and look up the voltage for your thermocouple type at the room's temperatureAdd this value to each of the voltages you recorded in Steps 2 and 3. Step 5 Use the curve-fitting method of your choice to find the line that best fits your recorded data. The voltage on a standard type K thermocouple should increase about 40 microvolts for every degree Celsius increase in temperature.

Hot processes including plastics and resin manufacture

Instrumentation & Control Engg DISTANCE

Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

Procedure The radar antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and picked up by a receiving device. The electrical signal picked up by the receiving antenna is called echo or return. The radar signal is generated by a powerful transmitter and received by a highly sensitive receiver. The distance is determined from the running time of the high-frequency transmitted signal and the propagation c0.
Aviation, Navigation and Safety Military applications Meteorology or weather sensing systems Mechanical applications (Oil and gas)

Radar (Ultrasonic)

Bi-static, continuous wave, Doppler radar

1. Use Frequency generator, Signal Generator, Function generator, RF and Microwave generator to generate repeating or nonrepeating electronic signals (in either the analog or digital domains).

2. Generate the desired frequency, and test and compare it on the electronic radar circuit

Instrumentation & Control Engg

Instrumentation & Control Engg DISTANCE

Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

Procedure The radar antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and picked up by a receiving device. The electrical signal picked up by the receiving antenna is called echo or return. The radar signal is generated by a powerful transmitter and received by a highly sensitive receiver. The distance is determined from the running time of the high-frequency transmitted signal and the propagation c0.
Aviation, Navigation and Safety Military applications Meteorology or weather sensing systems Mechanical applications (Oil and gas)

Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging)

Bi-static, continuous wave, Doppler radar

1. Use Frequency generator, Signal Generator, Function generator, RF and Microwave generator to generate repeating or nonrepeating electronic signals (in either the analog or digital domains).

2. Generate the desired frequency, and test and compare it on the electronic radar circuit

Instrumentation & Control Engg

Instrumentation & Control Engg DISTANCE

Instrument Type Operation Application Calibration

LiDAR (Laser Interferometry Detection and Ranging)

Ultraviolet, Visible and Near infrared lidar. Direct energy detection and coherent detection

The LiDAR instrument fires rapid pulses of laser light at a surface, some at up to 150,000 pulses per second. A sensor on the instrument measures the amount of time it takes for each pulse to bounce back. Light moves at a constant and known speed so the LiDAR instrument can calculate the distance between itself and the target with high accuracy. By repeating this in quick succession the instrument builds up a complex 'map' of the surface it is measuring. With airborne LiDAR other data must be collected to ensure accuracy. As the sensor is moving height, location and orientation of the instrument must be included to determine the position of the laser pulse at the time of sending and the time of return. This extra information is crucial to the data's integrity. With ground based LiDAR a single GPS location can be added for each location where the instrument is set up.

Procedure

Agriculture Autonomous vehicles Geology and soil science Military Mining Physics and Astronomy Robotics Space flight Surveying Transportation
The LiDAR system calibration considers the alignment of integrated sensors and the systematic errors in a laser scanner. A rigorous calibration method is commonly carried out using system raw measurements (from GPS/INS and laser scanner) and the conventional LiDAR equation (refer to Equation 1). This paper introduces new methods, where system raw measurements are not required and the biases in the system parameters are determined using overlapping strips. The simplified method using only point cloud coordinates consists of two steps: 1) determination of discrepancies betweenparallel overlapping strips through a conventional 3D transformation procedure, and 2) estimation of biases in system parameters from the obtained transformation parameters. Another proposed method, the quasi-rigorous method, can handle non-parallel overlapping strips using time-tagged point cloud coordinates and trajectory position data. In this method, time information is utilized to rigorously determine the locations of the firing points for laser footprints.

Instrumentation & Control Engg

Pangasinan State University

College of Engineering and Architecture Urdaneta Campus

Instrumentation & Control Engineering

EE511

Dante, Allan Paul L. BSME V

S.Y 2013-2014