Pediatric Exercise Science, 2006, 17, 30-52 2006 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Normal Physiological Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

Gregory D. Wells
The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto

Jane Schneiderman-Walker
The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto

Michael Plyley
Brock University
The purpose of this research was to develop a comprehensive normative database of the physiological characteristics of elite swimmers. Data were obtained from 195 elite swimmers (89 males and 106 females) ages 12 to 18 years. Six protocols were used to measure variables in the following categories: descriptive characteristics, cardiovascular, respiratory, strength and power, body composition, and anthropometry. Signicant effects of gender and age were identied for a number of variables. These data could be used for the physiological assessment and talent identication of swimmers in comparison with other populations.

Swimming performance depends on optimizing propulsion and minimizing the opposing factordrag (6,10). Factors that contribute to maximizing propulsion include aerobic and anaerobic energetics (48,7,8), muscular power (20), muscular endurance (53), and stroke technique (9,10,11). Factors related to minimizing drag include the anthropometric characteristics and body composition (42). Swimmers physical characteristics have been examined to determine the characteristics of successful sprint and endurance swimmers (17,27,29,32,41,43,56) in order to assess the relative importance of specic characteristics to performance (11,40,44) and to evaluate changes in physical characteristics over time (4,14,21,24,32,35,38,50, 51,52,57). Although research into the physiology of swimmers is substantial, few studies to date have examined these physiological characteristics over an extended time period or examined an extensive set of variables from a range of physiological systems. In addition, none have included a comprehensive participant cohort comprised of males and females across all swimming disciplines or a wide age range.
Wells and Schneiderman-Walker are with the Department of Lung Biology at The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Plyley is with the Faculty of Applied Health Sciences at Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada.

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31

A normative database could be used to evaluate an athletes health, training, and performance status by providing: a) a means by which the athlete could be monitored cross-sectionally in relation to world-class performers (37) and b) a means of tracking improvements in function or physical development over time (5,43). Smith et al. (43) supported the importance of developing such a database by suggesting that a successful monitoring program is necessary to both identify and treat weaknesses. Because optimal training adaptation involves balancing adaptive overload and over training, a successful monitoring program would ensure that the many hours spent in the water developing swimmers could be spent most efciently. The overstress study conducted by Hooper et al. (23) also points out the importance of a regular monitoring program in evaluating the status of athletes during training. Therefore, the objective of this research was to establish comprehensive normative physiological data for male and female elite competitive swimmers from 12 to 18 years of age. The elite swimmers that were used in this research were members of the Canadian National or Youth National Teams during the study period. To qualify for the Youth National Team, participants must have been ranked 1st in Canada in their respective events for their age (1215 years). To qualify for the National Team, athletes must have achieved an absolute ranking of top 2 performances in Canada for a given event in that calendar year. As a result of the fact that some athletes qualied for the Canadian Teams on multiple occasions (as few as once and as many as four times for some athletes), this study used a research design that included both cross-sectional and longitudinal elements to examine the physiological characteristics of elite swimmers across genders and over the age range studied.

Methods
Participants
Study participants included 195 competitive swimmers (89 males and 106 females) between the ages of 12 and 18 who were members of the Canadian National and Youth National Teams. The sample included 32 distance (14 males, 18 females), 68 middle distance (33 males, 35 females), and 95 (42 male, 53 female) sprint swimmers. Distance swimmers were those athletes who specialized in events 800 m or longer, middle-distance swimmers specialized in events 200 and 400 m in length, and sprinters specialized in events 50 or 100 m in length. Informed consent was obtained from each participant in accordance with the policy of the University of Toronto Ethics Board. Data were collected during biannual Youth National and National Team training camps over an 8-year period. The participants were tested approximately every 6 months for a period that depended on the length of time they remained as National or Youth National team members. In some cases, this meant that a swimmer was evaluated only once, whereas in other cases a swimmer could have been assessed as many as four times. The number of multiple test sessions completed by the participants is shown in Figure 1. A total of 13 testing sessions are included in this database.

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Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

Figure 1 Number of multiple test sessions completed by participants.

Procedures
The testing consisted of six protocols to measure variables in the following categories of descriptive characteristics: cardiovascular, respiratory, strength and power, body composition, and anthropometry.
Exercise Test Protocol.

Participants were instructed to swim face down, maintaining a position over a marked spot on the bottom of the pool while attached to a weight loaded tether system. The appropriate progressive scheduled loading was started (see Table 1) and continued until exhaustion. Expired gases were collected and analyzed throughout the test with a Beckman Metabolic Measurement Cart (Beckman Instruments, Anaheim, CA) and a modied Hans Rudolph valve system. Electrocardiograms were recorded each minute throughout the test with a Hewlett Packard Telemetry system (78100A Telemetry transmitter and 78101A Telemetry receiver) and an EK31 electrocardiogram using a modied lead three-electrode placement. Variables measured during the exercise test included relative aerobic power (mlkg1min1), absolute aerobic power (L/min1), peak heart rate (b/min1), peak ventilation (L/min1), peak breathing frequency (br/min1), and peak respiratory exchange ratio (RER, VCO2/VO2). Participants were evaluated in a rested (no strenuous activity earlier that day), fasted (12 hrs) state. Blood samples were collected from the median cubital vein into a 100 13 mm evacuated glass tube containing 0.07 ml of a 15% EDTA (K3)
Blood Analysis, Cardiovascular, and Pulmonary Function Protocols.

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Table 1
Estimated maximum load = 6.25 kg Estimated maximum load = 6.50 kg Estimated maximum load = 6.75 kg

Tethered Swim Test Loading Protocol

Estimated maximum load = 6.00 kg

Time (min)

Adjusted load (kg)

Workload (kg)

Adjusted load (kg)

Workload (kg)

Adjusted load (kg)

Workload (kg)

Adjusted load (kg)

Workload (kg)

Warm-up 0 1 2 3 4 1.50 Hold Hold Hold Hold 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.75 Hold Hold Hold Hold 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75

1.50 Hold Hold Hold Hold

1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50

1.75 Hold Hold Hold Hold

1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75

Characteristics of Elite Swimmers 33

Test 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 1.75 Hold 0.75 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 3.25 3.25 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.25 5.50 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 7.00 7.25 7.50 7.75 8.00 8.25 1.50 Hold 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

1.50 Hold 0.75 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

3.00 3.00 3.75 4.25 4.75 5.00 5.25 5.50 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 7.00 7.25 7.50 7.75 8.00

3.25 3.25 40 0 4.75 5.25 5.50 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 7.00 7.25 7.50 7.75 8.00 8.25 8.50

1.75 Hold 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

3.50 3.50 4.25 5 00 5.50 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.50 6.75 7.00 7.25 7.50 7.75 8.00 8.25 8.50 8.75

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solution that contained 0.014 mg of potassium sorbate. Hemoglobin values were determined using a calibrated spectrophotometer (Bausch and Lomb, Rochester, NY) and the Hycel procedure (2). Final hemoglobin concentration of the blood sample was recorded in mg/100ml by comparing its absorbance against the absorbance of the standard Hycel Cvnamethaemoglobin reagent at 540 nm. Hematocrit was determined by collecting blood into three heparinized microhematocrit tubes through capillary action. After centrifuging for 5 min, an MSE Microhematocrit Head and Reader were used to read the tubes individually. Results were recorded as a percentage of the average of the two closest readings. A trained technician used an analog blood pressure cuff to measure resting blood pressure. Pulmonary function was assessed by spirometry according to the procedures suggested by the National Heart and Lung Institute (34).
Strength and Power Protocol.

Muscular strength and power were assessed by means of vertical jump, isokinetic movements via a strength assessment apparatus, and tests on an isokinetic swim bench. The right and left handgrip strength measures were collected only during the Youth National Team camps. Strength was assessed using a handgrip dynamometer in kilograms with the participant in a standing position maintaining a straight arm. Leg power was assessed by vertical jump; the result was recorded as the difference between reach and jump heights in centimeters. Isokinetic strength was measured using a Cybex Multi-Joint Evaluation System (Cybex International, Medway, MA) to assess the individual muscle(s) involved in swimming specic movement patterns. The movements tested were in the active propulsion phase of stroke, contributed to a major percentage of stroke power, and were consistent with the range of motion that provides the propulsion. Thus, we chose to examine shoulder internal rotation, elbow extension, and knee extension at a movement speed of 180 degrees/s because this provides a close approximation to true swimming movements and speed. The peak torque value from the best of three maximal trials was used for analysis. A Biokinetic Swim Bench (Biokinetics Inc., Albany, CA) was used to assess stroke-specic power and endurance. Athletes assumed a prone position on the swim bench with their arms extended forward grasping the hand paddles. To determine power, participants were asked, upon command, to make one maximal arm pull in which the sweeping motion mimicked their arm pull in their primary swimming stroke. Athletes used their primary competitive strokes for the test. The peak power output (W) was recorded and used for subsequent analysis. The best of three efforts (highest recorded peak) was used for subsequent analysis. Endurance was assessed by having participants use their specialty stroke to perform 4 min of maximal exercise on the swim bench. The total work output (J) was recorded and used for subsequent analysis.

Standing height to the nearest 0.2 m was assessed by using a Health-O-Meter weighing scale (Health-O-Meter 400S, Sunbeam Products Inc., Boca Raton, FL) with a vertical measuring rod. Mass was assessed to the nearest 0.5 kg with the same Health-O-Meter scale. A measuring tape was used to assess girths on the right side of the body to the nearest millimeter. Chest girth was measured at the level of the nipples for males and immediately distal to the
Anthropometry Protocol.

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35

breasts (i.e., bra strap line) for females. Forearm girth was measured at the maximum circumference immediately distal to the elbow joint with the participants arm hanging freely. Upper arm girth was measured at the maximum circumference distal to the shoulder joint with the participants arm hanging freely. Flexed upper arm girth was measured at the point of maximum girth with the participants arm exed to 90 degrees. Gluteal girth was measured at the level of maximum girth with the participant standing. Thigh girth was measured just below the gluteal furrow at the maximal girth with the participant standing. Calf girth was measured at the level of maximum girth with the participant standing. Limb length variables included: a) forearm and hand length, measured as the length from the olecranon process of the ulna to the ulnar styloid; b) total arm, measured as the length from the greater tuberosity of the humerus to the ulnar styloid with the elbow fully extended; c) shank and foot, with the participant in standing position, measured as the length from the lateral femoral condyle to the level of the medial malleolus on the lateral side of the leg; and d) total leg, with the participant in standing position, measured as the length from the greater trochanter of the femur to the level of the medial malleolus on the lateral side of the leg. A Harpenden skinfold caliper (British Indicators, St Albans, Hertfordshire, UK) was used to collect skinfold measurements to the nearest 0.2 mm two seconds after the full pressure of the caliper jaws had been applied; the skinfold value was taken as the average of 2 skinfold measurements separated by at least 1 min to avoid tissue compression. The triceps skinfold was measured on the back of the unclothed pendant right arm at a level midway between the tip of the acromion and the elbow. The biceps skinfold was measured on the ventral side of the right pendant upper arm (over the biceps) at a level midway between the acromion and the olecranon process of the ulna. The subscapular skinfold was measured about 1 cm below the lower (inferior) angle of the right scapula. The suprailiac skinfold was measured 3 cm above the suprailac crest with the fold running diagonally to the crest. Body fat calculations were performed according to the recommendations of Durnin and Wormersley (17). The joint breadth measures were collected only during the Youth National Team camps. These measures were also collected by using a sliding caliper. Bi-iliac breadth was measured across the iliac crests for maximum diameter. Bi-acromial breadth was measured with the arms of the caliper on the outside of the acromial processes of the shoulders. Femur epicondylar breadth was measured while the participants were sitting on a table with their knees bent at right angles. The width across the outermost parts of the lower end of the femur was recorded. Humerus epicondylar breadth was measured across the outermost parts of the lower end of the humerus.
Statistical Analyses.

Results were grouped according to age and gender and were expressed as mean ( SEM). A two-factor analysis of variance was used to evaluate the main effects of gender and age using a general linear model. Results were tested for interaction effects (Gender Age), and if no interaction effects were noted, then the results were grouped accordingly for post-hoc analysis. A Tukey test was used for post-hoc analysis if differences were observed in any of the conditions. Statistical signicance was considered to be p < .05.

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Results
Descriptive Characteristics
Descriptive characteristics are shown in Table 2. The analysis revealed a signicant gender effect, with males having higher relative and absolute maximal aerobic power (p < .001), height (p < .001), and mass (p < .001) than females at all ages except mass at 13 years old. Relative maximal aerobic power was unchanged with age (p = .92), but absolute aerobic power (p < .001), height (p < .001), and mass (p < .001) all showed signicant increases with age. Interaction effects were found for absolute maximal aerobic power (p = .003), mass (p = .001), and height (p < = .001).

Cardiovascular Function
No interaction effects were noted for cardiovascular function variables; therefore, all results were grouped by age and gender for analysis. Males were observed to have higher hemoglobin and hematocrit levels (p < .001), a lower maximum heart rate (p = .037), and lower diastolic (p = .004) and systolic blood pressures (p = .016) than female participants. Age had an effect (a decrease) on maximum heart rate (p < .001), hematocrit levels (p = .014), and on diastolic blood pressure (p = .049) but not on hemoglobin and or systolic blood pressure. Results are shown in Table 3.

Respiratory Function
No interaction effects were noted for respiratory function variables, so all results were grouped by age and gender for analysis (see Table 4). Males had higher maximal ventilation values (p < .001) and lower maximal breathing frequency values (p = .017) than did the female participants. There was no difference between males and females in maximal RER at the end of the exercise test. Pulmonary function testing revealed that males had higher residual volume (p = .019) and higher forced vital capacity (p < .001) than did female participants. Age had an effect (an increase) on maximum ventilation (p = .028), residual volume (p < .001), and forced vital capacity (p < .001), but not on RER or maximal breathing frequency.

Strength and Power

Males had higher grip strength (p = < .001), vertical jump (p = < .001), elbow extension (p = < 0.001), knee extension (p = < .001), stroke-specic power (p = .005), and nearly signicant stroke-specic endurance (p = .08) than did females (see Table 5). Right grip strength (p = < .001), elbow extension (p = .004), and knee extension (p = < .001) increased with age, but shoulder internal rotation (p = .125) and vertical jump (p = .065) did not, although the vertical jump results approached signicance. Interaction effects were noted for vertical jump (p = < .001) and knee extension (p = .007). The results from the swim-bench testing indicated that stroke-specic power (p = .474) and stroke-specic endurance (p = .363) did not change with age.

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Table 2
Max. aerobic power (absolute): L/min Height: cm

Descriptive Variables: Mean SD (n)

Age

Gender

Max. aerobic power (relative): mlkg1min1

Mass: kg

12 13

14

15

16

17

18

Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

50.1 5.0 (7) 56.2 6.6 (13)a 49.9 5.39 (34) 57.6 4.9 (25)a 48.8 3.9 (26) 56.8 5.3 (42)a 50.8 5.7 (34) 55.2 3.0 (12)a 52.7 3.7 (13) 57.7 3.4 (11)a 49.3 4.7 (12) 55.1 5.1 (8)a 50.8 4.5 (4)

2.7 0.4 (7)00 3.2 0.5 (13)a0 2.7 0.3 (34)0 3.6 0.5 (25)a*13 2.8 0.3 (26) 3.7 0.4 (42)a*13 2.9 0.4 (34) 3.7 0.4 (12)a*13 3.1 0.2 (13)*12,13 4.3 0.3 (11)a*13,14, 15,16 3.1 0.3 (12)*12,13 4.2 0.5 (8)a*13,14, 15,16 3.3 0.6 (4)*12,13

163.3 7.5 (12) 00 168.2 7.7 (16)a00 164.6 6.1 (44) 00 174.2 5.9 (37)a*13 168.4 4.9 (31)000 176.9 5.7 (54)a*13 167.3 5.3 (48)000 177.8 6.0 (15)a*13 168.0 3.7 (17)000 180.6 7.3 (18)a*13,14 166.4 5.0 (21)000 184.0 7.9 (8)a*13,14,15 169.2 4.8 (11)000

53.2 6.8 (12)000000 58.1 9.3 (16)000000 54.9 6.3 (44)000000 63.9 7.2 (37)a*13 000 58.6 6.7 (31)000000 65.8 6.5 (54)a*13 000 58.6 6.4 (48)000000 67.5 6.2 (15)a*13 000 60.5 3.9 (17)*12,13 00 75.6 7.4 (19)a*13,14,15,16 61.2 4.9 (21)*12,13 00 77.6 7.5 (8)a*13,14,15,16 64.1 5.9 (11)*12,130000

Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

*Signicantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age. a Signicantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females.

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Table 3

Cardiovascular Results: Mean SD (n)

Age (years) Hematocrit (%) 42.3 1.7 (8) 000

a

Gender 192.4 7.4 (7)0000 183.0 9.6 (13) 000 190.1 8.7 (34)b000 187.8 8.6 (25)0 00 188.7 7.6 (26) 000 186.9 7.8 (42) 000 188.6 7.7 (34) 000 183.5 7.2 (12) 000 181.6 8.5 (13)*
12,13 14,15

Hemoglobin (mg/100ml) 105.3 6.9 (6) 115.8 16.4 (10) 113.1 8.4 (32) 118.9 10.5 (23) 114.5 11.5 (22) 121.2 8.4 (39) 117.3 9.7 (13) 115.0 7.5 (9) 120.7 9.8 (8) 113.8 8.0 (10)
14,15 a

Maximum heart rate (b/min)

Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)

Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 61.6 9.3 (6) 00 68.0 6.7 (10) 0 67.5 8.1 (32) 0 67.1 7.0 (23) 0 69.5 7.9 (22) 0 69.2 9.3 (39 )0

12 47.1 5.0 (12) 00 43.1 2.9 (34) 00 46.0 2.1 (25)a 00 43.2 3.1 (27)000
a a

Female

13.6 0.6 (8)

13

Male

15.1 0.8 (13)

Female

13.5 0.9 (34)

Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

14 45.9 3.2 (43) 0 0 42.8 2.9 (38)000 46.2 2.2 (13) 00 40.4 4.2 (17)000 43.5 3.3 (18)000 42.4 7.6 (20)000 45.0 2.0 (7) 000 38.6 4.3 (10)*13,14,15
a a a

Male

14.8 0.9 (25)a

Female

3.9 0.9 (27)

15
a

Male

15.0 1.0 (43)

Female

14.0 1.2 (38)

110.7 11.1 (29)

68.2 8.4 (29) 0 73.3 8.2 (13)00 67.7 8.2 (9) 00 77.0 4.4 (8)*140 72.1 6.4 (10) 0 0 117.5 3.8 (4) 80.2 7.3 (4)a*14 117.5 16.4 (4)

16
a

Male

14.9 1.1 (13)

Female

13.8 1.4 (17)

17
a

Male

15.1 1.2 (18)

177.3 8.8 (10)* 173.7 6.3 (8)*

Female

13.3 3.2 (20)

183.3 9.9 (10) 000 177.6 4.0 (3)*12,130

18

Male

15.4 1.7 (7)

Female

13.5 1.3 (10)

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*Signicantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age. a Signicantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females; bsignicantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males.

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Table 4

Respiratory Results: Mean SD (n)

Age

Gender

Residual volume (L)

Forced vital capacity (L)

Max ventilation (L/min)

Max breathing frequency (br/min)

Max RER (VCO2/VO2)

12 13

14

15

16

17

18

Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

0.8 0.04 (5) 1.0 0.3 (11) 0.8 0.2 (23) 1.0 0.1 (16) 1.0 0.1 (18) 1.1 0.2 (28) 1.0 0.2 (32) 1.1 0.2 (9)0 1.0 0.2 (11) 1.3 0.2 (11) 1.1 0.4 (6)0 1.4 0.4 (7)*13,14,15 1.2 0.3 (3)0

4.3 0.58 (8) 0 4.9 1.1 (8)a00 4.2 0.5 (32)00 5.4 0.9 (24)a 0 4.6 0.4 (19)00 5.6 0.8 (40)a0 4.6 0.6 (32)0 5.5 0.6 (11)0 5.0 0.6 (9) 0 6.5 0.9 (9)a*13,14,15,16 5.0 0.7 (5)00 6.8 1.2 (6)a*13,14,15,16 5.3 1.1 (2)00

77.2 12.91 (7) 93.1 18.1 (8)a 78.7 13.3 (30) 101.6 19.3 (24)a 83.2 13.1 (18) 99.7 13.3 (40)a 81.2 17.8 (30) 99.7 19.2 (10) 87.9 9.5 (10) 113.6 17.4 (9)a 72.5 10.5 (6) 119.8 10.5 (7)*13,15 99.2 4.1 (2)

46.3 5.2 (7) 41.0 11.1 (8) 42.4 7.1 (30) 40.3 8.5 (24) 41.9 6.3 (18) 37.1 7.4 (40) 42.1 7.2 (29)b 37.8 10.4 (10) 43.8 8.3 (6) 42.3 5.1 (6) 45.9 5.8 (5) 46.3 9.8 (3)

1.05 0.09 (7) 1.0 0.1 (8) 1.0 0.1 (30) 1.1 0.1 (24) 1.0 0.1 (18) 1.1 0.1 (40) 1.0 0.1 (30) 1.1 0.1 (10) 1.0 0.1 (10) 1.0 0.1 (9) 1.0 0.1 (6) 1.0 0.1 (7) 1.1 0.2 (2)

Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

Note. VCO2 = volume of carbon dioxide; VO2 = volume of oxygen; br = number of breaths. a Signicantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females; bsignicantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males. *Signicantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age.

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Table 5
Age (years) 13 14 15 16 17 18

Strength and Power Results: Mean SD (n)

Variable

12

Right grip strength (kg) 56.3 2.3 (3)a*13,14

malea

Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

female

28.3 3.6 (8)

39.2 10.2 (13)a 29.7 3.8 (35)

43.3 7.4 (25)a 32.2 5.3 (25)

47.1 7.6 (41)a*13 33.7 4.9 (30)

50.2 7.3 (11)a*13,14 33.4 2.5 (5)

52.0 6.5 (6)a*13,14 38.3 3.5 (3)

Vertical jump (cm) 19.1 2.7 (8)a 13.7 2.5 (7)

malea

female

12.8 1.3 (7)

16.7 3.1 (13)a 14.6 2.3 (35)

17.1 1.9 (25)a 15.5 2.5 (25)

18.6 2.6 (41)a 14.9 2.2 (35)

19.3 2.5 (11)a 14.4 1.8 (13)

20.5 2.8 (18)a*13,14 14.4 2.5 (14)

Shoulder internal rotation (N.m)

male

female

23.1 4.6 (4)

29.3 10.7 (11) 24.9 5.7 (16)

28.9 6.0 (12) 25.9 6.4 (15)

35.6 6.9 (19) 25.1 4.8 (24)

43.9 13.2 (4) 28.4 10.5 (13)

39.2 9.5 (15) 29.7 11.1 (13)

37.5 3.2 (5) 32.9 13.1 (7)

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Elbow extension (N.m)

malea

female

30.9 3.6 (5)

32.4 6.8 (11) 26.9 5.4 (24)

38.3 5.5 (16)a 31.8 6.8 (20)

42.8 9.2 (30)a*13 31.9 8.8 (35)

41.5 4.5 (10)a 29.1 8.5 (15)

40.5 10.3 (16)a 31.9 11.0 (13)

37.4 8.9 (6) 34.1 12.9 (7)

Knee extension (N.m) 98.1 29.7 (8)a 71.7 26.0 (7)

malea

female

79.8 10.7 (7)

88.6 27.1 (13) 83.4 13.9 (35)

110.5 21.0 (25)a 94.9 24.0 (27)

117.7 25.8 (43)a*13 85.9 20.8 (37)

121.6 30.2 (12)a*13 76.4 19.7 (15)

99.4 26.3 (16)a 73.7 18.2 (15)*14

Stroke -specic power: swim bench (W)

malea

female

142 61.8 (3)

310 178.2 (2) 171.7 75.2 (19)

253.6 109.7 (13) 172.6 63.9 (11)

270.3 113.9 (24)a 190.4 115.2 (12)

319.2 124.4 (6) 253.5 115.3 (2)

Stroke- specic endurance: swim bench (J)

malea

Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

female

569 140 (2) 353.7 141.6 791.9 557.6 (3) (19)

1408.6 839.4 (13) 656.9 398.5 (11)

1340.3 693.1 (24) 924.3 482.5 (12)

1382.5 781.3 (6) 952.5 285 (2)

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Note. N = newtons; W = watts; J = joules. a Signicantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females. bSignicantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males. *Signicantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age.

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Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

Body Composition
The effect of gender was signicant for this set of variables (see Table 6), with the males having a higher body density (p = < .001) and a lower triceps skinfold (p = < .001), biceps skinfold (p = < .001), subscapular skinfold (p = < .001), and suprailiac skinfold (p = .046), as well as a lower body fat percentage (p = < .001) than females. There were no differences between males and females in suprailiac skinfold (p = .24) results. The results from several body composition tests varied signicantly with age, including triceps skinfold (p = .012), biceps skinfold (p = .012), and subscapular skinfold (p = < .001). Other variables did not change with age including body density (p = .46), suprailiac skinfold (p = .45), and body fat percentage (p = .30).

Anthropometry
Males had greater inspired and expired chest circumferences (p < .001), upper arm circumferences (p < .001), bi-acromial breadth (p < .001), and epicondylar femur and humerus breadth (p < .001) than the females, but there was no difference between genders in gluteal, calf, or thigh girth or bi-iliac breadth (see Table 7). Age was a signicant determinant of inspired and expired chest circumferences (p < .001), upper arm circumferences (p < .001), and gluteal, thigh and calf girths (p < .001), as well as bi-iliac and bi-acromial breadths (p < .001).

Discussion
The present research establishes normative physiological data for a sample of 195 national-team-level competitive male and female swimmers ranging in age from 12 to 18 years. This data augments the literature on the characteristics of swimmers because it is derived from more comprehensive physiological variables from a larger pool of participants and over a wider range of ages than has been previously reported. The research design that was employed in this study has both crosssectional and longitudinal elements. As such, the sample therefore contains data on participants who were chosen for the Canadian National and Youth National teams once or on more than one occasion, and in some cases as many as four times. It is important to note that although the study design has limitations, the sample that we have obtained is reective of the athletes who were chosen for the Canadian National and National Youth Teams during the study period at each age level. Thus, if the athletes were included in the study on more than one occasion, it is because that athlete was able to achieve the performance level necessary for selection on repeated occasions and thus was the highest ranked Canadian swimmer available for study at that time.

Descriptive Characteristics
Maximal aerobic power is a widely accepted measure of endurance tness. Our results for this variable were similar to those from previous studies of maximal exercise testing in swimmers (17). Of note is that aerobic power, once corrected

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04Wells(30) 43

Table 6
Triceps skinfold (mm)b Biceps skinfold (mm)b Subscapular skinfold (mm)b Suprailiac skinfold (mm)b Body composition (body fat %)b

Body composition Results: Mean SD (n)

Age (years) and gender

Body density (gcm2)a

12 10.6 3.0 (12) 7.6 1.0 (16) 9.8 3.0 (44) 7.5 2.0 (37) 11.2 5.0 (31) 6.6 2.0 (54) 10.6 3.0 (48) 6.5 2.0 (15) 10.9 3.0 (17) 6.7 3.0 (19) 13.0 4.0 (21) 7.9 3.0 (8) 13.0 4.0 (11) 4.3 0.8 (8)0 5.3 2.5 (3)0 3.9 1.1 (19) 6.8 1.9 (11) 3.6 0.8 (15) 7.8 3.5 (21) 7.4 1.7 (15) 8.8 1.7 (17) 8.0 1.4 (19) 10.8 2.8 (21) 7.9 1.5 (8) 9.4 2.2 (11) 4.0 1.1 (54) 5.7 1.8 (17) 6.9 1.4 (54) 8.4 2.1 (48) 4.2 1.0 (37) 5.8 2.1 (48) 6.9 1.5 (37) 9.0 3.5 (31) 4.3 1.1 (16) 5.8 1.5 (44) 6.6 1.3 (16) 7.7 1.8 (44) 7.9 3.3 (16) 9.8 3.3 (44) 9.7 4.1 (37) 10.5 4.4 (31) 9.1 3.3 (54) 10.0 3.5 (48) 9.5 3.8 (15) 8.9 2.4 (17) 7.9 2.3 (19) 9.6 3.2 (21) 10.3 4.5 (8)0 8.5 2.9 (11) 5.7 2.1 (12) 7.8 1.6 (12) 8.8 2.3 (12) 21.1 3.8 (5) 13.7 3.1 (11) 18.8 3.9 (24) 13.2 1.9 (15) 20.0 4.6 (18) 12.2 2.1 (27) 20.1 5.0 (32) 12.9 2.9 (7) 20.6 3.2 (11) 11.9 2.8 (10) 19.4 2.5 (5) 16.2 2.4 (4) 22.9 7.1 (3)

1.055 0.0 (8)0

1.072 0.01 (8) 1.058 0.01 (32)

1.071 0.01 (23) 1.054 0.01 (17)

1.072 0.01 (40) 1.054 0.01 (32)

1.069 0.01 (8) 1.052 0.01 (11)

female 13 male female 14 male female 15 male female 16 male female 17 male female 18 male female

1.071 0.01 (10) 1.055 0.01 (5)

1.062 0.01 (3) 1.047 0.02 (3)

Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

Signicantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females; bsignicantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males.

43

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04Wells(30) 44

44

Table 7 Anthropometry Results: Mean SD (n)

Age (years) 14 15 16 17 18

Variable

12

13

Inspired chest girth (cm) 94.0 4.4 (37)a*13 85.5 4.1 (29) 95.6 5.2 (52)a*13 86.2 4.1 (45)*12,13 96.8 3.1 (13)a*13 87.7 1.3 (11)*12,13 100.8 3.1 (11)a*13,14,15 87.1 3.3 (6) 103.8 3.8 (7)a*13,14,15,16 88.2 4.5 (3)

male

female Expired chest girth (cm) 87.2 5.2 (26)a*13 77.6 4.5 (25) 77.8 2.9 (35) 79.4 1.9 (11) 89.7 5.2 (41)a*13 90.1 3.5 (11)a*13

82.7 4.3 (12)

89.5 6.9 (16)a 82.9 3.7 (44)

Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

malea

81.1 7.5 ( 13)a

94.7 3.1 (11)a*13,14,15 79.4 3.6 (6)

female

76.1 4.4 (8)

76.6 3.1 (35)

97.4 3.5 (7)a*13,1415,16 80.7 3.6 (3)

Upper arm girth (cm)

malea

female

25.6 1.0 (8)

26.1 2.52 (13) 26.1 1.77 (35)

27.8 2.2 (26) 27.3 2.51 (27)

28.1 2.2 (43)*13 27.1 2 (38)

29.0 2.1 (12)*13 27.7 1.7 (17)

30.2 1.7 (19)a*13,14,15 28.1 1.9 (21)

30.8 1.4 (8)a*13,14,15 28.5 1.7 (11)*12,13

Flexed upper arm girth (cm) 32.7 1.3 (11)a*13,14 30.3 0.53 (6)*12,13 33.5 1.4 (7)a*13,14 29.9 1.4 (3)

malea

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female

27.3 1.3 (8)

28.6 2.7 (13) 27.6 1.8 (35)

30.1 2.2 (26)a 28.9 2.4 (25)

30.6 2.0 (41)a*13 28.7 1.9 (35)

31.5 2.3 (11)a*13 29.6 1.8 (11)*12,13

04Wells(30) 45

Gluteal girth (cm) 88.6 6.4 (26) 90.3 5.5 (25) 90.6 3.6 (42)*13 90.1 4.2 (37) 91.5 3.4 (11)*13 91.5 3.8 (14) 93.7 3.6 (16)*13,14 91.3 3.9 (16) 96.5 5.1 (7)*13,14,15 92.1 7.2 (8)

male

female

86.9 4.1 (8)

84.9 6.7 (13) 87.9 4.1 (35)b

Thigh girth (cm) 51.8 3.7 (26) 53.7 4.3 (27) 51.9 3.0 (43) 53.4 2.9 (38) 52.9 2.8 (12) 54.5 2.5 (17) 54.7 2.9 (19)*13 53.2 6.9 (21) 56.3 2.7 (8)*13,14,15 55.3 4.1 (11)

male

female

51.3 2.9 (8)

49.3 4.1 (13) 52.1 4.6 (35)b

Calf girth (cm) 35.0 2.2 (26) 34.1 2.2 (25) 35.4 1.7 (41)a 34.1 1.8 (35) 35.4 2.0 (11) 35.4 1.9 (11)

malea

female Bi-acromial breadth (cm)

33.0 1.9 (8)

33.7 2.1 (13) 33.8 3.9 (35)

37.3 1.5 (11)a*13 35.0 1.8 (6)

38.04 1.9 (7)*13,14 35.8 1.1 (3)

malea

42.1 1.5 (7)*13,14

(continued)

Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

female

36.4 1.5 (8)

36.7 2.8 (13) 37.8 4.7 (35)

39.0 1.9 (26)a*13 37.9 1.3 (25)

40.2 1.8 (41)a*13 37.6 2.6 (35)

39.9 1.4 (11)a*13 38.1 1.6 (11)

41.2 1.5 (11)a*13,14 37.9 1.5 (6)

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04Wells(30) 46

46

Table 7
Age (years) 14 15 16 17 18

(continued)

Variable

12

13

Bi-iliac breadth (cm) 28.4 2.2 (7)*13

male

Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

female

25.3 1.4 (8)

25.9 1.1 (13) 28.2 9.5 (35)

27.3 1.5 (26) 26.6 1.4 (25)

27.6 1.2 (41)*13 27.4 1.6 (35)

27.6 1.3 (11)*13 28.1 1.5 (11)

27.4 1.4 (11) 27.4 2.1 (6)

Epicondylar humerus breadth (cm) 7.1 0.4 (26)a 6.4 0.3 (25) 9.7 0.4 (37)a 8.8 0.4 (28)
b

malea

female Epicondylar femur breadth (cm) 9.7 0.4 (52)a 8.7 0.3 (45)

6.3 0.3 (8)

6.9 0.5 (13) 6.7 2.4 (35)

7.2 0.4 (41)a 6.3 0.3 (35)

7.1 0.3 (11) 6.4 0.3 (11) 9.6 0.4 (13)a 8.8 0.4 (11)

7.1 0.2 (11) 6.4 0.2 (6) 9.6 0.5 (11)a 8.7 0.5 (6)

7.31 0.3 (7) 9.5 0.7 (7)

malea

9.6 0.4 (16)a

female

8.7 0.3 (12)

8.4 1.2 (44)

Signicantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females; Signicantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males. *Signicantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age.

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Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

47

for body mass, did not vary with age. This result conrmed previous suggestions that improving athletic performance might be more closely related to developing the ability to work at a high percentage of maximal aerobic power than to increasing maximal aerobic power per se (39). Our study also conrmed that males have higher absolute and relative aerobic power values than females (15,26). More specically, Drinkwater et al. (15) found that absolute maximal aerobic power (VO2max, L/min) was 52% higher in males. In the current study, the maximal aerobic power values for the males were approximately 36% higher than the values for females. This result might be the result of the combination of larger cardiac volume, blood volume, and hemoglobin concentration in the male participants. Further, Drinkwater et al. (15) reported that when maximal aerobic power was expressed per kg of body weight, the gender difference declined to 18%; the current studys results are in agreement, with the difference in relative VO2max declining to 17%. These results were expected because the athletes were standardized for the amount of metabolically active tissue.

Cardiovascular Function
The values obtained for hemoglobin and hematocrit were in agreement with ndings from other reports on elite swimmers (22,31). Blood pressure values obtained for swimmers in the current research were similar to those Mujika et al. (33) and Kirwan et al. (25) reported for competitive swimmers during intense training. Our study also conrmed that males have lower maximal heart rates during exercise than females (54). Maximal heart rates decreased with age for both male and female swimmers in the current research. These ndings agreed with age-related decreases in aerobic parameters found in studies of older women (18) and men (55), although this trend has not been previously reported in children.

Respiratory Function
The pulmonary function data that we reported for female swimmers were similar to Wilson and Tanakas (55) ndings about pulmonary function in university-level female swimmers. The higher maximal ventilation values that the males in our study achieved during exercise compared with the females likely could be attributed to higher tidal volumes because we found that female participants maintained a breathing frequency during the exercise tests. An increase was observed in both residual volume and forced vital capacity with age. This result supported Clanton et al.s (12) hypothesis that intensive swimming training enhances static and dynamic lung volumes and improves the conductive properties of both the large and the small airways. Courteix et al. (13) suggested that the larger values for vital capacity seen in swimmers versus nonswimmers (49) might result from both training during the growth period and genetic endowment, which, in turn, supported Andrew et al.s (1) nding that female swimmers had higher lung volumes than their nonathletic counterparts. In addition, Astrand et al. (3) reported that changes in physical activity positively correlated to changes in forced vital capacity. In our study respiratory exchange ratio was higher (1.5%) in the males than in the females, but the results did not reach signicance. These results are similar to previous research that found that females have a 34% lower RER during submaximal exercise, which reects

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Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

the use of a greater proportion of fat as fuel (46), although the current results are based on a younger population.

Strength and Power

The swim-bench measurements were used to assess overall muscular power and endurance during the task-specic movements of swimming. Although swim-bench results for competitive swimmers have been reported previously (45), the current research was the rst to report values for single-stroke maximal power and for 4min stroke-specic muscular endurance. The Cybex measurements were important for assessing individual muscle(s) involved in swimming movement patterns. Isokinetic strength results for specic muscle groups involved in swimming strokes have not been previously measured. Sharp et al. (40) reported a strong correlation between arm muscular power output and sprint swimming speed (r = 0.90); thus, the currently reported measurement might offer an objective assessment of a component essential for success in swimming. It has also been reported that vertical jump and forcevelocity relationships are related to muscle-ber-type composition and event specialization in swimmers (19). Therefore, the characterization of leg power, arm strength, and swimming-movement-specic force measurements in elite-level swimmers in the current research provides an important set of data for talent identication and event selection. The observed gender differences in strength and power in our study conrmed Bencke et al.s (5) results regarding younger swimmers. It is interesting that, although strength increased across the age ranges sampled in the current research, there were no signicant increases in either vertical jump (a measure of leg power) or in stroke-specic arm power. Because increases in power output have been correlated with increases in swimming speed, the current results suggest that greater emphasis should be placed on power training as part of the overall training program for competitive swimming. The observed gender differences in strength and power might be a result of the greater muscle mass in males than in females.

Body Composition
The gender differences observed in the current research were in agreement with those in previous research (42) that indicated that body composition measurements may be predictors of swimming performance in women but not in men. Our results were consistent with previously reported values for elite adolescent competitive swimmers (47). Measures of body size (height, weight, and girths) were found to increase with age, as expected, but body fat percentage did not, which suggested that it might be important to establish good nutritional habits and tness at a young age. The larger proportion of fat mass in the female swimmers might allow for more buoyancy, which could be an advantage that allows females to kick at a higher rate and with a better buoyancy prole than male swimmers (30). It is important to note that internal and external pressures on girls to achieve or maintain unrealistically low body weight underlies the development of the female athlete triad of disorders (disordered eating, amenorrhoea, and osteoporosis), leading to serious health consequences and thus poor athletic performances (36). Therefore, the body composition results of this research should be interpreted as descriptive

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Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

49

of this research population only and not used for other purposes. Further, we have not analyzed the results to correlate with performance results, so inferences about the body composition characteristics of these athletes related to performance should not be made based on these results.

Anthropometry
Our results were consistent with previously reported values for elite adolescent competitive swimmers (47). Previous research on anthropometry in athletes has suggested that certain physical characteristics such as height and limb length are associated with higher levels of performance in a given population of athletes (28). Although previous research has been published on the anthropometric characteristics of elite swimmers (47) and on anthropometric and other physical characteristics related to performance (42), the current research has examined a larger participant pool, has included both male and female athletes, and has included results from a broader range of ages.

Conclusions
In summary, we have established normative data for healthy, highly trained male and female swimmers by using standard protocols across ages 12 to 18 years. The current research represents a signicant addition to the literature because of its comprehensive physiological analysis, the inclusion of both male and female participants, and the wide age range studied. This normative data will (a) allow researchers to ne tune future assessment packages by eliminating those variables that had no predictive power for performance, thereby decreasing both time and expense; (b) provide researchers with an established database upon which to update norms with results from future research projects; and (c) provide a reference upon which talent-identication programs could be based and monitoring programs could be established. Further, the physiological characteristics of the general population and of individuals with medical conditions in similar age categories could be evaluated in the context of the upper extremes of human physiological function that have been included in this normative data. Acknowledgments We would like to thank the athletes and coaches of the Canadian National and Youth National teams for their participation. Dr. Wells is supported by the Irwin Foundation at the Hospital for Sick Children. We thank Barbara Bauer for her valuable editorial assistance.

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