LAYERED ELASTIC MODEL A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains and deflections at any point in a pavement

structure resulting from the application of a surface load. Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic, and linearly elastic. In other words, it is the same everywhere and will rebound to its original form once the load is removed. The origin of layered elastic theory is credited to Joseph Valentine Boussinesq who published his classic work in 1885. Today, Boussinesq influence charts are still widely used in soil mechanics and foundation design. This section covers the basic assumptions, inputs and outputs from a typical layered elastic model. ASSUMPTIONS The layered elastic approach works with relatively simple mathematical models and thus, requires some basic assumptions. These assumptions are:

Pavement layers extend infinitely in the horizontal direction. The bottom layer (usually the subgrade) extends infinitely downward. Materials are not stressed beyond their elastic ranges.

INPUT A layered elastic model requires a minimum number of inputs to adequately characterize a pavement structure and its response to loading. These inputs are:

Material properties of each layer

o o

Modulus of elasticity Poissons ratio

Pavement layer thicknesses Loading conditions

o o

Magnitude: The total force (P) applied to the pavement surface Geometry: Usually specified as being a circle of a given radius (r or a), or the radius computed knowing the contact pressure of the load (p) and the magnitude of the load (P). Although most actual loads more closely represent an ellipse, the effect of the differences in geometry becomes negligible at a very shallow depth in the pavement.

Repetitions: Multiple loads on a pavement surface can be accommodated by summing the effects of individual loads. This can be done because we are assuming that the materials are not being stressed beyond their elastic ranges.

Figure 1 shows how these inputs relate to a layered elastic model of a pavement system.

Fig. 1 layered elastic inputs The use of a layered elastic analysis computer program will allow one to calculate the theoretical stresses, strains, and deflections anywhere in a pavement structure. However, there are a few critical locations that are often used in pavement analysis as given in Table 1 and shown in Figure 2. Table 1. Critical Analysis Locations in a Pavement Structure Location Response Reason for Use Used in imposing load restrictions during spring thaw and overlay design (for example) Used to predict fatigue failure in the bituminous mix

Pavement Surface

Deflection

Bottom of bituminous mix Horizontal Tensile Strain layer

Top of Intermediate Layer Used to predict rutting failure in Vertical Compressive Strain (Base or Subbase) the base or subbase Used to predict rutting failure in the subgrade

Top of Subgrade

Vertical Compressive Strain

Fig. 2 Critical Analysis Locations in a Pavement Structure OUTPUT The outputs of a layered elastic model are the stresses, strains, and deflections in the pavement:

Stress. The intensity of internally distributed forces experienced within the pavement structure at various points. Stress has units of force per unit area (N/m2, Pa or psi).

Strain. The unit displacement due to stress, usually expressed as a ratio of the change in dimension to the original dimension (mm/mm or in/in). Since the strains in pavements are very small, they are normally expressed in terms of micro strain (10-6).

Deflection. The linear change in a dimension. Deflection is expressed in units of length (mm or m or inches or mils).

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY Elastic modulus is sometimes called Youngs modulus after Thomas Young who published the concept back in 1807. An elastic modulus (E) can be determined for any solid material and represents a constant ratio of stress and strain (stiffness):

A material is elastic if it is able to return to its original shape or size immediately after being stretched or squeezed. Almost all materials are elastic to some degree as long as the applied load does not cause it to deform permanently. Thus, the flexibility of any object or structure depends on its elastic modulus and geometric shape. The modulus of elasticity for a material is basically the slope of its stress-strain plot within the elastic range (as shown in Figure 1). Figure 2 shows a stress versus strain curve for steel. The initial straight-line portion of the curve is the elastic range for the steel. If the material is loaded to any value of stress in this part of the curve, it will return to its original shape. Thus, the modulus of elasticity is the slope of this part of the curve and is equal to about 207,000 MPa (30,000,000 psi) for steel. It is important to remember that a measure of a materials modulus of elasticity is not a measure of strength. Strength is the stress needed to break or rupture a material (as illustrated in Figure 1), whereas elasticity is a measure of how well a material returns to its original shape and size.

Fig. 1 Stress-strain plot showing the elastic range

Fig. 2 Example stress-strain plot for steel Stress Sensitivity Of Moduli Changes in stress can have a large impact on resilient modulus. Typical relationships are shown in Figures 3 and 4.

Fig. 3 Resilient modulus vs. bulk stress for unstabilized coarse grained materials
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Fig. 4 Resilient modulus vs. deviator stress for unstabilized fine grained materials E BS = base course resilient modulus EAC = asphalt concrete elastic modulus ESB = subbase course resilient modulus Source: AASHTO Guide (1993)

MR (or ESG) = roadbed soil (subgrade) resilient modulus (used interchangeably)

TYPICAL VALUES Table 2 shows typical values of modulus of elasticity for various materials. Table 2. Typical Modulus of Elasticity Values for Various Materials Elastic Modulus Material MPa Diamond Steel Aluminum Wood Crushed Stone Silty Soils Clay Soils Rubber 1,200,000 200,000 70,000 7,000-14,000 150-300 35-150 35-100 7 psi 170,000,000 30,000,000 10,000,000 1,000,000-2,000,000 20,000-40,000 5,000-20,000 5,000-15,000 1,000

POISSONS RATIO An important material property used in elastic analysis of pavement systems is Poissons ratio. Poissons ratio is defined as the ratio of transverse to longitudinal strains of a loaded specimen. This concept is illustrated in Figure 1.

= - D / L Where = Poissons ratio D = D/D = strain along the diametrical (horizontal) axis L = L/L = strain along the longitudinal (vertical) axis

Fig. 1 Poissons Ratio Example In realistic terms, Poissons ratio can vary from initially 0 to about 0.5 (assuming no specimen volume change after loading). Generally, stiffer materials will have lower Poissons ratios than softer materials (see Table 1). You might see Poissons ratios larger than 0.5 reported in the literature; however, this implies that the material was stressed to cracking, experimental error, etc. Table 1: Typical Values of Poissons Ratio Poissons Ratio 0.25 0.30 0.33 0.15 0.20*

Material Steel Aluminum PCC

Flexible Pavement Bituminous Concrete 0.35 () Crushed Stone 0.40 () Soils (fine-grained) 0.45 () *Dynamic determination of could approach 0.25 for PCC (Neville, 1975)