Engg.

Chemistry

Non-Conventional Energy Sources and Storage Devices

Unit-4 Non-Conventional Energy Sources and Storage Devices

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Radioactivity The phenomenon of spontaneous and continuous emission of powerful invisible radiations by the disintegration of an element or a substance, which affect the photographic plate, is called natural radioactivity Mass defect During the nuclear fission reaction, the actual mass of an isotope of an element (M) formed is slightly less than the sum of the masses of the protons, neutrons and electrons (M). This difference of mass is known as mass defect m = M-M m.

Binding energy The energy released when constituent nucleons (protons and neutrons) combine to form a nucleus is also called the binding energy The energy equal to binding energy will be needed to breakup the nucleus into its constituent nucleons Greater the binding energy greater will be the stability of the nucleus

NUCLEAR FISSION The process of splitting a heavy nucleus (by bombarding the nucleus with projectiles) into lighter nuclei with simultaneous liberation of a huge amount of energy.

When 92U235 is bombarded by slow moving neutrons and is split into smaller nuclei with two or more neutrons with enormous amount of energy 92U235+ 0n1 ---92U236 -----56Ba140 +36Kr93 +3 0n1+ energy 55 Cs144 +37 Rb90 +2 0n1+ energy 55 Xe144 +37 Sr90 +2 0n1+ energy

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The energy released is in accordance with Einsteins mass-energy relation , E= mc2 .

Critical mass The minimum amount of fissionable material required to continue the nuclear reaction. The critical mass of U235 lies between 1 Kg to 100 kg The mass of fissionable material is more than the critical mass, it is called super-critical mass The mass of fissionable material is less than the critical mass, it is called sub-critical mass Mass of U-235 < Critical mass----No chain reaction Mass of U-235 > Critical mass---Reaction continues

NUCLEAR FUSION REACTION NUCLEAR FUSION is the process by which multiple atomic nucleus join together to form a heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release of energy.
2 1H

+ 1H3

4 2He

+ 0n1

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It is a device used to carry out Fission chain reaction in a controlled rate , so that the energy released can be used for peaceful purposes. MAIN PARTS OF A REACTOR : 1. Reactor core 1. Fuel rods 2. Control rods 3. Moderators 4. Coolants 2. Reflector 3. Pressure Vessel 4. Shielding 5. Heat Exchanger 6. Turbine

Light water nuclear reactor

The coolant acts as a moderator that must slow down the neutrons before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel. Water cooled reactor Two types 1. Pressurized water reactor (PWR) 2. Boiling water reactor (BWR)

Pressurized water reactor (PWR) A primary characteristic of PWRs use a pressurizer, a specialized pressure vessel. This arrangement also provides a means of pressure control for the reactor by increasing or decreasing the steam pressure in the pressurizer using the pressurizer heaters.

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Pressurizers may be isolated from reactor pressure vessel during special maintenance or tests.

Boiling water reactor (BWR)

In the boiling water reactor the same water loop serves as moderator, coolant for the core, and steam source for the turbine. The disadvantage of this is that any fuel leak might make the water radioactive and that radioactivity would reach the turbine and the rest of the loop.

Boiling water reactor (BWR)

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Breeder reactor The one which is specially designed to converts non-fissionable materials like
232 90Th 238 92U

and

into fissionable materials like 94Pu239 and 92U233

Production of fissile material in a reactor occurs by neutron irradiation of fertile material, particularly uranium-238 and thorium-232. It is specially designed to produce secondary fuel elements for commercial purpose to convert non-fissionable materials like 92U238 and 90Th232 into fissionable materials like
94Pu 239

and 92U233.

Conversions factor: (breeding ratio ) The conversion factor is defined as the ratio of the number of secondary fuel atoms produced to the number of primary fuel atoms consumed
238 1 92U + 0n

----

94Pu239 +2-1e0 (- particle) (fissionable) fission products + 3 0n1+ energy

(non-fissionable) 94Pu239 + 0n1 ----

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Types of breeder reactors

Fast breeder reactor: Converts non-fissionable materials like 92U238 into fissionable materials like 94Pu239 In many FBR designs, the reactor core is surrounded in a blanket of tubes containing nonfissile uranium-238 which, by capturing fast neutrons triggers two successive beta decays with the production of plutonium-239.

Thermal breeder reactor: Thorium-232 (90Th232) produces uranium-233( 92U233) after neutron capture and beta decay. As of 2006 only India is developing this technology. Indian interest is motivated by their substantial thorium reserves.

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SOLAR ENERGY
Solar cells are made of thin wafers of semi conductor materials like silicon and germanium. When solar radiations fall on them a potential difference is produced which

causes the flow of electrons and hence electricity is produced. The potential difference causes flow of electrons. When the P-type and N-type layers are connected by on external circuit, electrons flow from N-type to P-type layer through the external circuit. This flow of electrons is current, the current is generated.
Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

n-type semiconductor + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Depletion Zone p-type semiconductor

PV cells connected together in a solar panel.: The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon.

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In order to use the cells in practical applications, they must be: connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. protected from mechanical damage during manufacture, transport, installation and use (in particular against hail impact, wind and snow loads). This is especially important for waferbased silicon cells which are brittle. protected from moisture, which corrodes metal contacts and interconnections, and for thinfilm cells the transparent conductive oxide layer, thus decreasing performance and lifetime.

The various methods of harvesting solar energy 1. SOLAR CELLS

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2. SOLAR HEAT COLLECTORS

3. SOLAR COOKERS

4. SOLAR WATER HEATERS

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5. SOLAR FURNANCE

6.SOLAR POWER PLANT

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WIND ENERGY
Wind is a form of moving air Due to its motion the air acquires kinetic energy , which we call as wind energy Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Humans use this wind flow, or motion energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power.

WIND MILL A windmill is a machine that is powered by the energy of the wind. It is designed to convert the energy of the wind into more useful forms using rotating blades or sails.

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Wind farm
A large number of wind mills constructed over a very large area called as wind farm

Wind energy in India India is endowed with a large, viable and economically exploitable wind power potential. According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Indias potential is conservatively estimated at 45,195 MW. India is placed at the third position in the world in terms of new construction and this corresponds to an overall increase of over 40% in new wind power stations Largest wind form in India, is located near kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu, which generate 380 MW of electricity) Wind energy in world scenario Europe countries are the best wind energy producers In Denmark, more than 25% of the its electricity requirement is generated through a vast network of wind farms, it is called as the country of winds In wind energy production India is in 4th place. World largest wind farm with 20,301 wind turbines with a total capacity of 23,903 MW were installed in Germany altogether by the end of 2008. These are 7.5 % of Germanys net electricity consumption

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Check your understanding

Fill in the blank with the right answer: 1. _____________ cell coverts chemical energy directly into electrical energy. 2. Dry cell does not have long life, because acidic _____________ corrodes the Zn container. 3. During discharging operation of lead-acid batteries, the concentration of H2SO4 _____________. 4. Nickel- Cadmium battery some time suffers by sudden complete discharge is called _____________. 5. Lithium battery is called as the _____________ because of its great advantages over other types batteries. 6. A large number of wind mills constructed over a very large area called as _____________. 7. Solar cells are made of thin wafers of _____________ materials like silicon and germanium. 8. A _____________ is a nuclear reactor that generates new fissile or fissionable material from non fissile material. Check the correct answers on page _59_.

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Summary
On completion of this chapter you have learned that: 1. Several electrochemical cells are connected in series to form a battery Batteries are sources of direct current at a constant voltage As batteries directly convert chemical energy into electrical energy, conversion efficiency is high Secondary batteries can be charged and discharged again. The cycle is repeated until the capacity fades or is lost suddenly due to internal short circuit. 2. Alkaline cells overcome some of the problems with carbon-zinc batteries by using alkaline potassium hydroxide in place of acidic ammonium chloride in the electrolyte. 3. Alkaline chemistry is used in common Duracell and Energizer batteries, the electrodes are zinc and manganese-oxide, with an alkaline electrolyte. 4. Lithium-ion batteries are common in portable consumer electronics because of their high energy-to-weight ratios, lack of memory effect, and slow self-discharge when not in use. 5. Fuel cells are as auxiliary energy source in space vehicles, submarines or military-vehicles. The wt of 250 kg fuel battery is sufficient for 15 days in space, but several tones of other fuels are required for 15 days. Most fuel cells in use today use hydrogen and oxygen as the chemicals and so eco friendly. 6. Solar energy is renewable energy resources, eco-friendly, low maintenance cost and can be used in remote inaccessible areas, where the power transmission is difficult and quite expensive. 7. Indias potential is conservatively estimated at 45,195 MW. India is placed at the third position in the world in terms of new construction and this corresponds to an overall increase of over 40% in new wind power stations. Among the states Tamilnadu is the largest wind energy producer. Aralvaimozhi, the Muppandal wind farm which the largest in in India, is located near kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu, which generate 380 MW of electricity). 8. In the boiling water reactor the same water loop serves as moderator, coolant for the core, and steam source for the turbine. 9. A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates new fissile or fissionable material from non fissile material.

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Suggested Reading books 1. Handbook of Batteries (McGraw-Hill Handbooks) by

David Linden.

2. Battery Reference Book by Thomas P J Crompton. 3. Batteries in the portable world by Mr. Isidor Buchmann. 4. Power with Nature: Alternative Energy Solutions for Homeowners by Rex A. Ewing. 5. Nuclear Energy, Sixth Edition: An Introduction to the Concepts, Systems, and Applications of Nuclear Processes
by Raymond LeRoy Murray

6. Nuclear Energy: Principles, Practices, and Prospects by

David Bodansky.

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Answers to Check your understanding:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Electrochemical NH4Cl Decreases Memory effect the cell of future Wind farm semiconductor Breeder reactor

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