IMPACT OFAUTOMATED METER READING AND ITS

ROLE IN PREVENTING ELECTRICAL PILFERAGE

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

• Introduction 4

• Objectives 5

• Limitation 5

• Literature review 7

• Categorization of events 9

• Definitions of several events 12

• Logic for the generation of events 14

• Methodology 15

• Algorithm 16

• Conclusion 53

• Research Methodology 54

• References 64

2
3
 •

INTRODUCTION

Power sector has been always the pillar for the progress of any country. India therefore is no
exception. Power sector generally has been divided into three basic sectors first comes the
Generation, Transmission and Distribution.

In the early nineties the change in various acts happened, it was the time of reforms.
In power sector in 1991 generation, transmission and distribution wereunbundled. The most
comprehensive piece of literature came up in 2003 called the INDIAN ELECRICITY ACT 2003.
It was the act that declared generation, distribution and transmission to be a separate entity and
opened the three sectors to private sector.

The project deals specifically how the distribution companies design and develop new
methods to measure, monitor and collect the electrical usage data from the consumer premises and
effectively use the data to maximize the revenue and analyze the things necessary.

The project deals with various approaches taken by the various distribution companies like
NDPL to tackle the problem of electrical pilferage with the modern metering techniques like the
automated meter reading technology. The technology has helped the company to understand and
get the real time data and understand where to focus like what are the areas to stress upon.

Automated meter reading technology has helped the companies to develop a full proof
metering structure in west and now in India companies are focusing upon it. The main problem of
our country like various other developing nations has been the problem of the AT &C losses i.e.
aggregate transmission and commercial losses. In the project it has been tried to understand how
this problem of AT & c losses can be effectively tackled and understood.

4
 It has been specifically done with the help of a case taken of Dehradun, with the data
provided by Uttarakhand Power Corporation Limited.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the project is to study and understand various approaches that can be taken to
tackle various faults that can happen in the meters and lines and how automated meter reading can
can be helpful in dealing with such kind of situation.

LIMITATION

Not every company in India except NDPL has been able to implement this concept of AMR so
data has been limited to parts in Delhi but companies like UPCL are also working on it so things
related to AMR are being thought of which definitely is very promising.

5
CHAPTER 2

6
 L&T TAMPER LOGIC
TAMPER OCCURANCE RESTORE
Vph<168volts for LT Vph>168volts
<77v for HT >77volts
Iph>2% OF Ib
VF persistent time:5 Min 5 min

Imax-I phase>30%Ib Imax-I ph<30%Ib

CU 5 minutes 15 minutes

Active current negative in any Active current positive in the

of the phase same phase

CR 2 minutes 2 minutes

V phase>=340v for LT V phase>340v for LT

Persistence time >
ND Persistence time >2 MIN 2minutes

SECURE TAMPER LOGIC

V line<Vth (30% of 240V)
POT
missing I line>=I th (2% of Ib)

Vline>Vth
CT Iline>I th with -ve sign
reversal (2% of Ib)

CT open Any current<1% of Ib

CT short Ir+Iy+Ib+In>10%Ib

Load I aveg>10% Ib
imbalance Voltage>Vth
7
 Unbalancing between any two
currents>30%
Persistent time is 5 min for all tamper

CATEGORISATION OF THE EVENTS

VOLTAGE RELATED
8
1) VOLTAGE FAILURE!
2) NEUTRAL DISTURBANCE!
3)VOLTAGE UNBALANCE!
4) POWER FAILURE!

CURRENT RELATED

1) THECURRENT REVERSAL
2) C.T OPEN
3) THE LOAD UNBALANCE/ CT SHORT
4)HIGH –NEUTRAL- CURRENT

OTHERS

1) THE LOW POWER FACTOR

2)THE LOW LOAD FACTOR
3) THE NVM FAILURE
4) THE BAD BATTERY
5) DROP IN THE CONSUMPTION
6) AVERAGE VOLTAGE<=205 VOLTS
7) C.T OVERLOAD
8) MAGNETISM
9)THE MANUAL RESET
10) KVARH (Ex) > SANCTIONED LOAD
11) TIME OF DAY CONSUMPTION V/s CATEGORY OF USE
12) KWH REVERSE

9
 THE Definitions

TAMPERING:
Any abnormal condition identified by the meter is based on set parameters limits
created intentionally or system Generated.

VOLTAGE FAILURE!:

In this type of tamper, the voltage of any one or two of the phases is
Missing or reduced from the optimum level. Accordingly the Power computed by the Measuring
Element is affected.

C.T OPEN/C.T SHORT

The current is definitely bypassed or secondary circuit is made open in such a way that
current is flowing in the unload circuit but does not flow through the meter circuit.

CURRWNT TRANSFORMER REVERSAL

THE Incoming and outgoing are interchanged.

THE LOAD IMBALANCE:

In this type of tamper in load is unevenly distributed between the three phases.

MAGNETISM:

In this kind of tamper meter is kept under the influence of very high magnetic field, so
that meter recording gets disturbed.

10
NEUTRAL DISTURBANCE FACTOR:

A very high frequency ac voltage or very dc voltage is injected into the neutral which!!
leads to displacement of the neutral from its actual position. As a result voltages are distorted !!&
measurement circuit is affected.!!

11
 LOGICS FOR EXCEPTIONS:

VOLAGE FAILURE

If voltage in any of the three phase’s drops by 30 Percentof the ref voltage (230V) set for all
phases ie, 168 volts for LT & 77 volts for H.T, then it will be logged as voltage failure by meter
software along with the snapshots of current !and energy readings.

a) VOLTAGE FAILURE PROLONGED

Any voltage failure that persists for more than FIVE hour continuous from last downloaded
data date -1 will be termed as prolonged voltage failure.
b) LOOSE IS CONNECTION
If count of! Voltage failure event is greater than 10 per month & cumulative duration is 5 hour
or more.

CURRENT REVERSAL

If current in any of the three phases is the reversed (active current negative) with cumulative
duration of 3 hours or more along the with the condition that apparent current in that
particular phase is greater than 10% of Ibasic.
OR
12
 If the consumption of KWH reverse in the current billing month is
a) 5 % of KWH absolute consumption for MDI < =10 KW.
b) 1 % of KWH absolute consumption for MDI > 1=0 KW.

C.T OPEN

If line current of any one or the two phases becomes zero, it is termed as CT OPEN. It can be
further classified for analysis as:
a) If line current in phase other than the phase!!Where line current is zero is greater than 25%
of Ib.
b) If line current in phases other than the phase where of line current is zero is greater than 10%
of Ibasic & less than 25% of Ib.

THE LOAD UNBALANCE

If difference of the current between any of the two phases exceeds 30% of Imax the event will
be logged !as load unbalance. It can be classified into following categories

a) If Imax < 20 AMP (Imax - I phase)>=70% of Imax.

b) If 20 amp<Imax<50 amp (Imax – I phase)>=60% of Imax.

13
c) If 50 amp<Imax<70amp (Imax – I phase)>=50% of Imax.

d) If Imax>70 amp (Imax – I phase)>=30% of Imax.

METHODOLOGY

Data from the meters are converted into the XML format. From the XML format
data will be extracted for analysis. Data are issues and convertibility issues of XML
format are assumed will be as resolved definitely.

In the case of Secure and L&T meters methodology to identify and flag the
anomalous cases definitely will be with the help of events recorded in the meter and
applying the checks over it. i.e. in the case of voltage related events the condition/ !
conditions are tested with a reference meter on the same DT/ feeder, in case of current
!related events quantity of current and voltage available in the same meter event is
verified of course.

14
 Cases identified will be sent to the concerned and specificgroup for verification
through AMRDA & the feedback will be tracked through AMRDA however both
these information will be updated automatically in SAMPARK.(the centre)

• All the logics are shown for LT meters however similar logics will be put in for HT
meters as well.

ALGORITHM OF PROLONGED VOLTAGE FAILURE

1) The Start
2) If the duration of any voltage failure event in any of 3 phases >= 5 hours. Go to step 3 else
go to step 9.
3) If voltage <=168volts. Go to step 4 else go to step 9.
4) If current in any phases >= 30 % of Ib..

15
 5) Compare voltage with the reference meter on same DT with time correction of both the
meters.
6) If the similar condition persists go to step 8 else go to 7.
7) Flag the case to the enforcement
8) Flag the case to the zone.
9) END.

Compare
END
If
No
Zone 168voltage
PROLONGED
duration
V<
current
similar
Enforcement with
condition
in
Vofany
any reference
VOLTAGE
other
phase
persists
phases
VF event
> 30%
>= 5 hour continuous (R,
meter(POLYPHASE
Y, B phases)
Ib OR CT)
STARTon same
FAILURE
DT with time correction of both the
meters with the voltage range of +- 2%.

16
ALGO FOR INTERMITTANT VOLTAGE FAILURE

1) The start
2) If total duration >= 5 hours, go to step 3 else go to step 9.
3) If voltage failure event count>= 10/month, go to step 4 else go to step 9.
4) If current in the same phase > =30% of Ib, go to step 5 else go to step 9.
5) Check reference meter on same DldmcT with time corrections of both meters.
6) If similar condition persists, go to the step 7 else go to step 8.
7) Flag the case to zone.
8) Refer to Enforcement.
9) End.

17
 If Total
NO
YES If similar
Durationof
IfIF
Iph>30%
condition
VF EVENT
VFofpersists
>Ib= 5 Hours
Count >10/month

FLOWCHART FOR
INTERMITTANT
VOLTAGE FAILURE.

18
 ALGO FOR CT REVERSAL

1) Start
2) If the any CT reversal event persistent time >= 3 hours, go to step 3 else go to step 9.
3) If the apparent current in any phase > 30% of Ib,go to step 4 else go to step 5.
4) Flag the case to the MMG.
5) End.

19
IfIfapparent
YES
NO any CT Reversal
current inevent
any phase
persistent
I basic
time
> 30%
>= 3
hour
of
Ib

ALGOFOR CT
OPEN :

1) START

2) If the line current

in any 2/1 phase is
zero, go to step 3
else go to STEP 9

3) If I line of the
/1>30 AMP of Ib, go
to step 4 else go to
STEP 6

20
 4) If the persistent time >=3hrs; go to step 5 else go to STEP 9

5) Refer to the Enforcement.

6) If 10 AMP< =IL<30 AMP of Ib, go to step 7 else go to STEP9

7) If Persistent Time >3hrs; go to step 8 else go to STEP 9

8) To be checked by AMREAD group

9) END

If persistent
YES
NO ILine
line Current
in anytime
phase
in is
any>=
2/1
2/1
phase
is
310
3 hrs
>hrs
AMP<
30=
continuous
AMP
0 Amp11
I line<30 AMP
CT OPEN

21
ALGORITHM FOR POWER FAILURE /CURRENT WITHOUT VOLTAGE

1) Start
2) If the Billing ON duration in the current billing month is less than 28 day in current
reset, go to step 3 else go to step 10.
3) Check the instants where voltage in all the three phases is 0 volts in the same billing
period.!!
4) If current in all the three phases are 0 amps at the same instant, go to step 5 else go to
step 9.!1
5) If the persistent time>= 4 hours continuous, go to step 6 else go to step 10.
6) Compare with a reference meter on same DT with time correction of both the meters.
7) If similar condition persists, go to the step 8 else go to step 9
8) Flag the case to Zone.
9) Flag the case to enforcement.
10) End.

22
 If billing on period time< 28days in the
NO
current reset YES

YES

If current in all phases=0 amp at

the same instant

NO
YES

YES

23
 Persistent time> = 4 hours
continuous
NO

YES

Compare voltage with reference meter(POLYPHASE

OR CT) on same DT with time correction of both the
meters with voltage range of +- 2%.
YES

NO

ALGORITHM FOR NEUTRAL

24
DISTURBANCE

1) START@
2) If any@
3) @neutral disturbance event is logged got to step 3 else go to step 12.
4) If @the meter is of L&T make,go to step 4 else go to step 9
5) If the cumulative duration is > 3 hours go to step 5 else go to step 12.
6) compare with the reference meter with time correction of both meters!!
7) If similar condition persists go to step 7 else go to step 8.!!
8) Refer to zone.!!
9) Refer to ENF.!!
10) Check the tamper count of ND.
10) If tamper count =25 go to step 11 else go to step
11) Flag the case to ENF.
25
12) End.

26
 NO
If neutral
the
cumulative
similar
tamper
meter
disturbance
count
condition
isduration
ofofL&T
ND
persists
event
>=25
= 3in
ishours in
logged
make
lasr
last 30 days

ALGO FOR LOAD UNBALANCE

27
1) Start.
2) Calculate maximum the current in any phase.
3) If Imax < 30 amp, go to step 4 else go step 10.@
4) Calculate k = (Imax – Iph)@
5) If k > 70 % of Imax, go to step 6 else go to step 15.@
6) Check the phase with minimum current@
7) Check total duration.@
8) If duration of any phase > 60 % of total duration go to step 9 else go to step15.@
9) Flag the case to ENF & go to step 17.@
10) If the event is restored go to step 11 else go to step 9.@
11) If 30 amp < Imax < 60 amp, go to step 11, else go to step 9.@
12) Calculate k = (Imax – Iph).@
13) If k > 60 % of Imax, go to step 6 else go to step 15.@
14) If I max > 60 amp, go tostep 9 else go to 15.@
15) End.

Calculate
ENDING
If
Flag
Cal
START
Check
Imax<
K
K>70%
duration
K=(Imax-
≥to60%
maximum
the
whether
IfENF
30
30<Imax<60
K=(Imax-Iph)
phase
total
of
of
of
AImax
any
Imax
event
duration
with
current
phase
is
minimum
restored
>/Imax
of
in40%
each
any phase.
or
of total durations
Iph)/Imax
current
phase.
not

28
ALGO FOR NVM FAILURE/ BAD BATTERY

1) Start
2) If meter is of secure make; go to step 3 else go to step 5.
3) If NVM/BAD BATTERY flag is YES, go to step 4 else go to step 5.
4) Flag the case to MMG.
5) End.

29
NO
If the meter
NVM /BadisBattery
of SECURE make
flag=YES

LGO FOR MANUAL RESET

1) Start
2) If MDs RESET for the current billing month = manual,go to step3 else go to step 6.
3) Flag the case to HRBing for bill correction/MMG & ENF for site verification status.
4) If site the verification status is yes, go to step 6 else go to step 5.
5) Flag the case to ENF.
6) End.

30
 If site
MD verification
RESET for the
status
current
is billing
month
onYES =
MANUAL RESETmanual

31
ALGO FOR LOW LOAD CASES

1) Start
2) If low the load flag is on Go To Step 6 Else Step 3
3) If KWH of consumption in the current billing month<150 units, go to step 4 else to step 6.
4) If sanctioned is load > 5 kW, go to step 5 else go to step 6.
5) Flag the case to MMG for the site inspection.
6) End.

32
If sanctioned
IF
NO KWH
Low load
consumption
flag
loadon>5 in the current billing
month<150 units
kW

ALGO FOR DROP IN CONSUMPTION

1) Start
2) If any exception flag is ON go to step 10 else go to step 3.@
2) If drop in consumption is greater than 90 % go to step 7 else go to step 4.@
4) If 90% > drop in consumption > 50%,go to step 8 else go to step 5.@
5) If 50 % > drop in consumption for the current billing month > 25 %,go to step 6 else go to step
10.@
6) If 50 % > drop in consumption for the previous month >25 %,go to step 8 else go to step 9.@
7) Flag the case to zone & go to step 10.@

33
8) Flag the case to ENF & go to step 10.@
9) Flag the case to AMR & go to step 10.@
10) END.

Checked
90
If
YES
NO50%<
any
D%>
ICexception
(If
(If
for
bydrop
Dthe
AMR
I Ccurrent
inFLAG
for
KWHthebilling
is ON
current
Group
consumption
previous
month)
billing
billing
> for
90month)
themonth)
% current
<75
<75 % month)>50%
billing
%

34
ALGORITHM FOR AVERAGE VOLTAGE

1) START
2) CALCULATE THE AVERAGE VOLTAGE from Voltage Profile
3) If Voltage Profile is < 205 Volts Go to STEP 4 ELSE GOTO STEP 5
4) Flag the case to ZONE/system engineering.
5) END

35
If average Average
Calculate voltage <voltage
205 voltage
from voltage profile

36
 ALGO FOR LOAD FACTOR

1) start
2) Calculate load factor
3) If load factor < 0.05 Go to Step 4 Else Go To Step 5
4) Flag the case to ENF.
5) END

If load factor < .05

37
ALGORITHIM FOR HIGH KVARH (Expcj)

1) START
2) Calculate K=Tan inverse [KVARh (export)/KWH (abs)]
3) If K< 0.85 go to step 4 else go to step 5.
4) Flag the case to MMG/AMR.
5) END
If K <the
Flag 0.85
cases to
MMG/AMR.@

ALGO FOR METER PARAMETERS

1) START
38
2) The Check the meter make
3) The If the meter is of Secure make Go to STEP 4 Else Go to Step 8
4) The Check Meter Program, Current Tariff.
5) The Maintain the data Base of these parameters
6) The Compare the parameters of the current data base with the existing database
7) The If mismatch is found flag the cases to ENF Else go to step 10
8) If the meter is of L&T make go to Step 9 Else go to Step 10
9) Check meter version ,Go to STEP 5
10) END

39
Check
Maintain
If the meter
any mismatch
‘meter
theisprogram,
offound
secure
it
make make
current
database
L&T tariff

ALGO FOR POWER FACTOR

40
 1) START
2) If Avg Power factor is greater than 1.1 go to step 3 else go to Step 4.
3) Check by AMR Group.
4) If 0.35 < average power factor <0.55, go to step 5 else go to step 6.
5) Flag the case to MMG.
6) End.

0.35<
If average
load avg
factor
power
pf>< 10
0.55
factor>1.1
%

41
 ALGO FOR REFERENCE METER

1) START
2) The Check all the meters under particular DT
3) The Check the meter with highest billing on time
4) The Check the meter with highest sanctioned load.
5) The Check the meter with highest consumption.
6) The If the same meter qualifies under any other exception go to step10 else go to step 7.
7) The Establish it as reference meter.
8) The If reference meter = 1, go to step 11 else go to step 9.
9) The Flag all cases to zone.
10) The Check next meter with next higher billing on period.
11) End.

42
Is
Find
Refthethe
same
meter
Meter meter
= with
1 qualifying
highest MDI.
billing on
underfrom
time any the
other exceptionlist
segregated ?

43
ALGO FOR TIME CORRECTION

1) Start.
2) the Check MRI (while read time).
3) the Check PC (while dump time).
4) the Calculate k= MRI (while read time) – PC (while dump time)
5) If the k > 24 hours, go to step 6 else go to step 7.
6) the Flag the case to MMG GROUP.
7) END

44
If K > 24 hours

ALGO
FOR

VOLTAGE UNBALANCE

1) Start.
2) the Check maximum voltage in any phase from the tamper events.
3) If the maximum voltage > = 290 volts, go to step 4 else go to step 10.
4) the Check minimum voltage in the same tamper event.
5) the If minimum voltage < = 190 volts, go to step 6 else go to step 10.
6) Compare with the reference metering
45
7) If the similar condition persists, go to step 8 else go to step 9.
8)flag the case to zoning.
9) Flag the case to ENF.
10) End.

If similar
maximum
minimum condition
voltage
voltage persisting
is
> <=
= 290
190volts
VOLTS

46
Algo for checking the type of meter.

1. Start
2. Is the manufacturer code 1 then it is SECURE then go to step 5 else proceed.
3. Is the manufacturer code 2 then it is ABB then go to step 5 else proceed..
4. Is the manufacturer code 3 then it is L&T.
5. Check the meter type if the 3P3W then HT meter else proceed.
6. Is the primary voltage 11KV then 3P3W HT meter else 3P4W LT meter.
7. Go to concerned Algorithm.
8. Stop.

47
Algo for LNT /Secure 3P4W

Note: - Leading values are taken as –ve.

In case of LNT values used for calculations are KVAr, KW and pf.
In case of Secure values used for calculation are I active, I reactive and pf.

1. Start
2. Set Count =0 and CR flag =’NO’.
3. Check ofcount.
4. If count =0 take all of values for R-Phase and go to step 9 else go to step 5.
5. If count =1 take all of values for Y-Phase and go to step 9 else go to step 6.
6. If count =2 take all of values for B-Phase and go to step 9 else go to step 7.
7. If count =3 then check of CR flag and proceed.
8. If CR flag =’yes’ referof case to AMR group and stop else stop.
9. Check if phase current ≥ 10% Ib.
10. If no, increment count by 1 and go to step 3else go to step 11.
11. Check if KVAR=0.
12. If yes then Ø ph =0˚ increment count by 1 and go to step 3 else Ø΄=cos¹‫| ־‬pf| and go to
step13.@
13. If KVAr ph <0 then go to step 14 else go to step 16.@
14. Check if KW≥0.@
15. If yes then Ø = - Ø@΄ and go to step 18 else Ø= - (| Ø΄|+90) ˚ and go to step 18.
16. Check if KW≥ 0.
17. If yes the Ø = + Ø΄and go to step 18 else set CR flag = Yes and go to step 19.
18. Is Ø <-120 ˚ or >60 ˚ then set CR flag =’Yes’.
19. Check CR flag.

48
 20. If CR flag =’Yes’ flag the case to AMR Group and Stop else increment count by 1 and go
to step 3.

Algo for 3P3W meters

1. Start
2. Set V ry = -30˚.
3. Set count =0 and faulty condition flag =’No’.
4. Is count =0 then take values for R-Phase and to calculate Ø r and go to step 8 else go to
step 5.
5. Is count = 2 then take values for B-Phase and to calculate Ø b and go to step 8 else go to
step 6.
6. If count = 2 then check Faulty Condition Flag (FCF).@
7. If FCF =Yes flag the case to AMR group and stop else go to step 24.@
8. If Iph ≥ 5% Ib then go to step 9 else increase count by one and go to step 4.
9. Ifs V seq. = forward then go to step 10 else go to step 18.@
10. Ø ph = tan ¹‫| ־‬KVAr / KW|.@
11. If count =0 then Ø ph = Ø r and go to step 12 else Ø ph = Ø b and go to step 15.@
12. Check if KVAr > 0 then then go to step 13 else go to step 14.@
13. Check if KW ≥ 0 then Ø r = (Ø ph - 30) ˚ increment count by 1 and go to step 4 else set
@faulty condition flag to ‘Yes’ and go to step 7.
14. Check KW ≥ 0 then Ø r = - (Ø ph + 30) ˚ increment count by 1 and go to step 4 else set FCF
= Yes and go to step 7.
15. If KVAr = 0 the Ø b = -90 ˚ else got o step 16.
16. If KW <0 then set FCF = ‘Yes’ and go to step 7 else go to step 17.
49
17. If KVAr < 0 then Ø b = - (90 + Ø ph) ˚ else Ø b = - (90 - Ø ph) ˚.
18. Ø ph = tan ¹‫| ־‬KVAr / KW|.
19. If count =0 then Ø ph = Ø r and go to step 20 else Ø ph = Ø b and go to step 22.
20. If KW < 0 then set FCF =’Yes’ and go to step 7 else proceed.
21. If KVAr < 0 then Ø r = - (Ø ph +30) ˚ increment count by 1 and go to step 4 else Ø r = - (30-
Ø ph) ˚ increment count by 1 and got to step 4.
22. If KW < 0 then set FCF =’Yes’ and go to step 7 else proceed.
23. If KVAr < 0 then Ø b = (30- Ø ph) increment count by 1 and go to step 4 else Ø b = (30+ Ø
ph) ˚ increment count by 1 and go to step 4.
24. If V seq= forward then θ= (Ør- Øb) else θ= (Ø b- Ø r).
25. If 117.6 ≤ θ ≤ 122.4 then go to step 26 else flag the cae to Amr group and stop.
26. If Vseq = forward and Ør > 90˚ then flag the case to AMR group else proceed.
27. If Vseq = forward and Øb > -30˚ then set flag to yes and refer the case to AMR group else
proceed.
28. Stop

50
FORMAT FOR FEEDBACK FROM ENFORCEMENT

51
 Enforcement Feedback
Site Findings
Condition Condition
AMR of meter of meter Other
S.No. Events
Finding before after s
opening the opening
accuracy check seal the seal
PROLONGED
VOLTAGE
1 FAILURE
INTERMITTANT
VOLTAGE
2 FAILURE
3 CT REVERSAL
4 CT OPEN
5 MDI > 100 KW

52
 CONCLUSION

• AMR is the future of the advanced metering practices which will definitely intrude in india.

• In our analysis of UPCL it is evident that AT and loss can be reduced incredibly.

• Meters need to be more robust

• Several improvements needs to be taken care of in the management of various distribution systems.

• AMR is helpful in improving billing efficiency as well

• We take a leaf out from the books of western countries.

• This analysis definitely can help the other states to look towards this direction.

53
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Various algorithm techniques used

• Various flowcharting techniques used

• Hypothesis testing

• Financial analysis of the data of UPCL

• Techniques like NPV , IRR used

• Payback period

• Others

54
55