Hard water

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Jump to: navigation, search Hard water is water that has a high mineral content (water with a low mineral content is known as soft water). This content usually consists of high levels of metal ions, mainly calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) in the form of carbonates, but may include several other metals as well as bicarbonates and sulfates. It is not generally dangerous. The simplest way to determine if water is hard or soft is the lather/froth test. If the water is very soft, soap will tend to lather up easily when agitated, where as with hard water it will not. Toothpaste will also not froth well in hard water. More exact methods of 'hardness' detection use a wet titration method to determine hardness. Total water 'hardness' (including both Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions) is reported as ppm w/v (or mg/L) of CaCO3. Water hardness usually measures the total concentration of Ca and Mg, the two most prevalent divalent metal ions, although in some geographical locations iron, aluminium, and manganese may also be present at elevated levels. Calcium usually enters the water from either CaCO3, as limestone or chalk or from mineral deposits of CaSO4. The predominant source of magnesium is dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2.

Contents
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1 Types of hard water o 1.1 Temporary hardness o 1.2 Permanent hardness 2 Problems caused by hard water 3 Types of measurement 4 Indices o 4.1 Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) o 4.2 Ryznar Stability Index (RSI) o 4.3 Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI) o 4.4 Other indices 5 Health considerations 6 Softening o 6.1 Process o 6.2 Why does my skin feel feel slippery after washing with softened water, unlike hard water? 7 Regional Information o 7.1 Hard water in Australia

7.2 Hard water in Canada 7.3 Hard water in England and Wales 7.4 Hard water in the US 8 See also 9 References
o o o

10 External Links

[edit] Types of hard water

A common distinction is made between 'temporary' and 'permanent' hardness. There are also common types of hard water depending on the ion (eg. Mg or Ca) found in the water.

[edit] Temporary hardness

Temporary hardness is hardness that can be removed by boiling or by the addition of lime (calcium hydroxide). It is caused by a combination of calcium ions and bicarbonate ions in the water. Boiling, which promotes the formation of carbonate from the bicarbonate, will precipitate calcium carbonate out of solution, leaving water that is less hard on cooling. The following is the equilibrium reaction when calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is "dissolved" in water:

Upon heating, less CO2 is able to dissolve into the water (see Solubility). Since there is not enough CO2 around, the reaction cannot proceed from left to right, and therefore the CaCO3 will not "dissolve" as readily. Instead, the reaction is forced to go from right to left (i.e. products to reactants) to reestablish equilibrium, and solid CaCO3 is formed. Heating water will remove hardness as long as the solid CaCO3 that precipitates out is removed. After cooling, if enough time passes the water will pick up CO2 from the air and the reaction will again proceed from left to right, allowing the CaCO3 to "redissolve" in the water. For considerably more detail on the solubility of calcium carbonate in water, and how it is affected by atmospheric carbon dioxide, please see the calcium carbonate article.

[edit] Permanent hardness

Permanent hardness is hardness (mineral content) that cannot be removed by boiling. It is usually caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium sulfates and/or chlorides in the water, which become more soluble as the temperature rises. Despite the name this can be removed using a water softener, or ion exchange column.

[edit] Problems caused by hard water

Hard water causes scaling, which is the precipitation of minerals to form a deposit called limescale. Scale can clog pipes and can decrease the life of toilet flushing units. It can coat the inside of tea and coffee pots, and clog and ruin water heaters. Similarly, the insoluble salts that get left behind from using regular shampoo in hard water tend to leave hair rougher and harder to detangle. [1] In industry, hard water contributes to scaling in boilers, cooling towers and other industrial equipment. In these industrial settings, water hardness must be constantly monitored to avoid costly breakdowns. Hardness is controlled by addition of chemicals and by large-scale softening with zeolite resins and ion exchange resins.

[edit] Types of measurement

It is possible to measure the level of hard water by obtaining a free water testing kit. These are supplied by most water softening companies. There are several different scales used to describe the hardness of water in different contexts.

mmol/L (millimoles per litre) mg/L calcium carbonate equivalent grains/gallon (gpg) 1 gr/U.S. gal = 17.11 mg/L parts per million weight/volume (ppm w/v or ppm m/v) Various obsolete "degrees": o Clark degrees (Clark)/English degrees (E) - conversion to mg/L calcium: divide by 0.175 One degree Clark corresponds to one grain of calcium carbonate in one Imperial gallon of water which is equivalent to 14.28 parts calcium carbonate in 1,000,000 parts water. o German degrees (dH) - conversion to mg/L calcium: divide by 0.14 One degree German corresponds to one part calcium oxide in 100,000 parts of water. o French degrees (f) (shares symbol with degree Fahrenheit, but in lowercase) - conversion to mg/L calcium: divide by 0.25 One degree French corresponds to one part calcium carbonate in 100,000 parts of water. o American degrees One degree American corresponds to one part calcium carbonate in 1,000,000 parts water (1 mg/L or 1 ppm)

Degrees of general hardness (dGH) One degree of general hardness corresponds to 10 mg of calcium oxide or magnesium oxide per litre of water

The precise mixture of minerals dissolved in the water, together with the water's acidity or alkalinity (pH) and temperature will determine the behaviour of the hardness, so single number on a scale does not give a full description. Descriptions of hardness correspond roughly with ranges of mineral concentrations:

Soft: 0 - 20 mg/L as calcium Moderately soft: 20 - 40 mg/L as calcium Slightly hard: 40 - 60 mg/L as calcium Moderately hard: 60 - 80 mg/L as calcium Hard: 80 - 120 mg/L as calcium Very Hard >120 mg/L as calcium

[edit] Indices
Several indices are used to describe the behaviour of calcium carbonate in water, or in water, oil and gas mixtures.[2]

[edit] Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)

The Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) (sometimes also Langelier Stability Index) is a calculated number used to predict the calcium carbonate stability of water; that is, whether a water will precipitate, dissolve, or be in equilibrium with calcium carbonate. Langelier developed a method for predicting the pH at which water is saturated in calcium carbonate (called pHs). The LSI is expressed as the difference between the actual system pH and the saturation pH. LSI = pH - pHs If the actual pH of the water is below the calculated saturation pH, the LSI is negative and the water has a very limited scaling potential. If the actual pH exceeds pHs, the LSI is positive, and being supersaturated with CaCO3, the water has a tendency to form scale. At increasing positive index values, the scaling potential increases.

[edit] Ryznar Stability Index (RSI)

The Ryznar stability index (RSI) uses a database of scale thickness measurements in municipal water systems to try and predict the effect of particular water chemistry.

[edit] Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI)

The Puckorius Scaling Index (PSI) uses slightly different parameters to quantify the relationship between the saturation state of the water and the amount of limescale deposited.

[edit] Other indices

Other indices used include the Larson-Skold Index[3], the Stiff-Davis Index[4], and the Oddo-Tomson Index[5].

[edit] Health considerations

The World Health Organization says, "There does not appear to be any convincing evidence that water hardness causes adverse health effects in humans."[6] Some studies have shown a weak inverse relationship between water hardness and cardiovascular disease in men, up to a level of 170 mg calcium carbonate per liter of water. The World Health Organization has reviewed the evidence and concluded the data were inadequate to allow for a recommendation for a level of hardness.[6] In a review by Frantiek Koek, M.D., Ph.D. National Institute of Public Health, Czech Republic gives a good overview of the topic, and unlike the WHO, sets some recommendations for the maximum and minimum levels of calcium (40-80 mg/L) and magnesium (20-30 mg/L) in drinking water, and a total hardness expressed as the sum of the calcium and magnesium concentrations of 2-4 mmol/L.[7] Other studies have shown weak correlations between cardiovascular health and water hardness.[8][9][10] Very soft water can corrode the metal pipes in which it is carried and as a result the water may contain elevated levels of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc [6].

[edit] Softening
It is often desirable to soften hard water, as it does not readily form lather with soap. Soap is wasted when trying to form lather, and in the process, scum forms. Hard water may be treated to reduce the effects of scaling and to make it more suitable for laundry and bathing.

[edit] Process
A water softener works on the principle of cation or ion exchange in which ions of the hardness minerals are exchanged for sodium or potassium ions, effectively reducing the concentration of hardness minerals to tolerable levels.[11]

The most economical way to soften household water is with an ion exchange water softener. This unit uses sodium chloride (table salt) to recharge beads made of ion exchange resin that exchange hardness mineral ions for sodium ions. Artificial or natural zeolites can also be used. As the hard water passes through and around the beads, the hardness mineral ions are preferentially absorbed, displacing the sodium ions. This process is called ion exchange. When the bead or sodium zeolite has a low concentration of sodium ions left, it is exhausted, and can no longer soften water. The resin is recharged by flushing (often back-flushing) with saltwater. The high excess concentration of sodium ions alter the equilibrium between the ions in solution and the ions held on the surface of the resin, resulting in replacement of the hardness mineral ions on the resin or zeolite with sodium ions. The resulting saltwater and mineral ion solution is then rinsed away, and the resin is ready to start the process all over again. This cycle can be repeated many times. Some softening processes in industry use the same method, but on a much larger scale. These methods create an enormous amount of salty water that is costly to treat and dispose of. Temporary hardness, caused by hydrogen carbonate (or bicarbonate) ions, can be removed by boiling. For example, calcium hydrogen carbonate, often present in temporary hard water, is boiled in a kettle to remove the hardness. In the process, a scale forms on the inside of the kettle in a process known as "furring of kettles". This scale is composed of insoluble calcium carbonate. Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Hardness can also be reduced with a lime-soda ash treatment. This process, developed by Thomas Clark in 1841, involves the addition of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2) to a hard water supply to convert the hydrogen carbonate hardness to carbonate, which precipitates and can be removed by filtration: Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O The addition of sodium carbonate also softens permanently hard water containing calcium sulfate, as the calcium ions form calcium carbonate which is insoluble and sodium sulfate is formed which is soluble. The calcium carbonate formed sinks to the bottom. Sodium sulfate has no effect on the hardness of water. Na2CO3 + CaSO4 Na2SO4 + CaCO3

[edit] Why does my skin feel feel slippery after washing with softened water, unlike hard water?
Some confusion may arise after a first experience with soft water. Hard water does not lather well with soap and leaves a "less than clean" feeling. Soft water lathers better than hard water but leaves a "slippery feeling" on the skin after use with soap. For example, a

certain water softener manufacturer contests that the "slippery feeling" after showering in soft water is due to "cleaner skin" and the absence of "friction-causing" soap scum. However, the chemical explanation is that soft water, due to its sodium content, has a much reduced ability to combine with the soap film on your body and therefore, it is much more difficult to rinse off.[12] Solutions are to use less soap or a synthetic liquid body wash.

[edit] Regional Information

[edit] Hard water in Australia
Analysis of water hardness in major Australian cities by the Australian Water Association shows a range from very soft (Melbourne) to very hard (Adelaide). Total Hardness as Calcium Carbonate mg/L are: Canberra: 40[13]; Melbourne: 10 - 26[14]; Sydney: 39.4 60.1[15]; Perth: 29 - 226[16]; Brisbane: 100[17]; Adelaide: 134 - 148[18]; Hobart: 5.8 - 34.4[19]; Darwin: 31[20].

[edit] Hard water in Canada

Prairie provinces (mainly Saskatchewan and Manitoba) contain high quantities of calcium and magnesium, often as dolomite, which are readily soluble in the groundwater that contains high concentrations of trapped carbon dioxide from the last glaciation. In these parts of Canada, the total hardness in mg/L calcium carbonate equivalent frequently exceeds 200 mg/L, if groundwater is the only source of potable water. Some typical values are: Calgary 165 mg/L, Saskatoon < 140 mg/L, Toronto 121 mg/L, Vancouver < 5 mg/L[citation needed], Charlottetown PEI [1] 140 - 150 mg/L.

[edit] Hard water in England and Wales

Information from the British Drinking Water Inspectorate shows that drinking water in England is generally considered to be 'very hard', with most areas of England, particularly the East, exhibiting above 200 mg/L as calcium carbonate equivalent. Wales, Cornwall and parts of North-West England are softer water areas, and range from 0 to 200 mg/L[citation needed]. In the brewing industry in England and Wales, water is often deliberately hardened with gypsum in the process of Burtonisation.

[edit] Hard water in the US

According to the United States Geological Survey, 85% of US homes have hard water. The softest waters occur in parts of the New England, South Atlantic-Gulf, Pacific Northwest, and Hawaii regions. Moderately hard waters are common in many of the rivers of the Tennessee, Great Lakes, Pacific Northwest, and Alaska regions. Hard and very hard waters are found in some of the streams in most of the regions throughout the

country. Hardest waters (greater than 1,000 mg/L) are in streams in Texas, New Mexico, Kansas, Arizona, and southern California.[

Water softening
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search A water softener reduces the calcium or magnesium ion concentration in hard water. These "hardness ions" cause three major kinds of problems. The metal ions react with soaps and calcium sensitive detergents, hindering their ability to lather properly and forming an unsightly precipitate the familiar scum or "bathtub ring". Presence of "hardness ions" also inhibits the cleaning effect of detergent formulations. More seriously, calcium and magnesium carbonates tend to adhere to the surfaces of pipes and heat exchanger surfaces. The resulting scale build-up can restrict water flow in pipes. In boilers, the deposits act as thermal insulation that impedes the flow of heat into the water; this not only reduces heating efficiency, but allows the metal to overheat which, in a pressurized system, can lead to failure. The presence of ions in an electrolyte can also lead to galvanic corrosion, in which one metal will preferentially corrode when in contact with another type of metal. The use of water softeners can aggravate this and cause sacrificial anodes in hot water heaters to corrode more quickly. Conventional water-softening devices intended for household use depend on an ionexchange resin in which "hardness" ions trade places with sodium ions that are electrostatically bound to the anionic functional groups of the polymeric resin. A class of minerals known as zeolites also exhibits ion-exchange properties; these minerals were widely used in earlier water softeners. Water softeners are typically used when water is supplied from wells. Public water systems are also susceptible to hard water, although this is much less common.

Contents
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1 How it works 2 Regeneration 3 See also 4 References 5 External links

[edit] How it works

The water to be treated passes through a bed of the resin. Negatively-charged resins absorb and bind metal ions, which are always positively charged. The resins initially contain univalent sodium or potassium ions, which exchange with divalent calcium and magnesium ions in the water. This exchange eliminates precipitation and soap scum formation. As the water passes through both kinds of resin, the hardness ions replace the sodium or potassium ions which are released into the water. The "harder" the water, the more sodium or potassium ions are released from the resin and into the water. For people on a low-sodium diet, the increase in sodium levels (for systems releasing sodium) in the water can be significant, especially when treating very "hard" water. A paper by Kansas State University gives an example: "A person who drinks two liters (2L) of softened, extremely hard water (assume 30 gpg) will consume about 480 mg more sodium (2L x 30 gpg x 8 mg/L/gpg = 480 mg), than if unsoftened water is consumed." This is a significant amount, as they state: "The American Heart Association (AHA) suggests that the 3 percent of the population who must follow a severe, salt-restricted diet should not consume more than 500 mg of sodium a day. AHA suggests that no more than 10 percent of this sodium intake should come from water. The EPAs draft guideline of 20 mg/L for water protects people who are most susceptible."[1]

[edit] Regeneration
As these resins become converted to their Ca2+ form they gradually lose their effectiveness and must be regenerated by passing a concentrated brine solution through them. Most of the salt used for regeneration gets flushed out of the system and may be released into the soil or sewer. This process can be damaging to the environment, especially in arid regions.[citation needed] Some jurisdictions prohibit such release and require users to dispose of the spent brine at an approved site or to use a commercial service company.

Most water softener manufacturers provide metered control valves to minimize the frequency of regeneration. It is also possible on most units to adjust the amount of salt used for each regeneration. Both of these steps are

recommended to minimize the impact of wIon exchange

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search Ion exchange is defined as an exchange of ions between two electrolytes. However, words ion exchange are more conventionally used to denote processes of purification, separation, and decontamination of aqueous and other ion-containing solutions with use of solid ion exchangers. In ion exchange processes ions are exchanged between a solution and an ion exchanger, a non-aqueous solid or gel. Typical ion exchangers are ion exchange resins, zeolite, montmorillonite, clay, and humus. Ion exchangers are either cation exchangers for positively charged cations or anion exchangers for negatively charged anions. There are also amphoteric exchangers that are able to exchange both cations and anions simultaneously. However, the simultaneous exchange of cations and anions is more efficiently performed in ion exchange reactors called mixed beds which contain mixed anion and cation exchange resins. Ion exchange is a reversible process and the ion exchanger can be regenerated or loaded with desirable ions by washing with an excess of these ions. Ion exchange is a method widely used in household and industrial water purifications to produce soft water. This is accomplished by exchanging calcium Ca2+ and magnesium Mg2+ cations against sodium Na+ or hydrogen H+ cations (see Water softening). However, the field where ion exchange is the most economically efficient is ionic separations where a product of highest purity must be obtained, an ion contained in a low concentration must be extracted, or streams of varying composition must be treated. Thus a typical example of application is preparation of high purity water for electronic and nuclear industries. Ion exchange chromatography is a chromatographical method that is widely used for chemical analysis and separation of ions. For example, in biochemistry it is widely used to separate charged molecules such as proteins. Ion Exchange is also widely used in the food & beverage, hydrometallurgical, metals finishing, chemical & petrochemical, pharmaceutical, sugar & sweeteners, ground & potable water, nuclear, softening & industrial water, semiconductor, power, and a host of other industriesater softeners on the environt