Islamic Feminism vs.

Western Feminism: Analyzing a Conceptual Conflict

Jennifer S. King

An Abstract of a Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science International Studies

Central Connecticut State University New Britain, Connecticut

May 2003 Thesis Advisor Dr. Norton Mezvinsky Department of International and Area Studies

2 ABSTRACT Normally public opinion about the Islamic religion is often negative. The Muslim people are seen as violent Although it may be true in some

oppressors of women.

countries, the fact is Muslim people represent a variety of societies and communities where there are different interpretations of the Koran in regards to the female role and status in Islamic societies. This thesis argues that

feminism is a global phenomenon and is unique to every culture of the world and also examines some of the myths and facts surrounding the Islamic religion and their treatment of women. Arabs and the Islamic religion are usually associated with the oppression of women. The struggle for gender

equality exists throughout the Middle Eastern region and even in Asia. The Christian attitude towards Islam has discouraged Muslims and Arabs from talking about the roles of women in a political and theological context. Christians or Westerners do not take into account that attitudes vary from one class or generation to the other as well as over time, just as the attitudes may differ from one Muslim country to another. Islam has grown and adapted The history of Islam

just as other world religions have.

3 is important in order to understand its attitude toward women. Islamic feminism is difficult to explain to western feminists because a mutual incompatibility exists between the two. No feminist movement can relate to Western

feminism because of the way feminists formed their groups. Western feminism is grounded in Western values, thought, and ideology and those values differ from those of Islam and Arab tradition. Many problems exist because of a

resistance to cultural conversion. This thesis attempts to analyze the conceptual and/or value conflict between Western feminists and Islamic feminists. The conflict will be analyzed using Paul Wehrs Wehrs defines his conflict The guide

Conflict Mapping Guide.

mapping guide in his book Conflict Regulation.

intends to explain how to analyze a conflict from beginning to end and allows for an analysis of specific elements or dynamics surrounding the conflict. A breakdown of the

conflict is as follows; a brief description; conflict history, which includes origins and events; conflict context; parties involved; issues; dynamics; finally, alternative routes to solutions. The reader will note that although the thesis is an analysis of a conflict the underlying purpose is to educate

4 and inform. This analysis attempts to bring out the

controversial issues surrounding feminism and defines them in order to bring women together culturally. The

intentions of this thesis is to encourage the reader to understand that even though Americans live in the one of the best countries in the world, not everyone has the same goals and values as American women.

5 Islamic Feminism vs. Western Feminism: Analyzing a Conceptual Conflict

Jennifer S. King

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science International Studies

Central Connecticut State University New Britain, Connecticut

May 2003 Thesis Advisor Dr. Norton Mezvinsky Department of International and Area Studies

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Introduction7 Chapter 2: Evolution of the Conflict A. Defining Western Feminism..10 B. Defining Islamic Feminism.15 Chapter 3: Context surrounding the Conflict A. Geography/Cultures18 B. Structures.23 Chapter 4: Parties Involved A. Primary Parties30 B. Secondary31 C. Interested 3rd Parties31 Chapter 5: Issues Surrounding the Conflict A. Issues based on facts.33 B. Issues based on values..37 C. Issues based on interests..41 D. Issues based on perceptions.42

7 Chapter 6: Dynamics Involved in the Conflict A. Events that precipitated the Conflict54 B. Stereotyping involved in the conflict56 Chapter 7: Results.61 Chapter 8: Alternative Routes to Solutions A. What has been tried?.65 B. What has not been tried?..69 Chapter 9: Conclusion The Future of Western and Islamic Feminism .71

8 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Islamic feminism is difficult to explain to western feminists because a mutual incompatibility exists between the two. No feminist movement can relate to western

feminism because of the way most feminists form their groups. Western feminism is grounded in western values,

thought, and ideology and those values differ from those of Islamic tradition (Western Feminism). Many problems exist Most of us

because of a resistance to cultural conversion.

are unaware that there is a feminist movement in Islamic countries because many Muslim women do not want to have any connection with Western feminist. Women of Islam hold This

negative attitudes in regards to Western feminism.

thesis will analyze the apparent conflict between Western feminism and Islamic feminism. The point of this thesis is to note that feminism is a global phenomenon and is unique to every culture of the world. The main question is why is there a conflict when This thesis also addresses

all women want the same thing?

ways to unify the different cultures that are witnessing or have witnessed a feminist movement. This thesis is an The

analysis of a conceptual and/or value conflict.

9 conflict will be analyzed using Paul Wehrs Conflict Mapping Guide. Wehrs defines his conflict mapping guide The guide intends to

in his book Conflict Regulation.

explain how to analyze a conflict from beginning to end and allows for an analysis of specific elements or dynamics surrounding the conflict. Since this conflict is of a

conceptual nature and deals with values and misconceptions, there is not an ending. A breakdown of the conflict is as

follows; a brief description; conflict history, which includes origins and events; conflict context; parties involved; issues; dynamics; finally, alternative routes to solutions. The reader will note that although the thesis is an analysis of a conflict the underlying purpose to educate and inform. This analysis attempts to bring out the

controversial issues surrounding feminism and defines them in order to bring women together culturally. The

intentions of this thesis is to encourage the reader to understand that even though Americans live in the one of the best countries in the world, not everyone has the same goals and values as American women.

10 Chapter 2 Evolution of the Conflict Defining Western Feminism

Feminism began as a universalist faith during the 19th century (Elshtain p541). The concept originated in the

West and is linked to the French Revolution when women were concerned with being treated as full-fledged citizens. When women start advocating for equal rights and subsequently obtained those rights over time any society that does not provide equal rights to women is considered barbarian cultures. The term feminism is credited to Hubertine Auclert who presented the concept in 1880 in her journal, La Citoyenne, when she criticized male domination and began to make claims for womens rights (Badran p17). The term may have

originated in France and the West, but feminism is not a Western idea. A definition of feminism is hard to find For

because the cells of feminism are so diverse.

instance, there are at least three types of feminists found in the United States. In order to punctuate the diversity among feminism it is necessary to provide an example from personal

11 experience. Having attended a historically Black female

undergraduate college in Atlanta, GA I am aware of the cultural issues surrounding American feminism. On campus, there were portraits of famous Black women throughout history posted everywhere. Sojourner Truth. One of my favorites was of

The portrait was captivating because

under her picture is a gold engraving that says, And aint I a woman? Sojourner Truth is best remembered for a speech she gave at a women's rights conference where she noticed that no one was addressing the rights of black women. As

Black women we believed that feminism was not started for us. In actuality Black women were excluded from feminism.

To recognize the feminist movement among Black women Alice Walker coined the term womanist. The womanist movement is

supposedly for women of color and women who love being women. Historically, feminism only addressed the needs of

white women, but modern feminism tries to encompass everyone. The problem lies in the fact that even though

feminism began as a universal phenomenon, feminists do not try to unify women from all cultures. Instead, Western

feminists portray the image of women who want to impose their beliefs and cultures onto other cultures. Trying to identify the political aspirations of modern feminism is difficult to do. For instance, in America

12 there have been at least two different waves of feminist movements. The first movement is explained as the suffrage

movement and normally does not identify with the word feminism at all because the term was non-existent. The

second wave is modern feminism and is famous during the 1960s along with the civil rights movement. In each

feminist movement, one finds that there are different feminist movements as demonstrated previously concerning the Black feminist movement. Feminism is a phenomenon that

is identified with diverse ideas and are labeled as; radical, liberal, Marxist-socialist, psychoanalytic, existentialist, postmodern, multicultural and global, and finally ecological. The

purpose of the labels is to show that feminism is not a monolithic idea. However broad the labels may be the

concept tends to only embrace Western feminism and excludes the cultures found in the East. Nancy F. Cotts provides an adequate definition of feminism in her book The Grounding of Modern Feminism. gives her definition three core components: 1. Feminism holds the belief in what is usually referred to as sex equality, but what might be more clearly expressed in the negative, as opposition to She

13 sex hierarchy. Equality is such a difficulty

quantity to apply to human beings (because it is colloquially taken to mean sameness) that the point is served better by expression in terms of opposition to ranking one sex inferior or superior, or opposition to one sexs categorical control of the rights and opportunities of the other.

2. Feminism presupposes that womens condition is socially constructed, that is, historically shaped by human social usage rather than simply predestined by God or nature.

3. Feminism posits that women perceive themselves not only as a biological sex but as a social grouping. Related to that understanding is some level of identification with the group called women,some awareness that one experience reflects and affects the whole.

With these three components in mind Cotts definition follows; Feminism asks for sexual equality that includes sexual difference. It aims for individual freedoms by

14 mobilizing sex solidarity. It posits that women

recognize their unity while it stands for diversity among women. It requires gender basis yet calls for

the elimination of prescribed gender roles (Cott 4-5).

Feminists goals concentrate on securing the same rights provided to men for women in patriarchal societies. History dates feminism as having started in the West particularly in France. The term originated in the West, Contrary to

but Egypt was the primary pioneer of feminism.

popular belief Egypt was the one of the first countries to demonstrate feminist thinking (Badran). There is a large

amount of literature that can document the varied and diverse movements among feminists, but the West believes they own the concept of feminism.

15 Defining Islamic Feminism The feminist movement among Muslim women began after Muslim women began to acquire literacy in Islamic matters and became aware of Islams original sources and the interpretive process (Guindi). The United States witnessed Men

a parallel situation with slavery and with women.

believed educating a woman and/or slaves was useless and only caused discontent. Islamic feminism began to appear as a global phenomenon during the 1990s and it is rapidly spreading with the turn of the new century (Badran). Although

Islamic feminism is a recent concept, the connection between Islam and feminism can be dated as early as the 1890s. As for modern day Islamic feminism, women have had

a strong active presence since the 1970s Islamic reawakening in the Arab and Islamic countries (Khalil). Women from various backgrounds- upper class, middle class, and rural- identified with the movement. Non-western

feminists struggles stem from larger movements, mainly nationalistic and anti-colonist and tend to strengthen and empower women rather than overshadow their feminist goal (Western Feminists).

16 As with Western feminism and with most concepts and ideas finding a concise definition of Islamic feminism is difficult to define. Margot Badrans definition is,

It is a feminists discourse and practice articulated within an Islamic paradigm. Islamic feminism, which

derives its understanding and mandate from the Quran, seeks rights and justice for women, and for men, in the totality of their existence. Islamic feminism is

both highly contested and firmly embraced. Even though Islamic feminism is rapidly becoming a global phenomenon, its use is limited and both the definition and the concept are controversial. There are four levels of

distinction when encountering Islamic feminism: 1. As a discourse 2. As a mode of gender analysis 3. As an ideology 4. As an identity

Many Muslim women want to reread the Koran and attack the social injustices aimed at women because of the current or historical interpretations of the Koran. The

interpretations of the Koran are different in some societies because of the various schools of feminist thought throughout the Muslim world (Khalil). First, the

17 apologetic view claims that Islam has liberated women and that Muslim women have more rights than Western women. Another branch of this school contends that the harsh conditions of Muslim women are the responsibility of the male jurists who interpreted the Koran in a conservative and misogynist way. Then there is the feminist movement

that tries to reinterpret Islamic texts from a female point of view. Islamic feminists have a strong argument because

they can argue their point without being observed as antiIslamic. Though there seems to be an underlying conflict among Islamic feminists the Koran is their common bond. Because most Islamic feminists schools of thought are compatible this thesis will only concentrate on the broader conflict of Islamic feminism versus Western feminism.

Chapter 3 Conflict Context

Geography Feminism is a concept that is unique to each culture or geographic location. In order to get a clear picture of

the various attitudes of Muslim communities one only has to look at predominantly Muslim countries like Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Turkey. Each of the countries primary religion

is Islam, but each country has a different national language and different attitudes towards the status of women. Saudi Arabia and Iran actually established the Koran as their constitution, while Turkey does not and tends to be the most liberated towards women. Saudi Arabia has the tightest restrictions on women. For instance, women cannot drive nor can they be educated in fields such as engineering and law (Beyer). They are only Traditional Saudi Female Dress THOBE: A loose, long-sleeved, ankle-length garment, but, for women, the neck and front can be embroidered and decorated with beads. ABAYA: A large, black cloak, worn either loose and flowing or wrapped around the body. The Abaya is generally made of silk or synthetic cloth. BOSHIYA: The Boshiya is a black veil, light in weight, worn across the lower part of the face. SURWAL: The Surwal are cotton or silk trousers worn by women under the Thobe.

allowed to teach and provide medical care to other women. Women are

19 scared to walk alone because they dont want to be stopped or detained by the religious police and be accused of a moral offense (Amnesty International). In a report from

Amnesty International, it stated Despite an encouraging emerging debate on womens rights in Saudi Arabia, women still face extreme forms of discrimination (9/27/2000). Women can be tortured like men and withstand corporal judicial punishment such as flogging and execution. Punishments are issued after summary trials, trials that are not fair by basic standards. Women are discriminated

in all aspects of their lives in Saudi Arabia such as family life, decision-making, employment, education and the justice system. Women have difficulty in seeking Saudi Arabia is

protection without risking further abuse.

the epitome of Western feminists perception of how a Muslim country treats women. Iran has also adopted the Koran as its Constitution. Iranians, however, believe existence is a unified and interrelated divine system. Men and women complement

each other and should have equal status (Women in Iran). The differences defined in the laws of Islam for men and women are based on the roles they play and the responsibilities each assumes. They believe the laws of

Islam give special privileges to women because of their

20 physical characteristics and their role in creation. If

they were to see women as equal in all aspects of life, it would violate some of their natural rights. So it is best

for a woman to participate in development with consideration of their physical and spiritual needs. Men

and women should attempt to fulfill their ideals through knowledge, promotion of understanding, safeguarding human integrity, enjoyment of the gifts of life, benefiting from individual and social freedoms and the creation of a better world to live in (Women in Iran). The compassionate and

deep emotional nature of women is significant for safeguarding the morals and humanistic qualities in society. They believe the fiber of womens nature actually

helps to prevent cruelty and atrocities that are a permanent threat to human survival. Because of their

influence on society women enjoy a special status in education. An Islamic government should be committed to

enhancing a womans scientific, educational, social and political capacities in order to allow women to have intellectual, logical and moral participation in the progress of society. They believe the Islamic dress

(hijab) actually protects women from abuse and cruelty. Iran emphasizes the positive interpretation of the Koran

21 and should not be regarded as negatively as westerners try to portray many Muslim communities. Muslim women in Turkey are the most liberated because they enjoy a professional life that is not only impressive for other Islamic countries, but even for the European nations (Beyer pp53). Last month (November), the Turkish

Parliament reformed family law, by abolishing the law of men being head of household and allows women to make decisions concerning children. The law establishes

community property in marriages and raises the legal age of marriage for girls from fifteen to eighteen. The father of

Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, states If a society does not wage a common struggle to attain a common goal with its women and men, scientifically there is no way for it to get civilized or developed (Women in Contemporary Turkey). The Turkish Republic has been committed to equality as early as 1924 when women were able to join the civil service, in 1930 women were given the right to participate in municipal elections and in 1934 they could participate in national elections (Keskin). Also in 1934 women could

be elected as deputies in the Parliament a direct contrast to the United States when only in 1920 the 19th amendment was ratified giving women the right to vote. Women have

been politicians and members of Parliament and cabinet

22 members since 1971. Women in Turkey have been considered The Turks abolished

equal for more than half a century.

the law of polygamy in 1925 and laws were amended to give women equal rights of divorce and inheritance. Under

Islamic law, women were not granted those rights (Women in Contemporary Turkey). Since Turkey does not use the Koran

as their constitution, they have more freedom when it comes to establishing laws. Turkey is still considered a Muslim

society even though they do not use the Koran as their constitution. The country is a very positive example of an

Islamic community that treats women well.

23 Culture Because there are countless theories of feminisms, feminist theories, feminist methodologies trying to span every culture is difficult. Studies conducted try to The problem For

combine cultures in a multi-cultural context.

is people learn about culture in different ways.

instance, political definitions of culture exclude groups such as women, people of races other than Caucasian, gays and lesbians, formerly colonized peoples, minority ethnic or religious groups, and indigenous populations (Okin p661). How can we deal with the issue of feminism, if we Culture is a very

cannot find a definition of culture?

important aspect in understanding feminism. Trying to find a definition of culture is almost as difficult as trying to find a definition of feminism. Therefore, combining culture and feminism is further complicated because of the numerous definitions found for both terms. Dr. Avruch defines culture as having the

following six components; 1. Shared Ideas- guiding behavior or a shared understanding of the world. 2. Cumulative- culture accumulates from generation to generation.

24 3. Systematic- based on rules that define how we manage our lives 4. Symbolic- lens through which we see the world 5. Passed Intergenerationally- passed from one generation to the next. 6. Extra-genetically- is not passed genetically.

Each of the six components can be applied to every culture and shown how there are different views from every culture. The same difficulty exists when we define feminism. Culture and feminism have a common link and that is the most societies are governed by patriarchal rules. Okin states in her article Feminism and Multiculturalism: Some tensions that she uses the term feminism as the beliefs that women should not be disadvantage by their sex, that they should be recognized as having human dignity equally with men, and that they should have the opportunity to live as fulfilling and as freely chosen lives as men can (661). Her statement epitomizes the ideology of feminism.

Instead of embracing her ideology we find conflict over Western feminism and Islamic feminism and all other kinds of feminisms. The goal of feminism needs to embrace women

from all cultures.

25 Structures The primary structure analyzed in this conflict is religion. Although religion was an enemy for the Western

feminist movement, Muslim women tend to embrace Islam and believe religion is a guiding source for their movement (al Faruqi p5). The legal rights western women sought in the

18th century are incompatible with the Islamic religion because Muslim women were granted those same rights in the 7th century. Women are portrayed as negative beings in

Christianity whereas there isnt a negative depiction of women in the Koran. The interpretation of the Koran is seen as the force that is denying social rights to Muslim women. Similarly,

the interpretation of Christianity was a problem for Western feminism. The interpretations of the Koran are

different in some societies because there are at least two schools of feminist thought throughout the Arab world (Khalil). First, the apologetic view claims that Islam has

liberated women and that Muslim women have more rights than Western women. Another branch of this school contends that

the harsh conditions of Muslim women are the responsibility of the male jurists who interpreted the Koran in a conservative and misogynist way. Then there is the

feminist movement that tries to reinterpret Islamic texts

26 from a female point of view. Islamic feminists have a

strong argument because they can argue their point without being observed as anti-Islamic (Khalil). Many of us believe that discrimination against women is imbedded in the religion of Islam. In reality it has

been interpretations and history that has created the situations that activist Muslim women are trying to change (Hussain). The Prophet Muhammed actually improved the status of women in 7th century Arabia when he revealed the word of God. Unwanted female newborns could be buried Islam prohibited this

alive before his revelation. practice.

Before Islam women were treated as possessions Under Islamic law,

of their husbands (Beyer p51).

education of girls became a sacred duty and gave women the right to own and inherit property (Intro to Islam). Even

though Muhammed liberated women in his time, his teachings are partly responsible for the current status of Muslim women (El Solh pg 7). He determined the inequality of

women and passed it as Gods commandments and recorded them in the Koran. In the Koran, it is written that men are

one degree above women in rank, and that men are guardians to women. According to the Koran womens religious status and their social status is as high as that of men. It states;

27 Lo! Men who surrender unto Allah and women who

surrender, and men who believe and women who believe, and men who obey and women who obey, and men who speak the truth, and women who speak the truth, and men who preserve, and patient men and patient women and the humble men and the humble women, and the charitable men and the charitable women, and the fasting men and the fasting women, and men who guard their chastity and women who guard their chastity and men who remember Allah and women who remember Allah has prepared for them forgiveness and a mighty reward.(Koran)

This verse reiterates several times that women can attain every good quality to which men can have access and posits that in the Koran women stand on the same spiritual level as men (El Solh). However, when the Koran gives man a

slight edge over women it is not due to any inherent weakness of the female sex, but because of the social context (Engineer). According to the Koran, men are

maintainers of women as Allah has made some to excel others and as they spend out of their wealth (on women) (Koran 4:34). In order to give an idea of how women came to lose

28 the social status given to them by Islam, there is a quote from a Muslim writer who mentions what he thinks an ideal woman should be: An ideal woman speaks and laughs rarely and never without a reason. She never leaves the house, even to She has no women

see neighbors or her acquaintance.

friends, confides in nobody, and relies only on her husband. She accepts nothing from anyone, excepting If she sees relatives, She is not

her husband and her parents.

she does not meddle in their affairs.

treacherous, and has no faults to hide, nor wrong reasons to proffer. people. She does not try to entice

If her husband shows the intention of

performing conjugal rites, she is agreeable to satisfy his desires and occasionally rouses them. She always assists him in his affairs. much and sheds few tears. She does not complain

She does not laugh or

rejoice when she sees her husband moody or sorrowful, but shares his troubles, and cheers him up,, till he is quite content again. She does not surrender

herself to anybody but her husband, even if abstinence would kill her Such a woman is cherished by everyone. (Engineer pg 57)

29 The verse shows how men thought of women in medieval times, but not how the Koran has portrayed women. Many Islamic

states view women in their medieval image and not in the image portrayed by the Koran (Engineer).

30 Chapter 4 Parties Involved Primary There are two primary opposing parties involved in the debate over Islamic feminism. One party looks at the

interpretation of the Koran and concentrates on womens interests within a social and political context. This

party consists of feminist social scientists who understand the interpretations of the Koran and are educated enough to understand Western views about Islam. On the other side there is the party who oppose the idea that activists and scholars can function in an Islamic framework. They believe that there can not be

any improvement of the social status of women as long as an Islamic Republic exists. This party primarily consists of

Western feminists who are educated in Western feminism and with thoughts grounded in Western ideology. Christians play a major role in this conflict because they attack the religion of Islam. Out of all the

religions, Christianity is the least tolerant towards other religions. Because of this distinction, Christians and

Westerners are used interchangeably in the analysis of this conflict. Therefore, the conflict is chiefly comprised of There are over one

Muslim women and Western feminists.

31 billion Muslims found in the world today, but Western feminists still think Muslim women are in need of enlightenment. In the Westerners mind there is no Their view is, all Muslim

separation among the religion. women are oppressed.

Secondary The majority of the Muslim women targeted in this conflict are Middle Eastern women. The major contenders

supporting the Western ideology are women in the United States. The problem many Americans have is they are quick

to say what is right and what is wrong in their view, but they need to recognize that not all women have the same values and desires.

Interested Third Parties Other parties involved in this conflict among feminists are women against American feminism. The way

women perceive Western feminism varies and usually revolves around the social status of women in that particular society. Women who cannot identify with the American

feminist movement are not interested in helping the Western feminist.

32 In her article Exporting feminism. (Transcending National Boundaries) Jan Bethke Elshtain mentions an interview she had during a trip to Central Eastern Europe. She interviewed a young Czech journalist, Marketa Spinkova, who says; The Americans act like missionaries-as if there is something wrong with us, with Czech women, if we dont believe we are victims. We think Americans must have

this problem, but they act as if we are backward and as if mothers are less important than career women. But we Czech women feel proud and sure of ourselves. We have no doubt about our mental abilities. are used to doubting everything. Also, we

We are ironic and

this feminist fundamentalism doesnt go with our mentality. When I tell them, I cant take what you

are saying seriously, they cannot believe I mean it. They are very strident in their beliefs. our doubts. They hate

It seems the Americans dont care much They came here to

about what the Czechs have to say. save us, it seems. us.

But they dont really listen to

33 Chapter 5 Issues surrounding the Conflict Issues Based on Facts Although gender inequality is prevalent in the Middle East, sexism and misogyny are not exclusive to Middle Eastern countries. Gender inequality is a global

phenomenon and exists in countries throughout the world. Muslim women are as diverse as Christian and or Western women are but this fact is rarely noted. The stereotype of

Muslim women is as women who are weak, passive, and oppressed because of the veil they wear. The truth is many

women of Islam have many political and social rights in various Muslim countries. women as leaders. and Turkey. Christianity, Islam, and Judaism have all subjugated women at one time or another. Theologians generally male A few Muslim countries have had

A few examples are Bangladesh, Pakistan,

have used the strictest interpretations of religion and used those interpretations to obtain positions of authority in order to Lord over women. Christians believe Eve was The

created from Adams rib as interpreted by the Bible.

Koran, however, does not make the distinction that Adam was created first:

34 O mankind! Be conscious of your sustainer, who has created you out of one living entity (nafs), and out of it created its mate, and out of two spread abroad a multitude of men and women. And remain conscious of

God, in whose name you demand your rights from one another, and of these ties of kinship. Verily, God is ever watchful over you! (4:1)

There is some discord about the meaning of nafs in the translation of this verse. The word is translated in some

circles as living entity, while others believe the translation to be person. Also the word mate is questioned because in the verse zawj (mate) is considered neutral and may be used to describe a male or female. Because the verse doesnt choose one sex over another many Islamic feminists believe it proves that Islam is nonbiased and doesnt advocate gender inequality. The verse shows that God didnt intend for women to be treated any different than men. It also shows that since there isnt a

distinction on who was created first man should not take it upon themselves to Lord over the woman. Another common theme found in the Koran is spiritual equality among men and women. Islam believes all human

kind are held accountable for every facet of human behavior

35 (Gender Equality). As shown in a previously mentioned

verse and reiterated in the follow verse:

I shall not lose sight of the labor of any of you who labors in My way, be it man or women; each of you is equal to the other. (3:195)

The most important fact about this conflict is womens issues are important for all cultures because they address the needs of the family and have an impact on society in general (Fernea). Western feminists need to recognize

other forms of feminism and try not to impose their beliefs on other cultures. The goals of Western feminists are not

compatible with Islamic feminists and shouldnt be forced upon Muslim women. The feminist movement among Muslim women began after Muslim women began to acquire literacy in Islamic matters then they became aware of Islams original sources and the interpretive process (Guindi). Women have had a strong

active presence since the 1970s Islamic reawakening in the Arab and Islamic countries (Khalil). Women from various

backgrounds- upper class, middle class, and ruralidentified with the movement. Non-western feminists

struggles stem from larger movements, mainly nationalistic

36 and anti-colonist and tend to strengthen and empower women rather than overshadow their feminist goal (Western Feminists). There are many gender reforms appearing A few examples are:

throughout the Muslim world.

1. In Syria 26 of the 250 members of Parliament are female, and in Iraq there are 19 women out of 250. 2. Four Muslim countries have had women as their leaders. In Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia the women became leaders as a result of death of a father or husband. But in Turkey, former Prime Minister Tansu

Ciller won the election by her own merit. 3. Egypt banned female circumcision. Egypt has also made it easier for women to obtain a divorce. 4. In Qatar women have the right to participate in municipal elections. 5. Bahrain has assured women voters and candidates that they will be included in the new elections (Beyer). Christians or Westerners do not take into account that attitudes vary from one class or generation to the other as well as over time, just as the attitudes may differ from one Muslim country to another. Western feminists have been

criticized because of their callous treatment and lack of concern for learning about other cultures. The primary

37 country targeted for criticism is America. Westerners do

not take into account that feminism is pluralistic and complex. Therefore, Western feminists need to understand

that non-Western women do not and will not have the same ideas as Western women.

Issues Based on Values The social status of the women of Islam is steeped in many social, psychological, and economic traditions. If

Westerners were to try to understand the traditions then they could push forward and understand the roles of the male and female and maybe come up with ideas that improve the situation of women in some Muslim countries. Muslim women have a negative view in regards to the Western family structure. They believe Western societies move away from

bonding and instead choose to have smaller alternative family styles. Those styles are opposite the traditions Islamic

and customs found among Islamic societies.

societies normally have an extended family rather than a nuclear family system. They also believe the family as a

whole should participate in preserving and contracting marriages (al-Faruqi). Muslims believe the Koran advocates

the concept of an extended family solidarity.

38 Another tradition that is hard for Westerners to understand is the concept of arranged marriages. Westerners believe arranged marriages have a negative connotation because the idea lacks consideration of an individuals freedom. Muslims, on the other hand, believe

arranged marriages have distinct advantages for the individual and for society as a whole. There belief is the

marriage is more substantial if the marriage is based on more than mere physical attraction and sexual infatuation. Because of the extended family, Muslims do

not have the marriage problems that most Westerners face. For instance, when a couple argues the whole family is involved and there are mediators who provide advice and counseling following disagreements. Because of familial

mediation, parental discourse is not a major problem among Muslims as it is among Western societies. Since the home

is always occupied there isnt any need for parents to feel guilty for working as the single mom does in western society. A problem Muslim women have in regards to Western society is the concept of Individualism vs. The Larger Organization. Islamic society falls in to the category of A high context society is a

a high-context society.

society that concentrates on family and the community

39 rather than individual goals as described in the following passage; Islam and Muslim women generally advocate molding of individual goals and interests to accord with the welfare of the larger group and its members. Instead

of holding the goals of the individual supreme, Islam instills in the adherent a sense of his or her place within the family and of a responsibility to that group. This is not perceived or experienced by

Muslims as repression of the individual (al- Faruqui p2).

A Muslim woman would not disregard her relationship to the family in order to pursue separate goals. Muslim women

believe the separate roles given to males and females are honorable roles. They believe in equality in the family

rather than destroying the family. Even though Muslim and Westerners have a wide range of incompatible issues, some of the goals of Muslim women are compatible with Western feminists. Some examples are;

equal access to divorce, equal access to child custody, and equal inheritance. However, Muslim women believe religion They dont regard The religious

is the means to achieving their goals.

religion as a barrier to womens rights.

40 structure is a basis for change. They believe they will be

able to challenge the traditional dominant male view and try to provide a different interpretation of the Koran that will benefit Muslim women (Fernea).

41 Issues Based on Interests The challenges of reforming attitudes toward gender in Islam are found when we analyze the intellectual, legal, and theological context (Elias p 3). is in the theological context alone. The primary problem For an example, if

one is going to do a theological interpretation of the Koran one has to know how to read the language. The

problem is the Koran is taught in a theological context only to men. When women try to interpret the Koran they

have little or no education in any theological institutions and therefore cannot debate theological matters. Then the question is how else can one interpret the religious text or source, other than by engaging in the traditional interpretive institutions? One solution is to

systematically reject the religious interpretation that dates back over 1400 years. This implies that one has to

derive inspiration straight from the Koran without any references to the traditional theological context. The

problem with this method is one would have to reject tradition and not only leaves room for feminist interpretation, but interpretation for everyone. Another

problem is that with this method is basically saying that people who are against this position represent 1400 years of patriarchal reign.

42 Issues Based on Perceptions It is hard to pinpoint countries that are witnessing Islamic feminist movement. The main reason is the

definition of rights for women vary from country to country. Westerners typically believe Islamic women are in need of guidance. The way westerners regard the veil or Westerners believe the

burka (veil) is a prime example.

women of Islam who wear the veil are oppressed. In actuality, coverings are technically optional in most Islamic countries. like them. Some women wear the veil because they

They believe they are free from unwanted gazes It is

and hassles of men when they are covered.

understandable that women don not want to have the unwanted attention of men. In our society where breast implants and

liposuction are the norm, it must be beneficial not worrying about such things. One American Muslim women

states, When non-Muslim Americans meet Muslim Women, they tend to feel sorry for you. Your husband makes you wear that? They dont understand its a personal choice (Republican pp 3D). Another woman says, Oppression is

not the scarf. She believes oppression is wearing the western fashion, which (she believes) turns women into objects to be coveted by men. She goes on to say, I get

43 more respect now than I ever did before. Its nice to know

men are listening to me rather than checking me out. Identifying the reasoning behind the veil is important for understanding women of Islam. Sexual anxiety is the

main purpose for many of the strict rules regarding Muslim women (Beyer). The fear of arousing lust in men is why

they have to cover their bodies in the strictest interpretation of the Koran. The Koran states women must

guard their modesty not to display their beauty and ornaments and to draw their veils (Introduction to Islam). Many other religions have had practices in order Female

to curtail womens sexuality (Bodman p 41).

circumcision or female genital cutting (FGC) is a crucial example. There are three types of female genital cutting (Kouba). They are:

1. Sunna circumcisions- Where the prepuce (the tip of the clitoris) is removed.

2. Clitoridectomy- This procedure consists of removing the entire clitoris (both prepuce and glans) and the adjacent labia.

3. Infibulation- This is the most extreme form and consists of removing the clitoris, the adjacent labia

44 and joining the scraped sides of the vulva across the vagina. The sides are secured with thorns or sewn There is a small opening left An

with catgut or thread.

to allow the passage of urine and menstrual blood. infibulated woman must be cut open to allow

intercourse on the wedding night and is closed again afterwards to secure fidelity to the husband.

These procedures are performed around the age of three sometimes much older, depending on the ritual or custom of the region. It is done in unsanitary conditions in which a

midwife uses unclean sharp objects such as razor blades, scissors, kitchen knives, and pieces of glass (Kouba pp 96). Sterilization and anesthesia are not used, causing

the transmission of viruses such as HIV and other infections. Some women have even died from the procedure In

as a result of hemorrhaging or going into shock.

various cultures FGM is performed to cleanse the woman. The woman is perceived as unmarriageable and a great danger to a man if her clitoris touches his penis (Kouba pp 98). Female circumcision is usually associated with Islam primarily to continue the negative image of Islam by Westerners (Bodman p42). The practice of FGC dates by to ancient times. Many sources believe the custom began in

45 the Nile Valley in ancient Egypt. In the beginning the For instance,

type of circumcision depended on the class.

clitoridectemy may have been a premarital rite of upper class women, and infibulations was more common in enslaved women. Infibulated women were priced higher on the market

because men believed they were less likely to get pregnant. FGM did not originate with Islam, but actually predates it by 2500 years. The custom is not found among most Muslims, In Saudi Arabia, the cradle of Iran does not practice the

Sunni or Shia (Bodman).

Islam, the practice is unknown.

custom and they have the largest Shia Muslim population (Bodman). The custom does not coincide with Islamic

teachings because the main reason for practicing FGC is to suppress a womans sexuality. The Prophet Muhammed does

not only state women have the right to sexual satisfaction within the context of marriage, but also can initiate sexual intercourse (Koran 4:1). The Prophet is also known

to have granted divorce to a woman whose husband was sexually impotent (Bodman pp 43). In Islam sexual

intercourse does not have the stigma of sin as with Christianity it is also considered a meritorious act within the context of marriage. Even though westerners are

enraged by the practice of FGC, they need to acknowledge that Africa and Middle Eastern countries werent the only

46 countries concerned with suppressing womens sexuality. the mid-nineteenth century to early twentieth centuries, clitoridiectomies and oophorectomies (removal of the ovaries) were practiced in the United States and England as cures for female masturbation, hysteria, and insanity. 1936,just over sixty years ago, L. Emmett Holts text Diseases of Infancy and Childhood recommended removal of the clitoris as treatment for masturbation. In essence, In In

FGC should not be thought of as an Islamic practice, when Christians have been known to perform the ritual. Education about the dangers of FGC will no doubt eliminate the process altogether. Non-Western women, on the other hand, believe Western feminists concerns are frivolous and not conducive to establishing a stable nation (Elshtain p541). For

instance, issues in developing countries revolve around government sponsored abductions, torture and lacking goods. Worrying about reproductive rights and patriarchal religion is not a priority for non-Western women. Non-Western women

have a different way of life, hold different values, and in this particular analysis, follow a different religion. Because of these differences women in non-Western societies have different criteria for evaluating ideas and behavior. Muslim women actually view western feminists negatively.

47 There are reasons Muslim women do not want to be recognized as feminists. There are misconceptions on

both sides of the coin in regards to Western women and Muslim women. For instance, Muslim women have the

following difficulties that they identify with the feminist movement in the United States 1. Middle Eastern women view United States feminism as all flash and no substance. If women are able to vote and participate equally in society, then why is it that women in the United States do not receive equal pay, nor do they receive maternity leave. 2. The feminist movement in the United States is not involved in politics and does not focus on improving the nation. An example of patriotism of the feminist

movement in the Middle East is when Egyptian women protested against the British during colonialism. 3. United States feminist movements are secular, rather than religious. Islamic women believe that religion

is a force for freedom, unlike individuals in the United States who often view religion as oppressive.

It is clear that there are definite misconceptions from both sides. Each point or perception listed above is

48 based on myth or a half-truth. Muslim women typically

believe that Western feminists want to move towards a androgynous society. They think Western feminists want to

have one set of roles and concerns that can be pursued by everyone in society, regardless of sex or gender. Many women in Western societies do not understand feminism, so how can we question an Islamic womans perception of feminism? A good explanation of feminism can be found in Sexual Politics, written by Kate Millet. Millet explains feminism by using literary passages and quotes found in books by D.H. Lawrence, Henry Miller, and Norman Mailer. for power. The passages she uses show how men use sex

She illustrates how our patriarchal society

uses biological differences between men and women in order to make men always appear to be dominating or aggressive and women are always subordinate or passive. By using

pornographic passages she shows how men are often unaware or do not care about womens pleasure or consent. Millets

passages are important in understanding Western feminism because one of the problems of our patriarchal society is a womens pleasure is often seen as a taboo. Millets book

is a bit dated, because society is coming to terms with the possibility of women achieving sexual pleasure. Women in

Western societies now have as many sexual relationships as

49 men. It is no longer important for a woman to be pure

before she gets married. The message Millet is trying to convey is destroy the sex/gender system-the basic source of womens oppressionand create a new society in which men and women are equals at every level of existence. Millets book seems to be a

fantasy because although it is true that oppression of women is due to our patriarchal sex/gender system there is no way women and men will be treated equally on all levels. The legal status of women will begin to change over time, but it is as one radical feminists argues, unless God is dethroned from both mens and womens consciousness, women will never be empowered as full persons. Muslim women have the same problem with differentiation of sex roles. As previously stated,

Muslim women believe there is honor in what is considered traditional female roles. They believe Western society

belittles traditional female roles such as childrearing and give reverence to those positions identified with males such as providing financial support. This concept is a

major dispute for Muslim women because they believe that both types of roles are necessary when coupled with religion and the division of labor is a great benefit for all members of society. Islamic tradition maintains that

50 womens rights are equal to man, but they are different rights. In Islamic societies it is necessary to maintain

the individual rights and complement one another rather than competing for the same positions in society. When analyzing Islamic societies we need to analyze equality for women in a larger context. Muslims see the They

physical differences among men and women as an honor.

believe that because women can have babies they must be provided for economically by males. Women have a much

greater responsibility by having babies and because of this special ability it is seen as a duty for men to provide for women. Bearing children is not a burden as portrayed Because of the duty for the male to

by Western feminists.

provide for females the differences in the amount of inheritance giving to male and females are often misconstrued as discrimination against women. The system

is only trying to make it known that women dont have a legal responsibility to provide for other members of the family, while men are legally bound to provide for all of their female relatives. Muslims, however, do believe the status of women could stand some evolving. Many men and women of Islam believe

their societies are not following Islamic ideals and traditions as written in the Koran. As note previously,

51 women did not historically have a less equal status in Muslim societies. These men and women also believe that

one should not blame Islam for mistreatment of women, but the men who choose to misinterpret the directives of the Koran. Another problem facing the evolution of feminism in Islamic societies is the question of, separate legal status for women. Islamic tradition considers every male In Islamic

and female have a separate identity in society.

societies women have the right to have contracts, conduct business, and to earn and posses property independently. Because of this marriage has no consequence regarding a womans legal status. Western feminist also support the The misconception

same legal status for women in marriage.

is Western feminist do not know of Muslim womens legal rights. Western feminists channel all their misconceptions

of the fact that women of Islam have to wear the veil. Because of the veil Western feminist believe Muslim women need to demand the same rights that they have historically fought for. Muslim women believe they have already achieved separate legal status, whereas Western feminists have only recent achieved this very same goal. Even in Saudi Arabia One can argue

women own banks and run their own hospitals.

52 that women achieved this great feat out of necessity, but no one can snub this achievement. Western society also tends to criticize the concept of polygamy found in Islam. Polygamy is a misunderstood

concept because Westerners typically believe that Islam uses polygamy to subjugate women of Islam. Although it is

true that Islam allows men to have more than one wife as written in the Koran, polygamy is not a common practice for all Muslims. Muslims resort to polygamy only in For instance, a man may marry a Another instance

exceptional circumstances.

widow who lost her husband during a war.

polygamy may be used is as a tool to unite different families in order to maintain peace. widespread phenomenon among Muslims. Polygamy is not a Therefore, the women

of Islam would not support Western feminists ideas of eliminating this practice.

53 Chapter 6 Dynamics Surrounding the Conflict Precipitating Events The concept of feminism is grounded in history. Women

in the United States would often use the term, youve come a long way baby. The Hubertine Auclert founded the term

feminism in the 1880s when she criticized male dominance in her journal La Citoyenne (Badran). Feminism has many

sides and exists in diverse communities throughout the world. The concept first appeared in Britain during the

18th century and appeared in the United States during the 1910s. Feminism has origins in Egypt as early as 1920.

Feminism may have originated in the West, but the concept is fast becoming a global phenomenon. Feminist movements

began to appear in various countries throughout the world. The concept began growing in the 1960s, but became a phenomenon in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1986 Sri Lankan

scholar Kumar Jayawardena wrote about the feminist movements that were appearing in Asian and Middle Eastern countries. Even though feminism existed among diverse

backgrounds, people still see the concept as a Western ideology. Islamic feminism came into play during the 1990s. Scholars used books to spread the word about Islamic

54 feminism. The term was appearing in books by Iranian women

in 1992, one Saudi Arabian scholar wrote about feminism and Islam in 1996, finally a Turkish woman wrote about Islamic feminism in Turkish in 1991 and the book was written in English in 1996. The United States was not concerned with the plight of the Muslim women until the rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in 1995. There were e-mails generated (before

September 11, 2001) petitioning a signature to send to the White House in order to get the United States to recognize the horrible torture of women in Afghanistan. The point of

the e-mail was to get the United States to intervene as they had in Bosnia. After the attack on September 11, 2001

Muslim women everywhere are seen as victims. The United States did not try to intervene with the human rights of Muslim women until the attack on America. The Department

of State issued a pamphlet in order to justify going to war with Afghanistan. The plight of the Muslim women was not the primary issue involved.

55 Stereotyping The Talibans War on Women is a prime example of how the Koran is misinterpreted and used to oppress women. Talibans example is not a model of the women of Islam. Islamic feminists have been trying to challenge the whole notion of a patriarchal society and attack the basis of what Islamic law is today. Islamic feminists have been The

trying to argue that over 1400 years of interpretation is wrong. The challenge is trying to come up with another

interpretation of the following verse in the Koran: Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore, the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and [guard in their husbands] absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose

part you fear disloyalty and misconduct, admonish them, refuse to share their beds, and then strike them; but if they return to obedience, then do not seek revenge against them, for Allah is Most High, Great (4:34). This verse is the basis of Western feminists argument against Islam. One Islamic feminist (Rifat Hassan)

believes the interpretation of the verse is wrong because

56 of the way differences in medieval grammar. She sites the

errors in the verse by stating, where the Koran says that men are protectors and maintainers of women, it means that men are supposed to take care of the women when women are preoccupied with duties where they cannot take care of themselves, such as child rearing and childbirth. She goes

on the interpret or reinterpret, Allah has given the one more than the other, as one man might have more than another, therefore men should maintain women according to their own person capacities, relative to other men (39-64). The part about striking women she says the verse refers to instances where large number of women are disobedient and when women refuse to cooperate and thereby causing a crisis in the community. Then it is acceptable to strike women, This is one of the examples of

but only as a final resort.

how Islamic feminists have been trying to reinterpret the Koran based on gender. Islam varies from one extreme to another with no midlevel. The first extreme concentrates on Islamic-

exceptionalism, which states that Islam isnt like other religions and therefore it doesnt allow for any separation between church and state (Elias p1). Muslims usually say, The

Islam is not just a religion, but a way of life.

other extreme is to say Islam is just like any other

57 religion, Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism etc. The reality

is that Islam falls in between the two extremes. Muslims contend that Islam cannot separate church and state. However, when a twentieth century Islamic society

is analyzed one finds that the religion engages debates and arguments that is quite different from other religions, especially Christianity. Many Muslims believe that Elias

separation of church and state is impossible.

introduces term laicization in his article Secularization, Laicization, and Challenges to Feminist reform in the Islamic World, Many Muslims argue that it is impossible for a Muslim to be secular, and are not ready to accept this term for any Muslim majority society. laicization is a better term. In contrast to that, Laicization is the

systematic separation of religious institutions from those of the state. Thats where a lot of the debate

in Islamic societies tends to lie, today and in the last century. There is, in fact, no substantial

secularizing in the history of modern Islamic societies. The only exceptions are the Islamic states

that have emerged from the communist umbrella or that are still under residual communist control, such as Kazakhstan and perhaps Albania. There are obviously

58 secular space and secular individuals in Islamic societies, but they dont really interact with anyone else. For example, social elites are secular in many

Islamic societies, but these same social elites cease to be secular if they want to communicate effectively with anyone outside their own social group, because mass governance doesnt operate in secular terms. So

laicization works better as a term than secularization does because the whole debate ends up being about the role of religion in society and whether or not characters who, in fact, had reputations in their own time as misogynists, and that their misuse of interpretation was propagated in the canonization of this literature, while another set of traditions that did not have that kind of attitude was suppressed.

A positive example of a laicising society is Turkey. Turkeys history of laicising begins at the start of the 19th century. However, people do not become conscious of

the terms secularism and laicization until the 20th century. After the Turkish Republic was created at the end of the World War I, there was approximately two decades when a conscious attempt was made to secularize at the national level and the state level. The creation of a secular

59 republic was followed by twenty-five years of religious persecution, and then lifting of that persecution and the establishment of some religious institutions under the control of the state. In the 1980s, under the religious

right party called Anavatan, or Motherland, the distinction between religious institutions and state institutions began to blur, the blur was further pronounced under Refah, the Salvaltion Front, which was in power in Turkey for the first half of the 1990s, primarily at the municipal level. During this period, there was a intentional public debate on laicization; in fact, when Refah came to power the major Turkish journal of the study of religion devoted an entire special issue to the laicization question. This is

remarkable because journals are used to historically document the issues involving separation of church and state. The conflict of church and state serves as the

primary obstacle when debating Islamic feminism.

60 Chapter 7 Results The conflict between Islamic feminist and Western feminists is an ongoing conflict and does not seem to have an ending. Western feminists need to acknowledge Islamic Islamic feminism can be

feminism as a global phenomenon.

found in various Muslim countries throughout the world and has an enormous impact on a lot of those countries. instance, Saudi Arabia and Iran have felt some of the impact of Islamic feminism and has had many reforms to enhance the status of women. In Saudi Arabia women have a high level of educational opportunity (Amnesty International). Women represent 55 For

percent of university graduates, own 40 percent of private wealth, and own 15,000 commercial establishments, but they cannot participate in any dealings regarding their businesses. In spite of the harsh conditions that confront

women in Saudi Arabia, there has been an attempt to expand the volume of interaction with women. The Saudi Arabian

government has pledged to start giving women ID cards (Beyer). A woman has her name on her husbands ID card in If she is granted a If

order to show proof of identity.

divorce, her name will be placed on her fathers card.

her father is dead, then she has to use her brothers card,

61 and if she has no brother she is to use her closest male relative, even if she doesnt know him. A Riyadh

translator believes once women have a separate identity then other things will come. Muslim women in Saudi Arabia

have a lot to look forward to as far as things to come. The establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979 has enhanced the status of women in their society (Women in Iran). Women in Iran enjoy a high degree of liberty, they drive cars, buy and sell property, run their own businesses, vote and hold public office (Beyer pp54). But they cannot travel overseas without permission from their husband or father, even though the rule is basically ignored in Iran. When the United Nations Decade of Women established the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies and focused global attention on womens affairs, the Islamic Republic of Iran offered new guidelines on womens development to be reviewed by the international institutions. The guidelines

stem from the idea of equality of all men and women, womens tutorial guidance of human society, defining mens and womens social relations in regards to ethical and human values upheld by Islam and most importantly on the need for womens participation in decision-making processes at all levels. The constitution of Iran states;

62 Article 20- all the nation, men and women, are equally protected by the law, and enjoy every political, economic, social, cultural and human right in accordance with Islamic principles. Article 21-the government is obligated to assure the rights of women, in every dimension, in accordance with Islamic principles and to carry out the following tasks; 1. Creation of appropriate grounds for the growth of womens personality ensuring their material and spiritual rights. 2. Creation of a support system for mothers, particularly expecting mothers 3. Creation of a social security service for the widowed and the elderly women.

The Islamic Consultative Assembly, Irans Parliament, has nine women representatives out of 270. The number of women in the parliament has more than doubled compared to previous numbers. The ratio of men to women is small, but

there is a substantial increase in he number of women running for office.

63 Women in Iran are overcoming many constraints that hindered their education, and the academic gap between men and women is closing. The illiteracy rate is still higher

among women and school enrollment is still higher for men. Women have been able to pursue their education at the university level and are able to obtain jobs suitable for their talents and abilities. Also Iranian women have a Women

five percent higher average than the men of Iran.

also seem to prefer professional jobs and have obtained prosperity in different employment sectors. Iranians believe the Koran emphasizes equality of men and women and a true Muslim is one who unconditionally and willingly steps in the direction of attaining the status of The Perfect Human Being. Iranian women are empowered

with moral excellence and are active in the various material aspects of life because of the intellectual changes of the past fifteen years.

64 Chapter 8 Alternative Routes to Solutions

What has been tried? There have been a number of conferences held in honor of Muslim women. George Washington University (GWU) held The conference titled, Beijing

such a conference in 1996.

and Beyond: Implementing the Platform for Action in Muslim Societies, concentrated on women as leaders and their participation regarding civil society building in Muslim societies and the effect of social and cultural segregation of women and contradictory and conflicting legal codes on womens human rights. The central issues revolved around

the relationship between legal rights and womens participation in interpreting religious texts; religious higher education for women as a human rights; literature as a tool for civic awareness; and legal literacy. Holding conferences is a viable way to get an important message across, but it doesnt do any good if we are unaware of these conferences. These conferences need

to be advertised just as if we advertise the coming of Black history month every year. Womens issues seem to be Instead of

miniscule and are used as ways to divide women.

dividing the women, these conferences should be used to

65 unite women as easily as the Million Man March held by the Honorable Louis Farrakhan in 1995. By the same token,

a Million Women March held in 1997, but received little press. Therefore, how can women come together if womens

Conferences are treated as unimportant? If this conference were advertised on CNN or the Oprah Winfrey show then some of the issues would be known to our society today. The women at the conference called for

redefining Muslim women and challenging the myriad of political interests. While other women wanted to ignore

Western feminists ideology and fight within the system of Islam and still maintain their identity as Muslim women. One woman reasonably suggested that there should be a constructive quality in these conferences and not as confrontational. The feeling of us against them was

radiating from the article I read about this conference. Recently, the United States has had to come to terms with issues involving gender congruent with issues of class, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation in order to understand the various feminists movements found in the United States. An example of an issue that needed to be

addressed can be found in Millets book Sexual Politics because she quotes a famous speech by Sojourner Truth completely out of context (p 72). Truths speech became

66 famous among Black women because she is advocating the rights of Black women. Millets underlying assumption is

that all women are going through the same experience as White women. After she quotes Sojourner Truth she goes on

to say how women are always portrayed as ladies and should act a certain way. However, images of black women are

never seen as ladies and that is the heart of Sojourner Truths famous speech. The stereotypes of black women are

usually mammy, matriarch, Sapphire, whore, or bulldagger. Presently women are having to come to terms with this type of grouping together. Feminists are coming to understand

the historically feminism addressed the problems of the privileged such as Western, white, middle-class, heterosexual women. Now feminists need to address not just Western

another culture, but another religion as well. feminists see themselves as saviors.

They are trying to

help Muslim women by depicting roles Muslim women should want to imitate. The problem is Muslim women do not want

to imitate a model that they regard with such disdain. Islamic feminists have been trying to engage Islamic values and teachings rather than trying to reject the religion as Western feminist have done. One of the reasons

is that when feminists groups attempt to ignore religion and pursue a Western based view of feminism has failed.

67 They have met with failure because Islam does not provide secular positions when discussing feminism. Therefore, any

movement that does not embrace Islam has no effect on those they are trying to help. As Elias notes, The notion of secular space in Islamic society is an oxymoron, because simply by referring to it as Islamic society, were talking about a society that is defined in religious terms. Islamic feminists are also trying to engage religion in their writings because the only way to communicate with the women of Islam is through their religion. As noted

previously many Islamic feminists have been taking the apologetic stance towards religion. Leila Ahmed addresses

this issue in her book Women and Gender in Islam by stating, a lot of Islamic feminists have seen or felt within the Islamic texts an egalitarian message which is not apparent to non-Muslim readers of the text, nor is it even apparent to a lot of the anti-feminists among the Muslims themselves (pp 65-66).

68 What has not been tried? The problem the United States has is lack of education about other cultures. In our society we don not take the

time to learn about other cultures that exist here in the United States so there is no way we can began to understand international cultures. Our education is so lacking that

after the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 President Bush had to announce that not all Muslims are bad. If

the United States had some literature about other cultures taught in our elementary and secondary schools there wouldnt be a need for an announcement say that all Muslims arent bad. It can be argued that we learn about other My proposed

cultures in college, but that is by choice.

plan of study is to have one year mandatory cultural studies at the high school level. If we expose ourselves

to other cultures, we probably will not be so quick to judge one another so harshly. Western feminists and Muslim women need to think of ways to present a united front. From my understanding

Muslims tolerate other religions and have respect for any religion of the Book. Western feminists do not try to A prime example is the recent

understand other religions. incident in Florida.

A woman was granted permission to

wear the veil in her drivers license photo. E-mail were

69 generated by some ignorant person saying how foreigners need to adapt and do what is American. there are Muslim women in America. The problem is

The woman could very

well have been a member of the Nation of Islam for all this person knew. We need to confront our prejudices and try to

understand that there are other cultures here in America. Not all incidents involving another religion necessarily involve another country.

70 Chapter 9 Conclusion The future of Western and Islamic Feminism Two major questions that remain important for integrating Western feminism and Islamic feminism are: 1. What can we learn about the future compatibility or incongruity of feminism in a Muslim environment from facts about Islamic traditions? 2. Are there any general principles to be gained, any directives to be taken, by those who work for womens rights and human rights in the world?

The most important point of this understanding is that many of the goals of Western feminism are not as important when evaluating other cultures. As we learned, the

historical evolution of each of these two schools of thought has a different outlook when examined side by side. Because of the differences found in history and Islamic feminism, an analysis of women in Islam is going to be decidedly different. In order to find a feminism that

women of Islam are going to identify with we must identify what ideology Islamic feminist follow. Since Western

feminism began by trying to establish legal rights already granted to Muslim women it is useless to try to advocate

71 these rights in an Islamic feminist movement. A feminist

movement that is not indigenous to Muslim societies is sure to be a failure. Muslims contend that a successful feminist movement will embrace Islamic traditions and culture. Islam has

traditions and cultural aspects that do not necessarily mirror a Western feminist movement. For instance, the fact

that Western feminists attack religion in their movement is a sore subject among Islamic feminists. As al-Faruqi

states, Muslim women view the teachings of Islam as their best friend and supporter. The directives found in the

Koran embody the ideal which Muslim women want to encourage not denounce. an enemy. Muslim women do not see their religion as

They believe other societies need to learn more

about true Islam and not be preyed upon by, ignorance, distortion, and exploitations of individuals found in Western societies. The gynocentric concept found in Western feminism needs to be addressed when establishing a successful Islamic feminist movement. Because Islam is a high-context

society the goal of a feminist movement needs to benefit the society as a whole. They believe in establishing a

good for all instead of one or as in this case one sector of society. Succinctly put, if Muslims were to concentrate

72 only a womens needs it would be because it is beneficial to society as a whole. Western feminists tend to

concentrate on the advancement of women, but they never mention what happens to family. In order to involve Muslim

women in any feminist movement we must address the issue of family. In order to establish unity among feminists we must understand that Islam influences every aspect of Muslim societies. Islam has an effect on the political, social,

economic, and psychological aspects of Muslim societies. The traditions found in Islam serve as a main source for uniting Muslims. If Western feminists continue to deny or

try to eradicate Islam than any attempt at an Islamic feminist movement will fail. We need to understand that

the women of Islam are not oppressed in all Muslim societies. They are as diversified as the American woman.

Even though some women exist in harsh conditions, others do not. All religions have positive aspects as well as negative ones. Western feminists need to acknowledge the

fact that women have just recently attained equal status in Western societies. Women in Western societies had to come

over obstacles just as many Muslim women may have to. Their style of dress, however, should not be the only

73 reason we consider them oppressed. Especially when we find

women who believe Islam gives them freedom (Beyer).

74 Bibliographical Essay After the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 Americas curiosity about religion of Islam escalated. Normally public opinion about the Islamic religion is often negative. of women. The Muslim people are seen as violent oppressors Although it may be true in some countries, the

fact is Muslim people represent a variety of societies and communities where there are different interpretations of the Koran in regards to the female role and status in Islamic societies. Although, there are a myriad of

articles written about the women of Islam the articles used for this thesis concentrated on Islamic feminism. Margot Badrans articles were very helpful in defining Islamic feminism. For instance, Badran gives a definition

of Islamic feminism in Islamic Feminism, Whats in a name? Badran goes into detail about the cultural aspects

of Islamic feminism and she explains the differences among feminisms in Feminisms and Islamism. Finally, Badran has

a third article that explains the essential differences regarding feminism and religion among women of Islam in Understanding Islam, Islamisms, and Islamic Feminism. The articles that compare Islamic feminism and Western feminism are helpful in trying to see what specific issues needed to be addressed regarding this conflict. An example

75 of an outstanding article is by Jean Bethke Elshtain. Elshtain goes to the heart of the cultural problem in various feminists societies in Exporting Feminism. (Transcending national Boundaries). One of the most influential classes that helped understand conflict and culture was Culture and Conflict taught by Dr. Kevin Avruch at George Mason University. Dr.

Avruchs class gives a basis for what culture is and helped in explaining how one should look at the women of Islam. Other articles that helped in understanding culture were Shahrzad Mojabs Muslim Women and Western Feminists: The Debate on Particulars and Universals. Susan muaddi

Darrajs Understanding the Other Sister: The Case of Arab Feminism. Although many of the works consulted were good reads some of the articles were repetitive to the works already cited. With that said if some of the less important

articles were read first they may have had more impact on the research for this thesis.

76 Works Consulted AbuKhalil, Asad. Women in the Middle East. Foreign Policy in Focus 5.130 (2000): 1. Al Faruqi, Dr. Lois Lama. Islamic Traditions and the Feminist Movement: Confrontation or Cooperation? Feminism. Nov.-Dec. 2002

<http://www.jannah.org/sisters/feminism.html>. Al-Marayati, Laila. Afghanistans Taliban: Not a Valid Interpretation of Islam. Nov. 2002 <http://www.mwlusa.org/new_afghan2.html>. Al-Tarrah, Ali. An overview of Historical Changes in the Lives of Middle Eastern Women. Domes 3.3 (1994): 5. Asimov, Nanette. Islam Also has its Feminists. Editorial. Toronto Star Newspapers, Ltd The Guelph Mercury 18 Oct. 2001: A10 . Azzara, Mark. From Hijab to Wife-Beating, Muslims Differ Over Texts. Republican-American 8 Nov. 2001: D1+. Badran, Margot. Islamic Feminism: Whats in a Name? Al-Ahram Weekly Jan. 2002. Nov.-Dec. 2002 <http://www.ahram.org.eg/weekly/2002/616/index.htm>. - - -. Feminsims and Islamisms. Journal of Womens History 10.4 (1999): 196. - - -. Understanding Islam, Islamism, and Islamic Feminism. Journal of Womens History 13.1 (2001): 47.

77 Beyer, Lisa. The Women of Islam. Time magazine 3 Dec. 2001: 50-59. Bodman, Herbert L., and Nayereh Tohidi. Women in Muslim Societies; Diversity within Unity. Boulder London: Lynee Rienner Publishers, 1998. Bouma, Gary D., and Jan Brace-Govan. Gender and Religious Settlement: Families, Hijabs and identity. Journal of Intercultural Studies 21.2 (2000): 159. Chishti, Maliha. Feminism and Islam -Oil & Water? Resisting the Feminist Gaze. Azizah 2.1 (2002): 106. Cott, Nancy F. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, n.d. El Guindi, Fadwa. Perspective on Women -Feminism Comes of Age in Islam, Young Activists Assert Their Place in Society and Religion, Challenging Some Traditions, Empowered By Others. Los Angeles Times 17 Feb. 1992: A+. El Solh, Camillia Fawzi. Muslim Womens Choices: Religious Belief and Social Reality. Ed. Judy Mabro. Rhode Island: Berg Purblishers, 1994. Elias, Jamal J. Secularization, Laicization, and Challenges to Feminist Reform in the Islamic World. Ms.

78 Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Exporting Feminism. (Transcending National Boundaries). Journal of International Affairs Winter (1995): 541-549. Engineer, Asyhar Ali. The Rights of Women in Islam. Ney York: St. Martins Press, 1992. Fernea, Elizabeth. Secretarys Open Forum. In Search of Islamic Feminism. Open Forum for the United States Department of State. N.p.: n.p., 1999. N. pag. Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn. Toward a theory of a Arab-Muslim woman as activists in secular and religious movements. Arab Studies Quarterly Spring ser. 15.2 (1993): 87+. Franks, Myfanwy. Feminisms and Cross-ideological Feminist Social Research: Standpoint, Situatedness and Positionailty-- Developing Cross-ideological Feminsit Research. Journal of International Womens Studies 3.2 (2002): 40. Gallagher, Nancy E. Islam and Feminisms: An Iranian Case-Study (Womens Studies at York Series). Domes 9.1 (2000): 74. Hammad, Shahidan. Women and Clandestine Politics in Iran. Feminist Studies Spring 23.1 (1997): 7-25. Haniffa, Aziz. Feminism Seen as Not Clashing with Islam. India Abroad 26.34 (1996): 47.

79 Hoodfar, Homa. The Womens Movement in Iran: Women at the Crossroads of Secularization and Islamization. WIN News 25.4 (1999): 51. Hussain, Seyad Abida. Christian Science Monitor March (1993). Introduction to Islam. Nov.-Dec. 2002 <http://www.iad.org>. Jalabi, Afra. To Veil or Not to Veil, That is the Question. Oct.-Nov. 2002 <http://www.mwlusa.org/hijab_oprah.htm>. Kazemi, Farhad. Gender, Islam, and Politics. (Iran). Social Research 67.2 (2000): 453. Keskin, Burcak. Political Participation Patterns of Turkish Women. Middle Eastern Review of International Affairs 1.4 (1997). Khalil, Abu Asad. Toward the Study of Women and Politics in the Arab World: The Debate and the Reality. Feminist Issues Spring (1993): 3-24. Khan, Shahnaz. Muslim Women: Negotiations in the Third Space. Signs 23.2 (1998): 463. Kurtz, Stanley. Veil of Fears: Why they veil; why we should leave it alone. National Review 54.1 (2002). Lari, Sayyid Mujtaba Musavi. Islam and the Position of Women: The Light of Islam. Nov.-Dec. 2002 <http://home-swipenet.se/islam>.

80 Leckey, Dolores R. Feminism in Search of an Adjective. America. United Nations Converence on Women. 7 ed. Vol. 173. N.p.: n.p., 1995. 3. Majid, Anouar. The Politics of Feminism in Islam. Signs 23.2 (1998): 321. Millet, Kate. Sexual Politics. Urbana and Chicago: University of Ilinois Press, 2000. Moghadam, Val. Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World. Rev. of Feminism and Nationalism in the Third World, by Kumari Jayawardena. Monthly Review 39 (1987): 53. Moghadam, Valentime M. Feminism and Islamic Fundamentalism: A Secularist Interpretation. Journal of Womens History 13.1 (2001): 42+. Mojab, Shahrzad. Doing Fieldwork on Women in Theocratic Islamic states: A Critique of the Politics of Empiricism. Resources for Feminist Research Spring-Summer (2000): 81. - - -. Muslim Women and Western Feminists: The Debate on Particulars and Universals. Monthly Review 50.7 (1998): 19. Muaddi Darraj, Susan. Understanding the Other Sister: The Case of Arab Feminism. Monthly Review 53.10 (2002): 15.

81 Muhammad, Raqayyah Kamillah, and Tayyibah Taylor. Reality Check: Addressing the Medias Portrayal of Muslim Women. Azizah 1.4 (2001): 29. Muslim Womens League. Nov.-Dec. 1999 <http://www.mwlusa.org>. Norton, Augustus Richard, et al. Gender, Politics, and the State: What do Middle Eastern Women Want? Middle East Policy 5.3 (1997): 155. Okin, Susan Moller. Feminism and Multiculturalism: Some tensions. Ethics 108.4 (1998): 661. Power, Carla. The New Islam. 1998: 34-38. Quaraishi, Amira J. What does Postmodernism have to do with Muslim Women? Azizah 2.1 (2002): 108. Role of Women. Nov.-Dec. 2001 <http://saudiinfo.com>. Saliba, Therese. Arab Feminsim at the Millenium. Signs 25.4 (2000): 1087+. Shelly, Martha. Women & Gender in Islam: Price of Honor: Nine Parts of Desire. On the Issues: The Progressive Womans Quarterly 4.2 (1995): 45. Smucker, Philip G. The meaning of a scarf: Turkish Students fight to wear Islamic head coverings. Editorial. United States, News & World Report 16 Mar. 1998: 31-32. Editorial. Newsweek 16 Mar.

82 Toomey, Christine. Women of the World: Iran. Marie Claire July 2001: 38-46. Wehr, Paul. Conflict Regulation. Boulder: Westview Press, 1979. Western Feminists, Muslim Women and the Veil that Separates Them. Fall 2001 <http://www.maryems.net>. Women in Contemporary Turkey. Nov.-Dec. 2001 <http://www.turkey.org>. Women in Iran and the View of Islam. Nov.-Dec. 2001 <http://www.salmiran.org>.

83 ___________________________________________________________

Biographical Statement Jennifer Saporia King is a Presidential Management Intern for the class of 2005. She will begin working as a Foreign

Affairs Officer for the United States Department of State in September 2003. Prior to completing her Masters of

Science Degree in International Studies at Central Connecticut State University, she earned a B.A. in English from Spelman College in Atlanta, GA, a Paralegal certificate from Augusta State University in Augusta, GA, and a Arabic certificate from the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, CA. She served six years as an

Arabic linguist in the United States Navy.