Trees and Plants in the Greek Tragic Writers

Author(s): Edward S. Forster

Source: Greece & Rome, Vol. 21, No. 62 (Jun., 1952), pp. 57-63
Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/640968
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 TREES AND PLANTS IN THE GREEK
TRAGIC WRITERS
By EDWARD S. FORSTER
tT was not until the time of Aristotleand his pupil Theophrastus
1 thatthe Greekstooktheinitiativein studyingbotanyfroma scientific
point of view, but naturallyearlierGreekwriterswere interestedin
varyingdegreesand for variousreasonsin the plantswhichthey saw
aroundthem,andthereforementionthemin theirworks.
The presentis the thirdof a seriesof articles,the firsttwo of which
haveappearedin the ClassicaZ Retnew,'Trees and Plantsin Homer'r
(C.R.,vol. 1,July I936, pp. 97 ff.) and'TreesandPlantsin Herodotus'
(ib., vol. lvi, July I942, pp. 57 ff.). The presentarticledealswith the
referencesto trees and plantsin the thirty-fiveextantplaysandfrag-
mentsof Aeschylus,Sophocles,andEuripides.2It is proposedfirstto
tabulatethe referencesto trees,shrubs,andplantsin theseauthorsand
indicatethe contextsin whichtheyoccur,andtherlto tryto drawsome
conclusionsas to the interestwhichthesewritersdisplayin plantlire
and the attitudewhichthey adopttowardsit. Fortv-threebotanical
namesoccurin the playsof the threedramatists,whereasin Homer
therearefifty and in Herodotusfifty-seven.It will be clear,I think,
that the dramatiststook much less interestin plant-lifethan either
Homeror Herodotus.
To taketreesandshrubsfirst,the oak,:Apus (Quercusrobor) a word
which,likethe Sanskntrootdru,wasoriginallya generaltellll for'tree'
or 'wood',andhenceis usedfor the 'kingof trees'ccurs frequently
in the Greektragedians,especiallyin Euripides.Its woodis usedfor
a funeralpyrein S. Tr. I I95, for a sacrificial
firein E. Bacch.766, and
for ordinaryfuel in ib. 384 and6I5, andformakmggarlands(ib. 702).
It occursin similesof a strickenwarrior,sarhofalls like a felled oak
(S. El. 98), and of a motherclingingto her child'likeivy to an oak'
(E.Hec.398). It is twiceusedof the 'talking'oaksof Dodona(A. P.V.
834, S. Tr. I I68), butthe morecorrectwordin this connexionis yog
t This ariicle containsa short generalintroductionto the subject of botany
in Greekauthon.
< The Oxfordtexts havebeen used for the plays. The fragrnentsof Aeschylus
are quotedfrom Nauck's Tragzvorum Graeco7um Fragmenta,those of Sophocles
from Jebb and Pearson'sFragmentsof Sophocles,and those of Eunpides from
Nauck's E21npidisTragoediae,vol. iii (Teubner). A. S. Hunt's Fragmenta
TragicaPapyraceahas also been consulted.
58 TREES AND PLANTS IN
(Quercusaegilops),the Valonia oak (S. Tr. I7I, E. Melanippe,2I
Frag.Trag.Papyr.). Y?S does not occurin the tragicwnters except
with referenceto Dodona.
The willow, iT?a (Salix alba),is only found in Euripidesand in the
sense of a wicker shield (Heracleid. 376, Suppl.695).
The black poplar, aly?lpoS (Populusniger),occurs in E. Hipp. 2I0,
where Phaedraexpressesa wish that she could reposein its shade, and
in two similes in Sophocles, 'even as when the breeze is so light as to
stir nothingsave the top of the poplar'(Fr. 23) and ib. 593, where man
is said to be as 'shortlivedas the leaves of a slender poplar'.
The Corsicanpine, TrEVm (Pinus laricio),is frequentlymentioned. It
grew on Mount Ida (E. Hipp.I254) and on Mount Pelion (Ak. 9I8);
it was used for signal fres and torches (A. Sg. 279; S. Tr. I198, etc.)
and for building ships (E. llied. 4, Alndr.864).
The Aleppo pine, rriTtrS (Pinus halep), occurs only in A. Fr. z >,
where a warriorhangs his bonvon a branchof it.
The silver pine ?X (Abiescephalxica),is mentionedseveral times
by Euripidesbut not in the othertwo tragedians. It occurseleven times
in E. Bacch.,mainly in the scene describedby the messenger(ll. Io43-
I53), which took place on the pine-clad heights of Mount Cithaeron.
Since pine-wood was used in the constructionof ships, ?A iS used
for a ship (E. Phoen.208, Alc-114)
The prickly cedar,KE6pOS (auniperS oecedr=), occurs several tes
in Euripides, its wood being used in building (Tro. II41, SIC. Ij8,
Or. I37I), for makirlg a cofiin (Alc. 365) and a staircase (Phoen.
I 00).
The bay-tree, taspvn(Laurgsnobilzs),is mentioned frequently by
Euripides,but not by Aeschylus and only once by Sophocles. It grew
in the sacred grove at Delos (E. Hec. 459), and it was beneath a bay-
tree that Cassandraprophesied(Alndr.III5); boughs of it were carried
in processionsin honourof Apollo (lon422) and it was used for decking
his temple (ib. 80, I03). It was used for garlands(I.A. 897) and for
makingbrooms(Ion I45). It occursin a simile of ivy clinging to a bay-
tree (Med.I2I3). In S. Fr. 897 'having eaten of the bay-leafkeep your
mouth tightly closed' seems to mean 'when inspired keep a guard on
your utterance',referringto the fact that the priestessof Apollo chewed
bay-Ieavesbefore uttering her oracles.
The frankincensetree, SiCaVos(BoswelliaCarteni),is mentioned in
E. Bacch.I44 as used in religiousceremonies. It occursalso as a single
word in S. Fr. Io64.
The manna-ash,;?Ain(Fraxznus ornus),occurs in S. Fr. 7;9, where
 THE GREEK TRAGIC WRITERS 59
it is coupledwith KccpWa the hazel-tree(Corylzzs mciluna);the context
is not supplied.
The cornel-tree,Kpav?la (Cor?zas mas),is mentionedin E. Fr. 785
as a materialfor arrows.It is akinto, but muchlargerthan,our do>-
wood(Cornus sanguinea).
The GreekAcoTos has severalmeanings,but in the tragediansit is
only used of the nettle-tree(Celtisaustralis),oi uhich thc stemswere
oftenusedfor pipes:hencethe wordcomesto mean a tlute (E. El. vI6,
Hel. I7I). The othermeaningsare(a) thejujubc-trec(Zivvphus lotus),
the food of the lotus-eaters,(b) a lepminous plant,identicalxvith,or
akinto, bird's-foottrefoil(Lotuscorniculatus), and k) \mphaea lotus
or Nile water-lily.The verb AcoTi3opal, 'pickout the choicestflower',
is foundin A. Suppl.963 arldS. Fr. 724,andthe substantiseAcon:,ua,
'flower',isusedin a metaphorical sense(likecs andCSC-TO5) in A. Fr.
99, I7aandE. Hel. I593.
The chaste-tree,Auyos(Vitexagnt4s castus),occursin E. Cycl.225;
its twigswereused by the Cyclopsfor bindinghis lambstogether.It
is usedin the weavingof basketsby the modernGreei;s.
The myrtle,pupcivn(Myrttlscommunis), occursonls in Euripides
(iGk-7Jr9;El. 3z4, 5I2, 778; Ion I20)- It was used for aarlandsand
for deckingtombs.
The tree-heath,EpgiKn (Ericaarborea), occurs in A. Ag. z86, where
it is used for fuel for the beacon-fire.It growsto a heightof It or
IZ feet andis still used for fuel in the Argolid.
The gum of the myrrh-tree(Balsamodendron myrrh), which grew
in Arabia,wasusedas incense(S. Fr. I8I, 31o; E. Ion II75).

Of fruit-treesthe olive and Grine occurmost frequently.The olive-

tree,EAaia (Oleaeuropaea), is mentionedas growingat Colonus(S. O.C.
I7, 70I) andat Samos(A. Pers.883). The fruitis mentioned in ib. 6I7.
It wasthe gift of Athena(E. Tro.802) andwasusedin sacrifices(S. Fr.
398); its boughswerecarriedby suppliants(A. Eum.43; S. O.C. 483)
and by a herald(A. Ag. 494), and its foliagewas used for garlands
(E. Ion I433). It was a stakeof olive-woodburntin the fire which
Odysseusused for blindingthe Cyclops(E. Cycl.45S ff.).
The wild olive, Ralosyis mentionedin S. Tr. II97, whereHeracles
commandsHylas to use its wood as one of the constituentsof his
funeralpyre.
The grape-vine,a)lar?Sos (Vitis vinifera),occurs very frequently,
usuallyin connexionwith wine usedfor drmkingor libation.A more
poeticalwordfor the vine is oivavE,whichis foundin S. Fr. 25; and
60 TREES AND PLANTS IN
E. Phoen.23I. The formerpassagedescribesthe aculous growth
of a bunchof grapesin a singleday.
The date-palm,wolvlt(Phoenixdactylifera), is mentionedonlyin E.
Hec.458, wherethe referenceis to the treeat DelosunderwhichLeto
gavebirthto ApolloandArtemis.It is curiousthatthe onlymention
of the date-palmin Homer(Od.vi. I63) alsorefersto thistreeat Delos,
to which OdysseuscomparesNausicaa.The date-palm,as its name
implies,camefromthe Eastandwasnot a nativeof Greece.
The cultivatedfig-treeis not mentionedby the tragedians,but the
wild fig, ?plwos(Ficus caprzficus),occursin S. Fr. I8I, a prolrerbial
sayingquotedby Athenaeus,'a ripewild-fig,uselessforeating,youtry
to fertilizeothersby yourinstruction';thatis to say, 'Beingignorant,
howcanyouinstructothers>'The adjective?piVEos occursin E. Fr.676.
Similarlythe cultivatedpear does not occur, but the wild pear,
vXePE?s (Pyrusamygdoliformis), is usedin S. O.C. I596 of a hollowtree
nearthe sceneof Oedipus'miraculousdisappearance.
The mulberrv,popov(Morusnigra),occursin S. Fr. 395, wherethe
blossomis saidto be white,the fruitfirstpurpleandthenblack,when
'Egyptiar}' (= black)old age comesupon it. In A. Fr. II6 berries,
white,red,andblacli,aresaidto appearon the xuopov at thesametime:
hence Liddelland Scott suggestthat herethe bramble,Ros (Rubus
ulmifolia),is referredto, whichseemsunlikely.
The apple,ppRov (Pyrusmalus),is used in S. Tr. II02 of the golden
applesof the Hesperides,whichforrnsthe objectof one of the labours
of Heracles.The adjectivespRorropos(E. Hipp.742)and>PXowopos
(E. H.F. 396)bothoccurin passagesalsoreferringto the applesof the
Hesperides.
The pomegranate, poa (Punicagranatam),occursin A. Fr. 6IO, a
quotationby Aristophanes.It is probablya proverbial saying,usedof
unnecessary toil,'Thouwiltbe pickingseedsfroma bitter-sweet pome-
granate'.

Onlythreecerealsare mentionedin the Tragedians,barley,wheat,

andmillet. Barley,Kpi (Hordeum sativam),occursin A. Suppl.953,
where?K Kpti@V p? iS a drii of the natureof beer. The verbKptiaw,
'feed on barley','wax wanton'(used of horsesor asses),is foundin
A. 24g.I64I andS. Fr. 876.
Wheat,TrUpos (Tnticumsulgare),is found only in adjectiveforms,
TrlupoopZ (E. Pho<. 664)andiplvos (E. Fr. 373).
Italianmillet,>?Aivr(Seta Italica),occursin the curiousphrase
KVTi,Up>?AivnS
(S. Fr. 608)quotedby Harpocration; accordingto Theo-
 THE GREEKTRAGIC WRITERS 6I

phrastus(Hzst.plant.Lx.I3. z) it mes the spacebetweento Eots

on the stalkor else the long,roundedearof the Tnillet.Anotherkind
of millet,KEYXPOS (PanicSum miliaceam), doesnot occurin theTragedians,
butK?YXPCA)>= 'grainsof millet'areusedof the eyelet-holesonther
of a shieldin E. Phoen.I386.
Troais the generalterrnfor grass,particularlyas used for fodder
(S. Aj. 60I, O.C. I57; E. Cycl.333). It alsohasthe still moregeneral
significance of 'herb',andin A. Fr. z8, 29 is used of the magicalherb
whichGlaucusate andwastransforrned into a sea-god.
Of plantsused for textiles?vivov, flax (Linumusitatzssimum), occurs
frequently.It wasemployedformakingthread(E. Tro.537,Or.I43I),
clothsor garments(A. Suppl.I2I), fishing-nets(A. Cho.504),andsails
(E. I.T. 4I0). Anotherwordfor flaxis ,BiiC:os, the adjectivalformof
which is a commonepithetof garments(A. Sept. I039, Pers. I23;
S.Fr.373;E.Bacch.82I).
Hemp,vavvapls(Cannabusativa),is quotedas a single wordfrom
the Thamyras of Sophocles(S. Fr. 243). The scene of this play was
Thrace,and,sinceHerodotus(iv. 74) tells us thatthe Thracianswore
hempengarments,the referenceis probablyto these.
Papyrus,pupRos (Cyperus papyr2ws),
occursas the nameof a plantin
the Tragediansonly in A. Suppl.76I in a proverbialsayingpupRou 6?
KaprroS oiJKpur?a CsTaxw, 'the papyrusfruit does not alwayscome to
maturity',thatis, 'don'tcountyourchickensbeforethey arehatched'.
In ib. 947 it is used of a rollof papyrus.
Of reedsandrushes,Kiagos is a generaltenn whichin the Trage-
diansis only used of musicalinstruments,especiallyPan-pipes,made
withreeds(E. I.T. I I26, El. 702,I.A. 577). In S. Fr. 36 it is usedof the
cross-reedof a lyreto whichthe lowerendsof the stnngswerefastened.
xolvos is alsoa generaltermforreedorrush. The adjectivecrXolvlvos
is foundin E. Cycl.208 as an epithetof vesselswovenof rushesfor
holdingcheeses,andin E. Fr. 284 of horses'reins.
The pole-reed,tovaE,(Arundodonax),is used in its literalsense in
E. Hel. 349, whereit is describedas growingin the riverEurotas,but
it is moreoftenusedof flutesmadeof reeds(A. P.V. 575;E. Or. I46).
Ofvegetables, KuallosXthebean(Viczafaba), occursonlyin S. Fr. 404,
in the senseof a beanusedfor voting.
The globe-artichoke, vapa (Cyna7ascoly?nnus), is quoted as a
singlewordby Herodiar3 (S. Fr. 348). In ib. 7I8 (cuvapoS asa Tracr
AX?1 V) the atichokeis probablyalsomet, apos beng used
as anadjectilre of two tenations and a in the generalsense of
a pricklypIant;but possiblythe textis corrupt.Eustathius is probably
 AND PLANTS IN
TREES
is equivalentto Kwo:Hrosdog-
62
wrongm thinkingthatvuvctpos
aK(XvicX
(Rosasempervnrens).
thorn is not men-
Ofplantsappreciated for theirflowerstherose,poSov, (Med. 84I,
po6soS and p?8?;tS
but Eunpidesusesthe adjectives
tioned,
I.A.
I297)-
occursin E.I.A. I298, whereit is
Thehyacinth,iJUKtV6oS (Scillabifolia), oftheJudgement of Paris.
descnbed asgrowingonMountIdaatthescenegrewat Colonus(S. O.C.
(Narczssus tazetta),
Thenarcissus,vapKI:croS in Greece(N. serotznus) flowers
683).The othercommonvarietyfound
the autumnandis muchsmaller. (Crocus sativus),a purplevariety
in
Thecrocusor saffron-plant, KpOKOS
used for producmga dye, occursby
in
whichthe yellowstigmata
of were
the descriptionof a robe wornthe
A.Ag. 239, where it is used in that it wasused in
On S. Fr. 45I the scholiaststates
Iphigeneia. in the descriptionof Colonus(S. mean
O.C.
worship of Demeter. It occurs which
formedfrom KpoKos
685).There are severaladjectives
yellow andoccurfrequently. especiallyby Euripides.
mentioned,
Ivy,KiCCo5 (Hederahelix),is oftenwreaths(S. Tr. 220; E. Bacch.8I,
and
Itwasmuchused for crowns asKiC45lVOV @a?S (ib. 25), md Teiresias'
etc.).The thyrsusis described It was also used as a materialfor
staflfwas of ivy-wood(ib. 363). It occursin similesm vie of
wooden cups(E. Alc. 756, Cycl.I5I).
E. aVed.IZI3, Hec.398). The epithet
itsclingingnature(S. Ant. 8^6; the senseof ivy-crowned.
Kl:Cws is used of Apollo(A. Fr. 34I) in anevergreen climbingplant
aspera),
Roughbindweed,:,Rat (Smilaxredberries,occursin E. Bacch.I08,
withwhiteflowerswhichturninto
703,whereit is usedfor ,arlands. australzs), is mentionedin E. Cycl.
Christ's thorn, nTaxioupoS (Paliurus
which
to be usedas fuelforthe firein
394,wherethe Cyclopsordersit companions.
heis goingto cooktwo of Odysseus' is mentonedin E. Cycl.433
Mistletoe,itoS(Loranthus Ezlropaeus),
The adjectiveitogopoS is foundin S. Fr.
as an ingredient of bird-lime.
403 as an epithetof the oak. is not found in the Tragediansin its
Lichen,tree-moss(Aelxilv), metaphorically by Aeschylus,of an
literalsense, but is twice used 785).
on the skin of animals (Ch.28I) andof a canlier(Eum.
eruption
plantswhichoccurin the surviving
Sucharethe trees,shrubs,and they
wnters,andthe contextsin which
worksof the threeGreelitragic arementionedmainlyin connexion
areused. It will be seen thatthey articlesof everydayuse. They
also
withreligiousandfuneralntes and
 THE GREEK TRAGIC WR ITE RS 63
occur in siles and proverbialsayingsand are frequentlyused in
metaphoncalsenses.xThey are hardlyelrerused to describescenery
andthe beautiesof nature.
Greektragedyis concentratedon action, and the scene does not
frequentlychangeas in a modernplay. No paLnsaretakento emphasize
the background in frontof whichthe actiontakesplace. The ordinary
scene is the frontof a perrilanent buildingrepresentinga templeor
palace,which,thoughit mayhavebeendeckedxvithfoliageor garlands,
does not suggestthe beautiesof nature. The scene,if laidelsewhere,
for exampleon the uninhabitedislandsf Lemnosin the Philoctetes of
Sophoclesora ruggedmountainin thePrometheas Zinctus of Aeschylus,
doesnot lenditselfto picturesque description,butit is ratherits desola-
tion whichis insistedupon. The messengersshoso oftenappearsand
describeseventswhichhaveoccurredoffstageis muchtoo busy telling
his storyto dwell on the settingof the happeningswhich he has to
relate. Thereis in factonlyonepassagein Greeletragedywhereplant-
life is introducedto give colourto a descriptionof scenerynamelythe
famouschorus in the Oedfipas Coloneusof Sophoclesin which he
describeshis own home,ColonusnearAthens(O.C.668ff.), 'withits
wine-darkivy andthe god's inviolatebower,rich in berriesand fruit'
and where'the narcissusbloomswith its fair clusters,ancientcrown
of the greatgoddesses,andthe crocuswith its goldenbeam',the home
of 'the grey-leavedolive-tree,nurturerof children'.
But as a nlle, the Greekwritersof the fifthcenturyB.C.} unlessthey
had a specialmedicinalinterest,as had Hippocrates,or an economic
interest,likeHerodotus,showlittleinterestin plant-life. In the same
way the Greeksonly indulgedin horticulturein orderto obtainthe
necessitiesof life. The only gardensof whichwe hearare the sacred
precinctsof the gods, and no descriptionsof gardensoccurin Greek
literaturebetweenthoseof Alcinous(Homer,Od. vii. II2 ff.) d of
the Hesperides(Hesiod,Theog.2I5 ff.), and the Greeknovelists(e.g.
Longus,DapAnisand Chloe,iv. 2). The way in whichGreekwriters
(e.gwXen. Oec.iv. I3 i.) spe of the 'paradises'wich the traveller
sawin Persiashowsthattheyhadno suchgardensin theirowncountry.
The truthseemsto be thatthe Gree}sof the classicalperiod,livmg
ln a beautiful,unspoiledcountry,tookthe beautiesof natureas a matter
of courseand it seldomoccurredto them to describethem; they did
not see theirfatherland beinggraduallydefacedby the growthof huge
townsandthe encroachments of industnalism.
I It is remarEable how many botanical tenns are used metaphoricallyin
Greek tragedy,such as spvos,os, KAAos,}caprros?crmepzcr,
crraXvsX
etc.