CHAPTER 1 TRAFFIC STUDY

TRAFFIC VOLUME
the number of vehicles passing a given point during a specified period of time

IMPORTANCE TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY

Traffic planning, design & research Determine the efficiency of a traffic system Evaluate the quality of service of a transport facility Design roads no. of lanes & pavement thickness.

VOLUME STUDY METHODS

Manual Count Methods Automatic Count Methods Count periods 2 hours (peak period), 4 hrs (morning & evening peaks), 6 hrs (morning, afternoon & evening peaks), 12 hrs (daytime)

AUTOMATIC COUNT METHOD 1.To determine Vehicle hourly patterns Daily or seasonal variations and growth trends Annual traffic estimates 2. Method Applied when large sample of data is required. For periods more than one (1) day Normal intervals are 1 hour for a 24 hour period Counts may extend to a week, month or year 3. Recording methods Portable Counters Permanent Counters Videotape

VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION COUNT 1. Used to establish structural & geometric design criteria compute estimated highway user revenue compute capacity 2. Classification counts should be conducted if the percentage of heavy trucks is high if vehicle mix at a crash site is a contributing factor to the crash problem 3. Cars, MPVs, SUVs, 4WDs may be classified as passenger cars 4 Heavy vehicles such as trucks and buses may be classified as trucks ADT & AADT COUNT 1. ADT Average Daily Traffic Represents 24-hr count. 2. AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic Represents 24-hr traffic volume averaged over a full 365-day year. 3. Requires the use of an automatic counter. 4. Accuracy depends on existing roadway, weather and traffic demand conditions. 5. AADT volume count has the following uses: Measuring or evaluating the present demand for service by the roadway or facility. Developing the major or arterial roadway system. Locating areas where new facilities or improvements to the existing facilities are needed. Programming capital improvements.

EXAMPLES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDIES

INTERSECTION COUNT 1. Required for timing traffic signals designing channelization planning turn prohibitions computing capacity analyzing high crash intersections evaluating congestion 2. Uses manual count method. 3. Simple intersections, a single observer - sufficient 4. Complex intersections, several observers required PEDESTRIAN COUNT 1. Required for evaluating sidewalk and crosswalk needs justifying pedestrian signals timing traffic signals 2. Counts are conducted at intersection crossings, midblock crossings or along sidewalks. 3. When pedestrians are tallied, those 12 years and above are classified as adults.

MANUAL COUNT METHOD 1. To determine Vehicle classification Turning movements Direction of travel Pedestrian movements Vehicle occupancy 2. Method Applied when small sample of data is required. For periods less than one (1) day. Normal intervals are 5, 10 or 15 minutes. Counts are not usually taken on Mondays, Fridays and weekends. 3. Recording Method Tally Sheets Mechanical Counting Boards Electronic Counting Boards

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SPOT SPEED STUDY

A study of speed of traffic at one point or spot on a trafficway. Consists of a series or sample of observations of individual speeds of vehicles approaching an intersection or passing a point at a nonintersection. Used to estimate the speed distribution of an entire traffic stream at that location under current traffic conditions. 1. Carried out at Trend locations straight, level, open sections of rural highways, and midblock at urban streets. Problem locations accident blackspots, and locations where traffic signals and signs are contemplated. Representative locations for basic data surveys. Locations of before-and-after studies. 2. When carrying out a spot speed study, make sure the observer and the measuring instrument does not influence drivers speed. The measuring instrument must be consealed from the approaching drivers. Recording of data should be made as inconspicuous as possible. Accumulation of on-lookers must be avoided. 3. Recommended study periods: In three parts during off-peak periods: 1 hour between 6 am 12 pm, 1 hour between 3 pm 6 pm, and 1 hour between 8 pm 10 pm. whereby observations must be done in an hour, or not less than 50 vehicles for each period. 4. Course length of a spot speed study depends on : average speed of the traffic stream
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5. Application of Spot Speed Data For trends in operating speeds of different vehicle types, which are obtained from data collected through periodic sampling at selected locations For speeds at problem locations, to determine whether speeds are too high and if complaints received are justified For traffic operation (regulation and control) a. Establishing speed limits b. Determining safe speeds at curves and at approaches to intersections c. Establishing lengths of no-passing zones d. Locating traffic signs e. Locating and timing traffic signals f. School zone protection g. Establishing speed zones For accident analysis, to determine the relationship of speed to accidents which may help in developing corrective measures For before-and-after studies, to evaluate the effect of some change in controls or conditions For geometrical design features, a. Designs assume uniform speeds, and it is important to evaluate the effects of actual speed distributions on design features b. Length of speed change lanes, curvature, super elevation, and sight distance are directly related to, and vary appreciably with speed To evaluate capacity in relation to desired speeds. If all vehicles travelled at the same speed, capacity would be at a maximum and certain types of accidents, such as overtaking, passing or rear-end collisions, would be eliminated As aid to enforcement, To determine the effect of speed control measures To measure the effectiveness of changes in enforcement programs Research studies

6. Recommended course lengths Average speed (mph) < 25 25 40 > 40

Course length (ft) 88 176 264

Recommended sample size: at least 50, preferably 100 Like volume studies, spot speed studies are also not taken on Mondays, Fridays and weekends. 7. Spot Speed Study methods Stopwatch Method Radar/Meter Method Pneumatic Road Tube Method 8. Calculation Step Create Table Speed Class (km/h) Upper Limit (km/h) Mid Point, x (km/h) Number of Observation, f fxfx2 Presentage Total Observation % Cummulative Percentage Graph Histogram, Distribution Curve, Cummulative Distribution Curve

 Find Pace Pace = the 10 km/h range in speed in which the highest number of observation was recorded

Find range of the pace using graph total distribution

Find Mean (km/h)

Find Median (km/h) By calculation, by graph (P50) Find percentage of vehicle in pace using graph cumulative percentage total distribution th 85 Percentile Speed (By graph P85) The 85th percentile speed is the speed at or below which 85 % of the motorists drive on a given road unaffected by slower traffic or poor weather This speed indicates the speed that most motorists on the road consider safe and reasonable under ideal conditions It is a good guideline for the appropriate speed limit for that road The 85th percentile speed as obtained from the cumulative frequency distribution curve shown below is 88 km/h Standard Deviation By calculation

By graph (Cumulative Distribution Curve)

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CHAPTER 2 TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY

TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS
SPEED defined as rate of motion, or distance per unit time Space Mean Speed, vs is the average travel speed VS = nL ti L = length of the highway segment (km) ti = travel time of the ith vehicle to traverse the section (hours) n = number of travel times observed Time Mean Speed, Vt is the arithmetic mean of the measured speeds of all vehicles passing a fixed roadside point during a given interval of time Vt = Vi n Vi= spot speed (km/hr) n = number of vehicles observed Relationship Vs and Vt

DENSITY (k) (veh/km) Number of vehicles occupying a given length of lane or roadway, averaged over time, usually expressed as vehicles per kilometer (veh/km) direct measurement of density (k) can be obtained through aerial photography, but more commonly it is calculated from the following equation if speed (v) and rate of flow (k) are known: q = v k SPACING (s) (sec/veh) distance between successive vehicles in a traffic stream as measured from front bumper to front bumper can be generally observed from aerial photographs HEADWAY (h) is the corresponding time between successive vehicles as they pass a point on a roadway can be measured using stopwatch observations as vehicles pass a point on a lane LANE OCCUPANCY (LO) the ratio of the time that vehicles are present at a detection station in a traffic lane compared to the time of sampling is a measure used in freeway surveillance if one could measure the lengths of vehicles on a given roadway section and compute the ratio:

DENSITY (k)

CLEARANCE (c) is defined as the distance between successive vehicles in a traffic stream as measured from front bumpe to back bumper

RATIO (R)
VOLUME (V) actual number of vehicles observed or predicted to be passing a point during a given time interval

GAP (g) Corresponding time between successive vehicles as they pass a point on a roadway The difference between spacing and clearance, and headway and gap are as follows:

LANE OCCUPANCY (LO)

RATE OF FLOW (q) (veh/hr) q=vxk represents the number of vehicles passing a point during a time interval less than 1 hour. Thus, a volume of 200 vehicles observed in a 10-minute period implies a rate of flow of (200 60)/10 = 1200 veh/hr.
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CATEGORIES OF TRAFFIC FLOW

UNINTERRUPTED FLOW Occurs on facilities that have no fixed elements (such as traffic signals or stop signs) external to the traffic stream, that cause interruptions to traffic flow. Traffic flow conditions are thus the result of interactions among vehicles in the traffic system and between vehicles and the geometric characteristics of the roadway/guideway system. The driver of the vehicle does not expect to be required to stop by factors external to the traffic stream Uninterrupted Flow facilities: Freeways, Multilane Highways, Two-lane Highways
INTERRUPTED FLOW Occurs on facilities that have fixed elements causing periodic interruptions to traffic flow. Traffic is stopped or significally slowed down periodically irrespective of how much traffic exists. The driver expects to be required to stop as and when required by fixed elements that are part of the facility Interrupted Flow facilities: Signalized streets, Unsignalized streets with stop signs, Arterials, Transits, Pedestrian walkways, Bicycle paths. P/S: Uninterrupted flow and interrupted flow are terms that describe the facility and not the quality of flow!

TRAFFIC FLOW MODEL FOR UNINTERRUPTED FLOW

SPEED-DENSITY (v-k) RELATIONSHIP

A linear relationship exists between the speed of traffic on an uninterrupted traffic lane and the traffic density

As vehicles speed and spacing increases, the speeds approach the free speed, and drivers adopt their own speed when uninfluenced by other vehicles in the traffic stream (point C). The dashed curve represents the normal flow behaviour if all drivers were to have the same free speed (point D). It has been observed that drivers are uninfluenced by other vehicles in the traffic lane at flows of about 900 veh/hr or less, which is about half the capacity flow (point B). Maximum traffic density occurs (point A) when traffic has virtually come to a complete stop. In the forced flow region, each vehicle adopts its minimum spacing and clearance distance. SPEED, FLOW AND DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS As density increases: flow increases to an optimum with more vehicles on the road speed decreases due to the interaction of vehicles

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SPEED FLOW RELATIONSHIP

Capacity (qmax) is the maximum flow for the facility: when area under the v-k curve is at maximum reached when the product of increasing density and decreasing speed result in the maximum number of vehicles passing a certain point Congested unstable flow = high density, low speed: no available gaps for entering vehicles any vehicle that do enter create a disturbance that is not easily dissipated Uncongested stable flow = low density, high speed: plenty of gaps available for merging traffic Note that the maximum flow occurs at of the free mean speed (Vf). This is also called the optimal speed, which is denoted by Vm. The value of qmax is determin ed as follows:

FLOW DENSITY RELATIONSHIP

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CHAPTER 3 CAPACITY & LEVEL OF SERVICE

CAPACITY
the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles reasonably can be expected to traverse a point or a uniform section of a lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions

THE BASE CONDITIONS FOR A MULTILANE HIGHWAY

Under BASE CONDITIONS, full speed and capacity can be achieved. 3.6 m minimum lane width. 3.6 m minimum total lateral clearance in the direction of travel. Only passenger cars in the traffic stream. No direct access points along the roadway. Highway is divided. Free flow speed (FFS) is greater than 100 km/h. Total Lateral Clearance=Median Lateral+Shoulder Lateral Clearance Clearance

LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)

a qualitative measure describing operational conditions within a traffic stream and their perception by motorists and/or passengers 6 levels of service: LOS A Very Good LOS B LOS C LOS D LOS E LOS F Very Poor Parameters which determine the LOS of a highway: Flow Speed

BFFS is assumed to be 3 km/h lower than the 85th percentile speed. Recent studies suggests that BFFS is approximately 11 km/h higher than the speed limits of 65 km/h and 70 km/h, and it is 8 km/h higher for 80 km/h and 90 km/h speed limits. The BFFS is then reduced by the adjustment factors for lane width, lateral clearance, median type and access point density. The adjustment factors can be determined from the tables in HCM2000. DETERMINATION OF FLOW RATE (vp) V . PHV x N x Fhv x fP vP = 15-min passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/hr/ln) V = hourly volume (veh/hr) PHF = peak hour factor N = number of lanes fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor fP = driver population factor Peak-Hour Factor PHF = V . 4 x V15 vp =

Total Lateral Clearance = 1.6 + 1.2 = 2.8 m * If lateral clearance (shoulder or median) is greater than 1.8 m, the lateral clearance is taken as 1.8 m.

THE PREDICTION OF LOS FOR A MULTILANE HIGHWAY INVOLVES 3 STEPS:

DETERMINATION FREE FLOW SPEED (FFS) (a) Field Measurement Average of all passenger car speeds measured in field under low volume conditions can be directly used as the FFS if such measurements were taken at or below 1400 pc/hr/lane (b) Estimation FFS = BFFS fLW fLC fM fA where BFFS = base free flow speed fLw = adjustment for lane width fLC = adjustment for lateral clearance fM = adjustment for median fA = adjustment for access point density

A MULTILANE HIGHWAY
Has a posted speed limit of 60 to 90 km/h. Has a total of 4 to 6 lanes. Often is divided (has a median), can also be undivided. Is situated in suburban communities, leading into cities. Is also situated along high-volume rural corridors connecting two cities. Has traffic signals spaced at 3 km or less. Accommodates 15,000 40,000 vehicles per day. May accommodate as high as 100,000 veh/day when access across the median is restricted and when all major crossings are grade separated.
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where V = peak hourly volume V15 = highest 15-minute volume The PHFs for multilane highways have been observed to range from 0.75 to 0.95. Lower values are typical of rural or off-peak conditions, whereas higher factors are typical of urban and suburban peak-hour conditions. Where local data are not available, 0.88 is a reasonable estimate of the PHF for rural multilane highways and 0.92 for suburban facilities.

Heavy Vehicle Adjustment Factor

ET , ER = passenger car equivalents for trucks or buses (T) and recreational vehicles (RV) in the traffic stream (refer either Tables 6, 7 or 8) PT , PR = proportion of truck/buses and RVs in the traffic stream Note: In Malaysia there are no recreational vehicles. Therefore, neglect PR and ER Driver Population Factor When the traffic stream is made up of vehicles driven by regular drivers (commuters, or drivers familiar with the highway), the driver population factor, fP is taken as 1.00. Driver population factor may range between 0.85 and 1.00 DETERMINATION OF LEVEL OF SERVICE LOS is determined using the FFS and vP values. Look up the Speed-Flow curve. Locate the vP value on the x-axis and draw a vertical line upwards. Determine the average speed, S. (S=FFS if vP 1400 pc/hr/ln) Calculate density, D = vP / S. Determine the LOS on basis of density region in which the point is located.

NOTE: D = density (pc/km/ln) vp = flow rate (pc/h/ln) S = average passenger-car speed (km/h)

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