Philosophical Review

Aesthetic Imitation and Imitators in Aristotle Author(s): Katherine E. Gilbert Reviewed work(s): Source: The Philosophical Review, Vol. 45, No. 6 (Nov., 1936), pp. 558-573 Published by: Duke University Press on behalf of Philosophical Review Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2181240 . Accessed: 23/09/2012 13:44
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AESTHETIC

of excellence,as Plato did in the Phcedrusl he would apparhave placed poetsand imitators in or near thefirst class along ently with philosophers, and lovers,and not as Plato did, in musicians, the sixth class, below tradesmenand gymnasts.But if he had done thisit would have been because the Plato of the Symposium had suggestedto him how he mightrefutetheapparentargument and pessimisticmood of Republic X. Aristotlehas left no exas applied to fine art,but there plicitanalysisof thetermimitation of an hyis abundantmaterialin his works for the construction pothesis as to its meaning.And when that conceptionhas been to note thatthe imitative builtup, it is striking artistshares with thephilosopher love of learning and concernwithuniversalforms, with the lover a tendency toward divine madness,and with the powerto depictcharmusicianfondness forharmony and rhythm, acter,and moral efficacy. Clearlythe strainof aestheticreflection which Aristotlecarried forwardfromPlato was not the one in which paintingsand dramas are describedas pale and inertreplicas of substantialrealities, but ratherthe one-much modified, secularized,and broughtdown to earth-in which the love of True Essence increasingly inspires makers of fair forms who more and morein theirupward progresscreatemovingimagesof eternity. to theword 'imitation' The mostdamagingassociationattaching is that of its parasitic status. Plato was often troubledby this it seemedto him,is noart.2An imitation, weakness of imitative thingin and by itself; taken apart fromits original,it collapses. it can do nothing. It lacks substance,function, And beingnothing, utility.Rational esteem obviouslybelongs to such being as can initiate processes,and needs nothingfor its existenceand activity fromitself.If drama mustbe defined beyondwhat it can furnish and if paintings as second or third-hand process,blindmimickry, of somemoreauthentic reality, are littleelse thaninertmirrorings
1248

J F Aristotle had leftus a listof classes of humanbeingsin order

IMITATION AND IMITATORS ARISTOTLE

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2'Typical passagesare Ion 533; Rep. 596; Sophist234.

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as slathenclearlydrama and paintingdeserve to be stigmatized may be honoredas royaland excelvish whilethe originalpattern lent.This damagingassociationdoes not attach to the word 'imiof an imitative tation' for Aristotle.For him the individuality by analysisintoits variousaspects could be distinguished art-form as any otherkind of naturecould. He proceededwithas littleinof poetryas of virtue, of the functions hibitionto the statement and a soul was ascribedto tragicsubstanceas to the livingperson. Indeed, Aristotleso construedimitativeart that an example of it could containmore essence than its apparent original-men's actions and passions in real life. art ranks high for Aristotleis reason that imitative The first that it participatesin the productivepower of art as such. The involvedin theveryconceptof the genus qualifiesforhim energy those arts devised to give pleasure and ornamentleisure as well art as production arts. Plato had alreadydefined as the utilitarian accordingto rightreason,and had even classed a certaintypeof in thefirst group.But whenPlato used withthephilosophers artist sense he meant the employthe term'art' in this complimentary and controlof nature,as in mentof order for the understanding the arts of the physician,statesman,and pilot. The absence of 'art' in this sense is often assigned by him as the most obvious activities-fluteand lyreof the pleasure-producing characteristic and persuasivespeech. By the true playing,tragedyand comedy, a house,but by thedreamhe says, we construct 'art' of building, on theother in a replicaof it.3Aristotle, likegraphicartswe sketch speciesof hand, was disposed to assign to the pleasure-producing of the genus. The art all the wisdom and potencycharacteristic Aristotle'sgolden opinion of logical way to begin understanding his generalconcept is thento examinefurther 'poets and imitators' of art. forcesin Nature and art, Aristotlesays, are the two initiating is thatnaturehas her principle of mothe world. The difference tion withinherself,while "fromart proceed the thingsof which the formis in the soul of the artist". But if the dynamicprinciple inheresin natureand not in art,at least art is in this respect of bringing thingsintobeing nature's closest analogue. Although
' Sophist266.
4 Met. io32a.

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-as will be more fullydevelopedlater-the relationship between art and reason is close, the firstidea suggestedby the term'art' to Aristotleis productiveforce.And this applies to all typesof art from the doctor's curing of bodies throughthe architect's of pleasof houses to thepoet's and musician'sproduction building i.e., with conure. "All art is concernedwith coming-into-being, how something may come into being."' trivingand considering Art has to do with the making of thingsmade.6 The arts are among the principlesor sources of motionand change.7As nature was primarilyfor Aristotlenot a sum of entities,such as stones,plants,and animals,but Natura Naturans,the vital procthe these entities, ess workingits way out into and up through and passing-awayof coming-to-be developingand reproducing, set things,so art was for him a doing and shaping,a movement up in some mediumby the soul and hand of the artist.This being to find'fine Aristotle'sview of art in general,it is not surprising but art' forhim,not a sum of art-objects lyinginertin a museum, patternedenergy.His approachto art was, if possible,even more than the anatomist's,for, although he draws the physiologist's of a tragedy and always emphasizes in detailthe bonyframework the importance of the schemaof beautifulthings, he is stillmore senof beautifulbodies. In the first concernedwiththe functions tence of the Poetics he serves notice that he is stickingto the meaningof his subject (poetry-making)by stating etymological that he is concernedwith the specificdynamicsof each kind of music we are told that it is made out of mopoetry.Concerning and performsfour functions.9 for activity,8 tion, has an affinity He tellsus how forceentersintopoems,plays through them,and issues out of them. Charged fromwithoutat the beginningby the potencyof genius,poems and melodies and harmonieswork and out theirmission,so to speak,by purging, relaxing,elevating, human souls. straightening Art, then, is human making in the image of divine making, forart emulatesthe energetic processesof nature,and God is the Prime Mover of nature.Though less in degree,Phidias's wisdom is parallel to the wisdom of the philosopherwhose concern is
5Eth. Nic. II4oa. Ibid. IOI3a. 9Pol. I339a; 4oab; 4ia. 6Met. I025b.

Prob. 920a.

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withthe divineultimate principle of theuniverse, and whoseways are themselves godlike.'0Nature furnishes thelaw by whicha man begetshis child,but an architect draws houses out of stoneson an analogous plan." How thendoes God make? Accordingto a constantlyrepeated patterntaken finallyfrom biological processthe development of formout of matter, or the maturation of the completeindividualout of the shapelessgerm.Aristotlecompares 'form'or 'fulfilment' to being awake, and 'matter'or 'potentiality' to beingasleep. Or actuallyperforming an act is 'form'and merely being able to perform the act is 'matter'.12 Nature works thenby urgingall thingsto realize theircapacitiesto the full,and the soul of the artistplantsthatsame drive toward self-completion within some 'matter'.A bronze bowl issues fromthe metal on the same essentialplan as the oak grows fromthe acorn. The productive energythatanimatesall art will thus save even art frombeingmere lifelesscopying.The second reason imitative why imitativeart ranks high for Aristotleis that the relationship of resemblance involvedin imitation does not for him imply the monotony of bare repetition. Althoughhe teaches that it is the business of fineart to imitatethe passions and actions and charactersof men, the resemblance is not to be limp and bloodless. Artisticimitationis for him invention.The poet's power him to be called a 'maker',Aristotle of imitating is what entitles says.13Surely in some sense when imitation occurs, 'like meets like'. But Aristotleis carefulto explain thatwhen like meetslike in any significant fashionin the universeof nature or art we do not have the phenomenon of identicaltwins. After noticingthat the most striking characterof a civic community is the creation the cohabitation of concordthrough of oppositeclasses of people, richand poor,youngand old, theAristotelian authorof De Mundo proceedsto generalize.
It may perhapsbe thatnaturehas a likingfor contraries and evolves out of themand notout of similarities.... The artsapparentharmony ly imitate naturein thisrespect. The art of painting bymingling in the picture the elementsof white and black, yellow and red, achieves representations which correspondto the originalobject. Music too, mingling together notes,highand low, shortand prolonged, attainsto
?EtIid. o48 I, a. "Ibid. I 048a, b.
" Met.

" Poet. I45ib.

I034a.

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vowels amid different voices;while writing, mingling a single harmony in found all its art.The saying composes of them and consonants, are: wholes "Junctions Heracleitus theobscure was tothesameeffect: which differs, thatwhich thatwhich agreesand that and notwholes, from all youget produces discord; and that which produces harmony oneyougetall". oneandfrom of thewholeorders thecomposition Thusthen a single harmony of themost Universe-by themingling andthewhole heaven andearth withone them to live in agreement . . . forcing contrary principles of the thepermanence in the universe, and thuscontriving another The causeof this of theelements, is theagreement whole. permanence andthereason ofthis is their agreement equalproportion." of things In a similarvein Aristotleargues thatthe coming-to-be as much as the assimilation of differents involvesthe interaction by body, of like to like. "It is a law of naturethatbody is affected flavorby flavor, a color by color." Yet if the termswere absolutecould occur; nothingwould happen. The ly alike no affecting mustbe alike in genus agent and patientin the process of growth the driving and unlikein species. Withinthe commonsubstratum force for change comes fromthe tensionof opposite principles, one operating,the other undergoingan operation.', A second damagingassociationof the term'imitation'is thus seen to be absent in Aristotle'susage. The conditionfavorable thecosmosis notbare like to liketo creativeactivity throughout of contrary principles. futilerepetition-butthemutualadaptation New livingcreaturescan only be born when male meets female is required and not whenmale meetsmale, and a similarcondition A rightratio must adapt the two terms for artisticprocreation. to each other, but foractual birthin beautytheremustbe opposite in the two members of the coalition.Tragedians have functioning for the noble charactersthey depict,and themselvesan affinity men of theirplays. comediansare in some sense like the inferior the delineating A good portrait imitates a man's character through of his face. Phrygianmusic is like a Phrygianmood, and Dorian melodysober like the characterit expresses. But the poems and melodies and portraitscome into being by the marriageof the artist'ssoul,whichcarriesin itselfthe formof what is to be, with some bodily mediumin real life. Thus the makingof beautiful imitation involvespolarity withinthe resemblance, formsthrough
14

396b.

1"De Gen. et Cor. 323b,324a.

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and is finally a varianton the themeof the development of form out of matter."Imitationin the sense in which Aristotleapplies the word to poetry, is . .. seen to be equivalentto producingor 'creatingaccordingto a trueidea' whichformspart of the definitionof art in general."'6 In the third place we mightexpect Aristotleto put poetical imitatorsinto the same high class with philosophersbecause of his various allusions to the intellectual elementin imitation. He likens the imitative to the intellectual process both in its instinctiveoriginand in its fullflowering, and one is justified in believing that progressin universality is the sign of excellence in fineart as it is explicitly statedto be in intellection. Aristotle picturesthat progressin the development of knowledge, and we may construct the parallel forfineart,thus exhibiting the kinshipof the two. In If the case of knowledgethe simplesense-experience comes first. the sensationcan persistor "make a stand", and not be carried away in a meaninglessflux of animal responses,we have what Aristotlecalls the presence of the earliest universalin the soul. But if the sensationdies as soon as it is born,and thereappears no nisus toward memorynor the accumulationof skill,thenthe indispensable germof humanknowledgeis lacking.The sensation must be remembered;the memorymust become meaningfulfor commonexperience; commonexperiencemustbe rationalizedby the arts and sciences; the arts and sciencesmustbe integrated by wisdomof philosophy.17 the all-embracing Althoughthe materialon the development of the functionof is not massed in one place as is thisdiscussionof growth imitation it maybe assembledfromvarious places and is like in knowledge, with the other.Justas human intelligence and in part coincident untilan elementary does not begin to function power to universalize, to transcend the particular event,arrivesin the soul, so in is some sort of combination condition of the parts fineart a first fromthosewho are notbeautiintoa whole."The beautifuldiffer ful and works of art fromrealitiesin that in themthe scattered to the sensaelementsare combined."'18 However, corresponding in knowledge, elements thereare pre-technical tionsas pre-logical
Aristotle's Theory of Poetryand Fine Art I53. 8 S. H. Butcher, 1 Pol. I28ib. 7 An. Post. g9b,iooa.

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elementswhich antedate artisticcombination but are necessary to its existence.Such would be the colorsin painting, the separate notes of the scale in music,words with theirproperties of clearness and meaningfulness in poetry and rhetoric, incidents of suffering,of reversalof fortune, of discovery, of identity, furnished by the history of individualsand nationsand gristfor the tragedian, and the particularthoughts and feelingsof men used as material by all literary composers. The raw matterof art begins to be organized when reason combinesthese elementsin certain proportions. The firststand of a universalin knowledge is matched by a first standof combination in art. Such would be the agreeable complementariness of colors in painting,and the harmonious relations of tones in music.Otherexamples would be the ornament of metaphor which is "a sign of genius, since a good metaphorimpliesan intuitive of the similarity in dissimilars" perception ;19 the degree of kinship in the parties to a deed of horror; and the directionof a movement fromhappinessto miseryor miseryto happinessin a play. These are all simplethreadsof connection withan affective quality; and theymarkthe first stage of the weaving of elements into beautifulwholes. The next step in the growthof knowledgeafter persistence in memoryis called "learningby experience".A doctor,for instance,has thisgrade of knowledgewhen he can name the nature of an illness though he does not possess any general scientific principles concerningit. It is the perceptionwithout rational of the totalsignificance grounding of a thing.Though experience thansciencein respectto theamountof rationality is less excellent embodied in it, it sometimessurpasses the higher types in its immediate A doctorwho through utility. empirical knack,through responsivenessto the characterof the disease immediately beforehim,can cure this particularsick man,may be betterfor the momentthan his superiorsin scientific medicine.20 The aesthetic analogue to this empiricalfacultywould apparently be illustrated by the immediateresponsivenessof the soul to the soul-mood in music. A simple arc of stimulusand response seems to bind
9 Poet. 14-9a.
20

98ia. Afet.

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togetherthe sensitivehearer and the tune. No inferenceis necessary. The nature of the tune is felt at once. When Aristotle of all artforms, declares musical modes to be the most imitative of music to moral states is more he means that the resemblance of a pictureor statueto an emotional directthanthe resemblance content."Rhythm and melody supply imitationsof anger and and of all the and also of courage and temperance, gentleness, to these,and of the otherqualitiesof character. qualitiescontrary theeffect upon our soul Experienceprovesthis.For we experience of mode has a character of hearingthem."'21"The Hypophrygian and armingare comthemarch-forth action (hence in the Geryone and steadposed in thismode) ; and theHypodorianis magnificent fast. . . . The Phrygian is exciting and orgiastic."22 Music's as rendering of characteris not as rich in universalsignificance of a completeand serious action, for tragedy tragedy'simitation presentsthe destiniesof a group of humanbeings; but it is more passage connectThere is, as it were, an underground effortless. ing the mobileenergyof the soul and the mobileenergyof music that gives the one quick access to the other. says thatthe aestheticexperienceof enjoyingthe likeAristotle is also on thislevel of learningor experiencing. ness in a portrait "The reason of the delightin seeing the pictureis that one is at themeaning of things, e.g.,that thesame timelearning-gathering of a portraitis But the imitation the man there is so-and-so."23 of a tune,and the pleasure of not as immediateas the imitation is therefore, the resemblance perhaps as keen,but cerdetecting In takingin the whole sense of a picture, tainlymore roundabout. to a stimulus, but we draw an inwe do not respondintuitively ference,and feel a semblanceof the scholar's delightwhen new while shapes copy lightbreaksin on themind.For, says Aristotle, character,they exhibit rather the symptomsor deposits of a It is the body of man mentalhabit than the mentalhabit itself.24 that the portraitmust render,and bodies are molded by passion but are not the very stuffof passion. The pleasure of learning occurs in this case when a patternof line or color has achieved such unitythat we recognizenot only the class of thingintended
21

Pci. I34oa.

22 Prcb. 922b.

23Poet. i448b.

24Poi.

I340a.

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(man) but the member of the class (So-and-so). We enjoy palpatingthe essentialsoul beneaththe outwardshow of bodilyfigure. We have "gatheredthe meaning"in that we have discoveredan identityof character connectinga flesh-and-blood person and well-composed pigment.Right use of complementary color helps representation, Aristotle says. But representation arrives when the significant object shinesthrough thepaintor line,and thelogical label of a name can be attachedto the whole. "The mostbeautiful colors laid on withoutorder [that is, withoutcooperation toward a single end] will not give one the same pleasure as a singleblack-and-white sketchof a portrait."25 The function of imitation reaches its goal when it produces a good tragedy.For while music and painting and sculpture imitate character, and are meaningful wholes,the "true idea" according to whichtheyare producedis not as richand strongas the unity of plot. Degree of universality measureshonorableness for Aristotleboth in knowledgeand in art. Order and symmetry, the disposingof partstoward a singleend, are presentin all imitations; but the tragicplot,withits greatercompass,shows aesthetic order at its maximum. Withinits combining forceit holdstogether more than other artparts and more varied media of representation forms.Aristotlecompares the organic unityof a musical mode to a political community with its ruling and subject part.26 He mighthave compareda tragedyto an empirewith politicalcommunities as its members;for melodiesare but parts of plays. Or, are also but parts of plays,he mighthave comcharacters since pared tragedyto an organismof organisms. to The unityof action in a well-contrived tragedycorresponds Inof science in the world of intellect. the full-blown rationality and in one place calls tragedy"philodeed, Aristotle goes farther, of science (and theart whichis equivThe superiority sophical".27 controlof nature) over experienceis not alent to the scientific and compass,but its explanationof its stretch only its generality, why thingscome to pass. "Knowledge and understanding belong to art ratherthan experience,and we suppose artiststo be wiser
than men of experience . . .; and this because the former know

the cause, but the latterdo not. For men of experienceknow that
2 Poet. I45oa, b. ' Pol. 1254a. ' Poet. I45ib.

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8 the thingis so, while the othersknow the 'why' and the cause."2 Now it is the function of a plotto exhibitthe 'why' of humandestiny.And the more convincingly the causal sequence is given,the betterthe plot. "The only eventsof which absolutenecessitycan ,29 be predicatedare those which formpart of a recurrent series" Aristotlesays, and the virtueof a tragedyis for him the exhibitionof miseryor happinessas necessary, as something thatunder the circumstances had to be, as part of a series whichmight recur because illustrative of law. "The poet's functionis to describe, not the thingthat has happened,but a kind of thingthat might "30 The happen,i.e., whatis possibleas beingprobableor necessary. mostambitious poet will imitate an "action" whichis a continuous curve of destinyabsorbingand sweepingforwardby the law of its movement all particular eventsand individualpersons, as a line resolves points. He will sketch in a systemof men and things of theirinteraction as thepattern bringsweal or woe; the diagram of a king's rise and fall; the bonds that tie men to tragicdeaths. In thedevelopment of the characters and speechesof a tragedy the reverlogic of the necessaryrules over all; marvels,discoveries, sals, choruses,mustall seem links in the fatefulchain. Art is always less than philosophyfor Aristotle, but the kind and amountof unityrequiredby him for a good tragedy (with its several incidentsso closely connectedthat the transposalor withdrawal of any one of them will disjoin or dislocate the whole31) makes it a second and close parallel. All works of art which have plots or stories for theirsoul are 'livingorganisms', than the epic, and so is a but the tragedyis more concentrated The improvisations that were the ansuperiortype of imitation. and lampoons, cestorsof tragedyand comedy, hymns, panegyrics, of characterand passion, and had, so to speak, were imitations amoebic souls, but they grew ratherthan were contrived.The or of revelryconveyedby themwas scarcely spiritof reverence art. They were more properly of result the fullyself-conscious on the stage of 'experience'. the artisticfunction of imitation to the inBy thus comparing tellectual function-as indeed Aristotle himself justifies us in
M Met. 98ia. soPoet. 145ia. ' W. D. Ross, Aristotle 8i. "1Poet. I45ia.

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of theuniversalelement doing-we have watchedthe development in art froma slighttwo-term relationship to its completerealization in the embodied logic of a tragic plot. For imitation, like else in Aristotle, everything has matter and form.32 In RepublicX Plato treatsimitation not as an expandingbut as a highlydiminished function. As the 'Idea' passes downwardthroughthe employment of the craftsman to that of the imitator, it progressively narrows its compass. A painterof a bed not only copies the space-and-time bed that some carpenterhas made, but "lightly touches on a small part even of it", because the paintergives a special view of the bed, eitheroblique or direct,accordingto the angleof vision.33 Thus in Plato we have theattenuation of a universal in art to the limitof individualvision,while in Aristotlethe universalis itselfpresentin art, and is called "serious and philosophical".34 If the philosophicalnature of a good tragedy suggests the art to be classifiedwith philosophy rightof imitative among the highesttypesof human product,the connection betweenpleasure and imitationsuggests an affinity with the true love of beauty and the music that echoes the orderlymotionsof the stars. For poets do more than create a perfectwhole accordingto the true rule that is in theirmind.They make thatrule,that rightreason, attractive. The pleasantness of imitative thatphilosophy, art might be called-adapting a phrase of Aristotle's-the bloom on the betweenkindsof pleasure face of reason. Plato had distinguished and had even called the pleasure in abstractmathematical form with "pure".35 But on the whole he placed the pleasuresconnected in of a imitations relationship oppositionto what is excellent. to the charmof poetry Doubtlesshis verysensitiveness made him fear its commonuse as a dangeroussorcery.With Plato, Aristotle recognizedthat pleasure is an integralpart of the process
to thinkthat this schemeof the range of the imitative 82 It is tempting in plot-creation in instinct to its actuality its potentiality function-from in Aristotle's mindwhenhe added, afterthe -was at least subconsciously in "the sense of hara secondinstinctive cause of poetry imitative instinct, properly mony and rhythm" (Poet. i448b). For, as we have seen,imitation, is nourished, developsintoa prerogative instance of harmony. And rhythm orderis necessary theprinciple of order,and the highest order.We delight in rhythm because it regularizes and numbers motion(Prob. 920b). Can it in its mostnaive and in its be thatthe two causes of fineart are imitation and form? perfected phases,its matter 33 Sophist 598. Poet. 145 ib. 3Philebus 5I.

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of imitative art. He even called the productionof pleasure the finalcause or ultimatepurpose of such art.36 But he reexamined the conceptof pleasure,and on the basis of his findings counted pleasureableness a virtueand not a handicap.Aristotle's treatment of the relationshipbetween fine art and pleasure is, then,the fourth reason whywe should expecthim to rate poets and imitators in the first class. ApparentlyAristotle'smost consideredopinion on the nature of pleasuremade it notan independent class of entities but an accent and high lighton the function with which it was associated As such,a function and fromwhichit derivedits ethicalrating.37 couldbe wolfish or asinine; thepleasurequalifying its performance could be through a legitimate metonymy called by the same hard name.38 But Aristotlethought it was a mistaketo judge of pleasOnly ure in generalby its lowest connections and manifestations. thosewho knowthepleasuresthataccompany purethought and the listeningto music and the viewing of sculptureknow pleasure For pleasureis carriedalong by the at its best and in its essence.39 nisus of nature toward the good; just as nature may turn up "worms and beetles and other ignoble creatures"that belie her the general good intention,40 so pleasure, though fundamentally accompanyally of reason and nobility, may be the gratification ing the lowest impulses.In general pleasure is for Aristotlethe of desire, the consciousnessof the symptomof the fulfillment fullnessof life,41 and when these are in accordance with right reason,thenalso pleasureis in accordancewithright reason.When he says that the finalcause of tragedyis to produce pleasure he clearlymeans that a mentalstate is aimed at whichis reasonable and choiceworthy. Since pleasures are for Aristotle"peculiar" to the activities and crown,it is obviouslynecessaryto unwhich theyintensify derstand the actual functionsof imitationsin order to understand theiremotionalcolor. The pleasuresin questionaccompany and also uniform, continuprocesses of repletionand purgation, function is to satisfy a wantor relieve Art's humblest ous activity. a pain, on the analogyof the reliefto hungerfurnished by food.
38Poet.1453b. 38 Magna Moralia 12.05b.
4 Magna Moralia 1205a. " Eth.Nic. 1174b. 3 Eth. Nic. 1176a. 4 Eth. Nic. I I75a.

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Sleep, food,drink,and music make "care to cease".42Sicknesses both of soul and body arise out of excess and defect,and when a man's energyis depletedby the day's labor,his power may be music. of imitative stimulation to normalbytheenlivening restored places in the soul, and increase As art may thus fillup the empty The accumulations. so it may clear our souls of unhealthy energy, systemcalls as often for reducingand cathartic psycho-physical potionsas for nervingtonics.There are certainemotionswhich, in properdegree,readilybecomepoisons.There wholesome though and fallill to theseemotions are personswho have smallresistance of themwithgreatease. "Feelings,such as pityand fear,or again, in some souls, and have more or exist very strongly enthusiasm, over all. Some persons fall into a religiousfrenzy, less influence whomwe see as a resultof the sacred melodies-when theyhave used the melodiesthat excite the soul to mysticfrenzy-restored as thoughtheyhad foundhealing and purgation.Those who are by pity and fear-and every emotionalnature-must influenced and othersin so far as each is susceptible have a like experience, to such emotions, and all are in a mannerpurgedand theirsouls Aristotlecalls the productionof such lightenedand delighted."43 a catharsisthe peculiarpleasure of tragedy." It has been argued that in the missingchapter of the Poetics on comedy the final purpose of the lightersort of drama may have been given as the perhaps of envyand malice,perhaps of impurepleaspurgation, by unure."5Not onlymusic,then,but the drama serveshumanity thepeculiarpleasureof relief. heavysouls and inducing burdening The pleasure takes the color of the function;but the definiof the chartionof the pleasure is not exhaustedby the statement And pleasure'scapacityto exalt the statusof acterof the function. arts lies in the something plus thatit carriesbeyond the imitative of the were nothFor if theexcellence pleasureof tragedy utility. ing more than the virtue of purging,then the tragedianwould become a physicianof the soul, and we would rank him in the fourthclass with the otherphysicians.Or, if one thinksof the that music accomplishesas instrumental relaxingand correcting then the imitatormay be classed with good to state-education,
4

4"Ibid. 1342a. Pci. I339a. 'Poet. Theoryof Comedych. ix. 4Lane Cooper,An Aristotelian

I453b.

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servantsof the commonweal, perhapsin the thirdclass withthe politicians, economists, and tradesmen. But thepleasureis a superveningperfection, and gives to as muchas it takes fromthe function which it accompanies."For an activityis intensified by its properpleasure; e.g., it is those who enjoy geometrical thinking that become geometers and grasp the various propositions better, and, similarly, those who are fondof music and building, and so on, make progress in their proper functionby enjoying it."146 The pleasure which is in a sense only the feeling-tone of a vital process, in anothersense is beyond-superior to-vital process, and has the power to turn back upon it and transfigure it. The great playwright who cures souls throughhis magic is not socially useful; he is glorious.And that is why he belongs in the highestclass that can be named. And the musicianwho enables is not a merebeneus to spend our leisurein rationalenjoyment he is a factor; genius. For Aristotle, himself, among his various statementsof the nature of pleasure, declares it to be at its best,no longerthe handmaidenof function, but selfsufficient and completeenergizing. Of the pleasuresof intellectual and aesthetic it can be affirmed contemplation thattheylack nothing, thatthey are fittedto give a godlike contentto that life of leisure for whichthe life of toil exists. The fifthand final ground upon which Aristotlewould prein the first sumablyhave placed imitators class is his interpretation of their temperament. Poetry, Aristotle says, "demands a man with a special gift for it", and this gift proves to be the plasticity typicalof the melancholic. The dramatist must be able he is portraying. to feelhimselfintothe experiences He mustnot as if theywere beonlybe able to see the scenes he is describing fore his very eyes. His body must go throughthe very motions that the humandrama shapingitselfin his fancyrequires.47 This is thetypeof personwhose storywill be convincing. He mustlive as he works.The man withan innate the life of his brainchildren fortakingon shape readilyis theborngenius. facility characteristic of the "tribe of imitators" It is this euplasticity which has much to do with Plato's poor opinionof them.These could do everything, clever multiform and were nothgentlemen
'Eth. Nic. II75a. 4"Poet. 1455a, b.

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ing. Their magicalassumptions of any part,theirfacile apings of gesture, look,and manner, were carriedthrough at the expense of unityand consistency of character.Plato admired steadfastness of purpose and singleness of function;in his ideal state one man played one part only. Thereforethisbewildering chameleon, who could assimilatehimselfeasily to alien moulds,and neverseemed to settle himselfto any definableemployment or form,hardly the programof the rightsort of city.He was two removes fitted fromthe philosopher. But Aristotle'sphilosopher, thoughdevotedto truth, was none the less euplastic.To be whollyrationalis to adopt oneselfwith infinitely graduated responsiveness to the peculiar nature of the members of the objectiveworld.As the hand is thetool of tools,48 so in the end is the mindthe formof forms.49 The soul in knowing mustsomehowbe in essenceall the things it knows,just as the in engendering dramatist his play mustbe his dramatispersonae. The giftand greatness of bothphilosopher and poet is thisimpressionability-one might even say, this actual lack of any independentunassimilablesubstance.Aristotlethen interpreted as a virtuethatwhich struckPlato as the dissipationand prostitution of power. Aristotle pressesback thehighgiftsof boththeseclasses of men to a source in theirbodilymake-up:themelancholic temperament. The predominanceof the nimble, winelike black bile in their systemsmakes themexcitable,moody,restlessin sleep, and-with towardmentalderangement. He who has black bile in a tendency proper proportionsin his body is the genius; in extremeproportionsis mad. AristotlementionsEmpedocles,Plato, and Socrates, among philosophers,as atrabilious, and "most of the poets".50 artistsAristotle Althoughwithrespectto the statusof imitative seems in general to be takingthe opposite position from Plato, in most cases Aristotle'sthesis is an elaborationof an aspect of Platonism. In the very Phadrus, in which Plato classes poets in so humiliating a way,he may be said to have anand imitators of theseartistswithphilosophers as ticipatedAristotle'sgrouping
4

De. Part. An. 687.

De An. 429a.

' Prob. 953a.

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melancholics. For the doctrineof divine madness,which "enters intoa delicateand virginsoul, and thereinspiring frenzy, awakens lyricand all othernumbers", has muchin common withthetheory of the melancholictemperament as set forthby the physician's son. Althoughblack bile is eroticand unbalancingin tendency, it is for Aristotlethe firethatwarms the genius of all giftedsouls. Again one part of Platonism seems to have helped Aristotleto replyto anotherpart. KATHERINE E. GILBERT
DUKE UNIVERSITY