Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Name............................. College..........................
Dr C. Rae Lent Term 2012-13
II
Part II Lent 2013 FRACTURE AND FATIGUE C15: FRACTURE AND FATIGUE
Catherine Rae 9 Lectures Synopsis Introduction: This course examines the use of fracture mechanics in the prediction of mechanical failure. We explore the range of macroscopic failure modes; brittle and ductile behaviour. We take a closer look at fast fracture in brittle and ductile materials characteristics of fracture surfaces; inter- granular and intra-granular failure, cleavage and micro-ductility. We describe the range of fatigue failure and apply fracture mechanics to the growth of fatigue cracks. Introduction: Revision of concept of energy release rate, G, and fracture energy, R. Obreimoffs experiment. Timeline for developments. Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics, (LEFM). We look at the three loading modes and hence the state of stress ahead of the crack tip. This leads to the definition of the stress concentration factor, stress intensity factor and the material parameter the critical stress intensity factor. Superposition principle, prediction of crack growth direction. Plasticity at the crack tip and the principles behind the approximate derivation of plastic zone shape and size. Limits on the applicability of LEFM. The effect of Constraint, definition of plane stress and plane strain and the effect of component thickness. Concept of G - R curves, measuring G and K. Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics; (EPFM). The definition of alternative failure prediction parameters, Crack Tip Opening Displacement, and the J integral. Measurement of parameters and examples of use. The effect of Microstructure on fracture mechanism and path, cleavage and ductile failure, factors improving toughness, Fatigue: definition of terms used to describe fatigue cycles, High Cycle Fatigue, Low Cycle Fatigue, mean stress R ratio, strain and load control. S-N curves. Total life and damage tolerant approaches to life prediction, Paris law. Adapting data to real conditions: Goodmans rule and Miners rule. Micro-mechanisms of fatigue damage, fatigue limits and initiation and propagation control, leading to a consideration of factors enhancing fatigue resistance. Factors affecting crack growth rates.
rd T.L. Anderson, Fracture Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications, 3 Ed. CRC press, (2005) (Fracture mechanics and its application to fatigue, very thorough and readable) nd B. Lawn, Fracture of Brittle Solids, Cambridge Solid State Science Series 2 ed 1993. (Exactly as it says on the label very good on LEFM) J.F. Knott, P Withey, Worked examples in Fracture Mechanics, Institute of Materials. (Excellent short summary of fracture mechanics and good worked examples) H.L. Ewald and R.J.H. Wanhill Fracture Mechanics, Edward Arnold, (1984). (Provides very clear explanations different perspective from Anderson) S. Suresh, Fatigue of Materials, Cambridge University Press, (1998) (Excellent on fatigue but not very readable) G. E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw Hill, (1988) (Good entry-level text on mechanical properties)
SYNOPSIS This course examines the use of fracture mechanics in the prediction of mechanical failure. We explore macroscopic failure modes; brittle and ductile behaviour, and take a closer look at fast fracture in brittle and ductile materials characteristics of fracture surfaces; inter-granular and intra- granular failure, cleavage and micro-ductility. Fatigue causes 90% of engineering failures: we examine how we characterise the susceptibility of materials to fatigue and estimate lifetimes. GRIFFITHS THEORY, REVISION FROM 1B COURSE. Griffiths Theory provides the thermodynamic or energetic criterion for failure: it does not consider the mechanism by which failure occurs. The basic premise is that a crack will propagate in a material when the elastic energy released as a result of that propagation exceeds the energy required to propagate the crack. In the first instance just the surface energy needed to create two new surfaces was considered, but this applies only to ideal brittle solids i.e. those where fracture occurs without any plastic deformation. Subsequently this was widened to include the work required to perform the plastic deformation associated with ductile failure and, in principle, can include any work necessary such as de-cohesion on composites phase changes etc.
2a
If we introduce a crack of length 2a into an infinite plate of thickness B under a uniform stress , the elastic stresses relax around the crack and reduce the elastic potential energy UE stored in the plate. Extra surface is created at the crack, US, and, if the grips are fixed, no external work, UF, is done by the applied force, UF = 0.
U(a ) = UF + UE + Us
The change in the potential energy is estimated from an elastic analysis of the stresses around the crack:
dU dUE dUS = + = 0 da da da
UE
2a2B E
US = 4aB s
Where the area of the crack is 2aB, the surface area is 4aB and the surface energy is s. Thus:
hence: Rearranging:
d (UE ) 2B 2a = and da E 2a 2 s = E 2 sE = a
dUS = 4Bs : da
Griffiths Equation
This is for an ideal brittle solid; for a ductile material the plastic work of deformation gp , is introduced:
(2 s + p )E a
Modification of the fracture criterion to include plastic work leads to the more general definition of the energy release rate or the crack extension force: G. This is the change in the potential energy, U, of the system per unit increase in crack area, A, and has the dimensions of force/length. Energy Release Rate:
G=
According to Griffiths crack extension occurs when this equals the work to fracture, 2s + p .
dU dU 2a = = dA 2Bda E
G = Gc = 2 s + p
Gc is a material constant and a measure of the fracture toughness. The RHS is the resistance to crack growth termed R where R = 2s + p. Very few fractures are truly brittle i.e. have no permanent deformation, but fracture is still determined by the energy balance and the energy driving the cracking process is still the elastic energy stored in the cracked body. Fast fracture is a more accurate term than brittle fracture to use for rapid failure. Where local deformation occurs the cracking process is not reversible but we can deal with a great many materials and situations using simple elastic assumptions. This is known as linear elastic fracture mechanics.
OBREIMOFFS EXPERIMENT A real example illustrates two important points: firstly that brittle fracture is reversible under the right circumstances and secondly, that whether it occurs or not is governed by balancing stored elastic energy with the work of fracture. In 1930 Obreimoff split a thin sheet of mica off a larger piece by inserting a wedge of thickness h beween the layers. The crystal cleaves along the weak interfaces between the layers to give a thin upper fillet and a thick lower section. As the wedge is driven into the crack the crack grows to keep the length constant. The elastic energy stored as the wedge is forced into the open crack is principally in the thin upper fillet, and is balanced by the cohesive forces at the crack tip. The crack opens until these are balanced. The energy is calculated easily from the elastic properties of the mica, and the geometry of the set-up.
U = UE =
The surface energy needed to grow the crack is US = 2a where is the surface energy. Equating the elastic energy to the surface energy gives an equilibrium crack length ao of:
Ed3h2 8a3
ao = 4 3Ed3h2 /16
As the wedge is withdrawn the crack closes and the damage is pretty much repaired if the process is done in vacuum. This can be shown by reopening the crack and noting that the value of ao for the re- opened crack is almost the same. As air and moisture are introduced, the quality of the repair deteriorates and the equilibrium length ao increases.
TIME
LINE
-
Leonardo
da
Vinci
failure
stress
of
iron
wires
depends
on
length
i.e.
on
probability
of
flaw
-
Railway
accident
Versailles
-
failure
of
axle
-
significance
of
fatigue
striations
recognized
WJM
Rankin
-
Wohler
systematic
experiments
on
bending
and
torsion
development
of
S-N
curves
Gerber
and
Goodman
life
prediction
methodologies
Baushinger
effect
noted
Ewing
and
Rosenberg
recognition
of
persistent
slip
bands
extrusions
and
intrusions
Inglis
elastic
stress
field
around
elliptical
hole
Griffiths
equation
for
brittle
materials
Obreimoffs
experiment
Westergaarde
elastic
solution
of
the
stress
distribution
at
a
sharp
crack
Constance
Tipper
and
the
Liberty
ships
-
Recognition
of
the
Ductile
Brittle
transition
Tipper
test
and
the
role
of
crystal
structure
in
failure
Minor
accumulation
of
fatigue
damage
Comet
airliner
losses
due
to
fatigue
failure
Coffin
Manson
empirical
laws
for
HCF
and
LCF
Wells
applies
fracture
mechanics
to
fatigue
to
explain
the
Comet
fatigue
fractures
Irwin
development
of
the
concept
of
energy
release
rate
based
on
Westergardes
work
Demonstration
of
the
role
of
PSB
in
initiating
fatigue
failure
Fracture
mechanics
predicts
disc
failures
for
GE
Paris
law
relating
the
crack
growth
rate
to
the
stress
intensity
factor
Irwin/Dugdale/Wells
development
of
LEFM
and
effect
of
plastic
zone
size
and
shape
Proposal
of
the
J
integral
by
rice
and
the
CTOD
by
Wells
to
cope
with
the
failure
of
ductile
materials
Shih
and
Hutchinson
establish
the
theoretical
basis
of
the
J- Integral
and
link
it
to
the
CTOD
Chaboche
Development
of
time
dependant
fracture
interactions
between
creep
and
fatigue.
Part II Lent 2013 FRACTURE AND FATIGUE LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS
When a crack occurs in a material the local stress around the crack is raised. LEFM relies on the sufficient of the specimen/component being elastic such that the energy release rate can be calculated from the elastic displacements around the crack tip. Hence if you can solve for the elastic stress in any configuration you can (in principle) calculate G from dUE/da.
rr
= o 2
o 2
Substituting r = ro and = 90 and 0: gives the maximum and minimum hoop stresses , at the edge of the notch as 3o and -o. Thus the presence of a round hole in the plate increases the tensile stress by a factor of three in one direction and introduces a compressive stress at the top of the hole equal to the distant tensile stress. Because all the stresses are elastic and therefore small, the imposed stress fields, and the solutions for those stress fields, can be added: this is known as the PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION. Hence, in biaxial stress the two stresses o at right angles are added to each other to produce a 2D hydrostatic tension and the stresses around the hole in the plate are constant:
3o- o = 2o.
Another important situation for which an exact solution exists is that of an elliptical hole, semi-axes a and b, in a plate, subject to a distant stress o. In this case the maximum stress is at the tip of the ellipse:
2b 2a
This is slightly modified for a half crack at the edge of a plate by the factor 1.12 because the free surface (zero stress) allows the ellipse to open rather wider than for the embedded crack. The factor max/o by which the elastic stress is raised by a feature such as a crack or a hole is the stress concentration factor kt. This is dimensionless.
The above is very useful for finding the effect of features (intended or unintended) in the structure, but most cracks are long and have sharp tips. These can be of atomic dimensions in brittle materials. In 1939 Westergaard solved the stress field for an infinitely sharp crack in an infinite plate. The elastic stresses were given by the equations;
xx =
o a
yy =
o a
! $ ' ! $ ! 3 $* cos " % )1+ sin " % sin " %, # 2 &( # 2 & # 2 &+ 2 r
xy =
o a
+ similar expressions for displacements u [Equations for the polar stresses as a function of r and are in the data-book.] All the equations separate into a geometrical factor and the stress intensity factor:
K = o a K determines the amplitude of the additional stress due to the crack over the whole specimen, but particularly at the crack tip where growth has to occur. When = 0 the stress opening the crack has the value :
yy =
o a
2 r
K 2 r
= f a
For a fixed stress this defines the maximum stable crack length or for a fixed crack length the maximum stress.
10
You have come across K in 1A and 1B: Be careful, there are a number of parameters K:
kt =
max o
K = Y o a
K = 1.12 o a
2 a Circular internal crack, radius a in an infinite body lying normal to app o 2 K = 1.12 o a Semi-circular surface crack, radius a in a semi-infinite body, normal to app: K=
= K II
11
WORKING OUT THE ENERGY RELATING G TO K The stress intensity K is the key value defining the stresses around the crack tip arising from that crack. There is a very simple relationship between K and the energy release rate G. It is this simplicity that makes K such a useful value to know. The energy release rate is given by integrating stress strain over the volume of the cracked body, and has the value:
G=
To show how this works we take the example of a simple through-thickness centre crack. We calculate G from the work necessary to close the open crack. The displacement, u, of the surface of the crack is given by the equation:
u=
2 o 2 a x2 E
1/2
UE =
UE =
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 o a " $ /2 4 o a o a = = # % 0 2E 2 2E E
Hence, the values of K for each opening mode, KI, KII, KIII, can each be assessed separatly by adding all the contributing K values for each mode. Thus it is possible to assess complex shapes and loading by calculating the Ks for each of the applied loads.
12
But,
the
total
change
in
energy
in
the
body
as
a
whole
can
be
expressed
directly
in
terms
of
the
individual
stress
intensities
which
characterise
the
crack
tip
stress
and
displacement
fields.
The
total
energy
release
rate
is
given
by
the
expression:
2 2
For
plane
stress
or:
EG = KI2 + KII + ( 1+ )KIII
For
plane
strain.
i.e.
for
a
given
mode
add
the
K
values,
but
to
assess
the
total
energy
release
rate
add
the
G
values
for
each
modes
(sum
the
squares
of
K).
2 2
EG = ( 1 2 )KI2 + ( 1 2 )KII + ( 1+ )KIII
Note: These equations do not include the background stress which must be added.
K dominated
ys
Overall stress
o r
Plastic zone
Diagram
showing
the
net
stress
resulting
from
the
remote
stress
and
the
stress
intensity
.
For
o
<<
ys
the
plastic
zone
is
dominated
by
the
stress
concentration
effect
of
the
crack.
DIRECTION OF CRACK GROWTH Cracks grow at the minimum stress necessary. If there is an easier route they take it. So for instance, if fracture along a grain boundary requires less energy then all things being equal the crack will be intergranular. However, the energy for the crack growth comes from the elastic energy released and this is a function of the growth direction of the crack. In this section we calculate how the energy release rate varies with direction.
13
PREDICTING DIRECTION FOR A MODE I CRACK: If we know the value of K for a crack under specific loading conditions then we can calculate G as a function of the direction of growth and by differentiating this as a function of the growth direction figure out the path the crack will take. This calculation also gives the energy penalty a crack will pay for taking a different path - a grain boundary or a cleavage plane for instance.
Take a simple through thickness sharp crack of length 2a. Add to this a tiny virtual crack at an arbitrary angle to the plane of the main crack. This virtual crack is too small to affect the stress state at the tip, but Westergaards equations can be used to work out the local state of stress.
! = r K I! = a K II
( K !) + ( K ! ) a
and
G =
I II
Using the polar versions of Westergaards equations to give the local stress state at the crack tip under the MODE I loading:
$cos( / 2 )[ 1+ sin2 ( / 2 )] ' $ ' rr ) & ) KI & cos 3 ( / 2 ) MODE I: & ) = ) 12 & 2 & ) 2r & sin( / 2 ) cos ( / 2 ) ) % r ( % (
( )
Part
II
Lent
2013
FRACTURE
AND
FATIGUE
( a ( a " %+ " % " %+ o 3 2 o o o * * != K I! = cos $ ' a
and
K II sin $ ' cos $ '- a
* 2 r 2 * # &, # 2& # 2 &) 2 r , )
2 2 ' 2 ! $$ ! ! $ ! $$ * a o ao )! 3 2 , Hence:
G = # cos # && & +# # sin # 2 & cos # 2 && & , E
2 r )# 2 " % " % " % % " %+ ("
14
To predict the angle we only need consider the -dependent terms in the centre: Plotting these gives the following graph:
1.2%
1%
0.8%
0.6%
0.4%
0.2%
Part II Lent 2013 FRACTURE AND FATIGUE ANGLED CRACKS USE OF THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
15
As an example of how this applies we can look at mixed mode loading on an angled crack: (the proof of this is not examinable) A crack lies at = 45 to the principal stress so in an effectively infinite thin sheet (i.e. in plane stress). We want to find the angle at which the crack will propagate under a sufficiently high stress o.
[Note that the stress equations as a function of , are relative to the frame of reference of the main crack are being used to calculate the local stresses at a tiny crack taking off at an angle from the end of the main crack. The stress intensity K for a crack continuing in the same direction is not a function of the angle .] RESOLVE THE LOADING STRESSES The stress on a crack inclined at 45 can be resolved into a component acting perpendicular to the crack, i.e. in Mode I, and a component acting parallel to the crack plane, i.e. in Mode II. CALCULATE THE STRESS INTENSITIES ON THE TIP The stress fields from each are considered separately to calculate KI and KII and these are squared and added to give the overall energy release rate for the new crack. COMBINE THE STRESS INTENSITIES TO GIVE THE ENERGY RELEASE RATE: The path the crack takes in propagating further will be that which maximizes the total energy released. We can find this by differentiating the energy release rate with respect to the angle .
16
This time we need both Mode I and Mode II stresses in polar co-ordinates.
$cos( / 2 )[ 1+ sin2 ( / 2 )] ' $ ' ) & rr ) KI & cos 3 ( / 2 ) Mode I: & ) = ) 12 & & ) 2r & sin( / 2 ) cos 2 ( / 2 ) ) % r ( % (
( )
$ sin( / 2 )[ 1 3 sin2 ( / 2 )] ' $ ' rr ) & ) KII & 2 3 sin( / 2 ) cos ( / 2 ) Mode II: & ) = & ) 12 & ) 2r &cos( / 2 )[ 1 3 sin2 ( / 2 )] ) % r ( % (
( )
The axes for the above equations are located in line with the existing crack. We have two independent stress fields from the mode I and II stresses on this crack. We use these stresses to work out what the energy release rate for a small (virtual) crack taking off at an angle from the end of the main crack. For the crack continuing in the same direction would be zero etc, see diagram above. We extract the stresses which will cause mode I opening of the virtual crack; these are the s values from each of the stress fields.
o
2
ao
2 r
cos3
o
2
ao
Similarly the stress to cause mode II opening comes from the r components:
r =
17
( ) =
! ( ) = r a a and K II
The
K
relates
to
the
very
small
new
crack
growing
at
the
end
of
the
main
crack.
We
now
have
to
find
the
value
of
for
which
the
energy
release
rate
will
be
a
maximum,
and
do
this
by
adding
the
G
values
for
each
of
the
two
modes
of
opening:
2 K I2 K II 2 G( ) = + = a + r2 a
E E
We
are
concerned
with
the
angle
and
can
plot
the
contributions
for
Mode
I
and
Mode
II
opening
combined,
normalised
by
the
values
at
=
0.
3.5"
G/C"against"angle"of"propaga=on:"""
3"
G"mode"I"
2.5"
G"modeII" G"
G"/C"""
2"
1.5"
1"
0.5"
0" (200" (150" (100" (50" 0" 50" 100" 150" 200"
Angle"from"crack"(clockwise"posi=ve)"
Plot of normalised energy release rate for propagation of a crack angles at 45 to the principal stress direction: . C
These are plotted above, and it can be seen that the mode I crack opening mode has a very strong maximum at ~-55 corresponding to a minimum in the Mode II crack. Nevertheless, the sum of the two, denoted by the bold line, is dominated by the energy released from Mode I (as is nearly always the case). It should be stressed that K still remains sa: the inclusion of the angular function in calculating K is a result of using the stress field from the main crack to generate the energy release rate of the new crack going off at an angle . This illustrates how the principle of superposition works both Mode I and Mode II cracks could grow given sufficient stress. The KIC and KIIC values for a particular material are different and characteristic of that material. In practice nearly all cracks grow in Mode I this normally generating the highest energy release rate as is seen in the graphs.
18
The equations above indicate an infinite stress at the crack tip when r=0. Thus a small volume at the crack tip will be above the yield stress and thus in a plastic state. This has two effects: 1. The deformation occurring in the plastic zone as the crack grows greatly increases R, the work to propagate the crack. 2. The nominal elastic energy stored in the plastic zone is not released as the crack grows, but, provided the plastic zone remains small, this is a small proportion of the integral evaluating the energy release rate. Hence, for small plastic zone size linear elastic fracture mechanics can be applied to ductile failure. How big does the plastic zone size need to be before we need to modify the energy release rate equation? This occurs when the elastic energy not stored in the plastic zone represents a sizeable proportion of the total energy release rate G. Calculating the plastic zone size is not easy, and we rely on a couple of approximations (Dugdale and Irwin, see Ewalds page 56) to estimate the effect. They give similar results and so we will look briefly at only one method, that due to Irwin. The simplest estimate is made by assuming that the area ahead of the crack tip where the stress exceeds the yield stress is plastic; (see previous diagram). Thus ignoring the remote stress, the size of the plastic zone rp is:
ys =
KI 2ry
hence
This,
however,
takes
no
account
of
the
redistribution
of
the
stress
which
would
have
been
carried
by
material
at
the
crack
tip
which
has
yielded
and
can
only
carry
the
yield
stress.
the
We
can
estimate
the
error
by
assuming
a
plastic
zone,
width
2ry
ahead
of
the
crack
tip.
The
effect
of
the
plastic
flow
is
to
open
the
crack
more
widely
than
the
purely
elastic
response
would
predict,
thus
the
elastic
field
of
the
crack
behaves
as
if
it
were
Da
longer
than
it
really
is.
The
tip
of
the
virtual
crack
acts
as
the
nominal
centre
for
the
stress
and
strain
fields
resulting
from
the
crack
and
for
the
associated
plastic
zone.
A
Diagram
showing
elastic
stress
redistribution
as
a
result
of
yielding
Irwin
model.
The
extent
of
the
extended
plastic
zone
is
defined
by
the
yield
stress.
2 1 $ KI ' 2 & ) ry = ) = 2 2 a + a
2 & % ys ( ys
19
Irwin
determined
Da
on
the
basis
that
the
average
of
the
nominal
stress
in
the
plastic
zone
in
the
plane
perpendicular
to
the
stress
axis
should
equal
the
real
stress,
i.e.
the
yield
stress.
Then
the
load
is
being
supported
by
the
cracked
component
remains
the
same
with
and
without
the
plastic
zone.
In
effect
the
area
under
the
stress
graph,
A,
is
set
equal
to
sysDa.
ry
ys a =
(a + a)
2r
ry
dr y ry
ys a + ry =
)
0
(a + a)
2r
dr
ys a + ry =
ys
2 a + a 2
ry but ys 2ry =
(a + a) from above
(a + r ) =
y
2ys 2ry 2
2
and rp
Thus
the
virtual
crack
tip
determining
the
elastic
stress/strain
field
ends
at
the
centre
of
the
plastic
zone.
Dugdales
analysis
is
rather
more
sophisticated
but
also
assumes
that
the
crack
is
longer
than
it
really
is
and
superimposes
point
closure
forces
onto
each
end
of
the
crack
onto
the
overall
elastic
solution
for
the
enlarged
crack.
The
criterion
for
the
imposed
closure
stress
is
that
the
sum
of
the
closure
and
remote
stresses
cancel
at
the
crack
tip
removing
the
singularity.
(see
Anderson
page
77)
!K $ !K $ I & rp = 0.392 # instead
of
rp = 0.318 # I & from
Irwin.
# & # & " ys % " ys %
It
is
not
worth
worrying
too
much
about
these
factors
as
both
analysis
are
predicated
on
perfect
plastic
behavior,
i.e
no
work
hardening.
In
fact
materials
will
work
harden
to
different
extents
and
would
thus
be
able
to
sustain
higher
loads
in
the
plastic
zone
than
these
analyses
predict.
FE
analysis
provides
a
better
method
of
assessing
the
plastic
zone
size
for
each
material
from
its
particular
plasticity
characteristics.
20
We can use this to estimate the error introduced by the plasticity at various ratios of the stress to the yield stress. 1/2 sys MPa KIC MPam ASM rpplane rp Plane Crit. stress strain High strength Steel 1200 60 Structural steel 400 150 Alumina 5000 1 Perspex 30 1 For most components the size of the plastic zone is fairly small but concerns must be raised for the validity of LEFM in the case of structural steels. In practice the ASM standard requires that the crack length a, the specimen thickness B, and the residual specimen width of a test-piece are all greater
! EGcrit f = # # a + ry "
$ & & %
2 $ ! The
plastic
zone
has
the
effect
of
dividing
by
the
factor
#1+ f &
# 2 2 & " ys %
For
f = 0.4 the error is 4%; for 0.6 the error is 8.5% and for 0.8 the error reaches 15%. ys
Hence the closer the fracture stress gets to the yield stress the more ductile the failure and the greater the influence of the plastic zone.
21
The plastic zone is not going to be circular since the largest shear stresses occur at 45 to the crack (equations page 10). The exact shape is tricky to calculate and depends on the yield criterion used. Using the Von Mises criterion for yield :
ys
1 " = $ 1 2 2#
) + (
) + (
% 2 ' &
1 =
! $' ! $* cos # &)1+ sin # &,
" 2 %( " 2 %+ 2 r KI ! $( ! $+ cos # &*1 sin # &-
" 2 %) " 2 %, 2 r KI
2 K I ! $ cos # & for
plane
strain
" 2% 2 r
2 =
3 =
we are able to solve for rp and obtain the limits of the plastic zone:
()
()
plotting this gives the shapes for the plastic zone. Note the value for plane strain will be smaller by 2 some (1-2) which is 0.16 for = 0.3. Thus the plastic zone is of a slightly different shape and smaller in size for the constrained central part of the crack. Plane stress at outside edge Plane strain in centre
Diagram of the plastic zone and the effect of through thickness crack.
22
Plastic Zone shape for Mode I, II and III crack opening, calculated from von Mises yield criterion.
Similarly the plastic zone size and shape can be derived for the other crack opening modes and these are shown in the above Figure. In general the most likely cause of crack growth is mode I opening, and consideration of this is able to solve most problems. Again it must be emphasized that the exact solution depends on the plasticity of the material and that there is a gradual transition from plane stress to plane strain. A high work-hardening rate reduces the plastic zone size as more stress can be sustained by the plastic material. When the plastic zone size becomes comparable with the thickness of the specimen, plain strain is not achieved at the centre of the crack. However, provided the plastic zone size is small compared to the thickness the stress intensity factor KIc provides a reasonable fracture criterion. As the thickness decreases the measured KIc increases from a plane strain plateau value to a higher value characteristic of plane stress. Thus to define KIc a small plastic zone size and plane strain conditions are required. But use can be made of LEFM in situations of plane stress i.e. thin plates, provided the values of KIc that are used are found in material of similar thickness, In these circumstances KIc is not a material constant as it varies with the dimensions of the specimen.
23
Specimen Thickness
The
effect
of
specimen
thickness
on
the
critical
stress
intensity.
The
constraint
at
the
centre
of
a
thick
sample
causes
the
crack
to
progress
the
furthest
at
the
centre
of
the
crack
and
the
sides
fail
by
plastic
shear
forming
two
lips
which
will
point
up
or
down
randomly
as
in
the
cup
and
cone
fracture.
The
centre
part
of
the
crack
will
be
normal
to
the
tensile
axis
on
average,
(this
masks
valleys
and
ridges
on
a
smaller
scale).
As
the
load
on
the
sample
increases
the
plastic
zone
size
increases
and
the
width
in
plane
strain
decreases.
Eventually
the
plane
stress
conditions
extend
across
the
sample
and
a
diagonal
shear
failure
results.
This
leads
to
the
kind
of
fracture
surface
seen
below
where
the
crack
starts
at
a
notch
propagating
by
ductile
cleavage
at
right
angles
to
the
stress
.
Two
shear
lips
develop:
in
this
case
one
sloping
up
and
the
other
down.
24
The material resistance to crack extension, R, consists of the energy to create two new surfaces, 2gs together with any mechanism which absorbs energy as the crack grows. In the case of brittle fracture R does not depend on the size of the crack, but where plastic work is done developing a plastic zone R may well vary with the crack size, increasing or decreasing. The increase could result from an increase in the plastic zone size as we saw on the previous page. Initially the constraint due to the thickness of the specimen inhibits plastic flow, restricts the size of the plastic zone and keeps R low. As a plastic zone develops at the sides of the sample R increases reducing the area of ductile cleavage until the entire crack fails by shear. At this point R reaches a maximum value.
[Alternatively, a decrease could result from the strain rate sensitivity of the flow stress reducing the plastic zone size as the crack grows faster.]
G
varies
with
the
size
of
the
crack
and
the
geometry
of
loading.
For
fixed
grips
the
load
drops
as
the
crack
extends
and
thus
the
energy
release
rate,
G,
will
drop.
But
for
the
same
specimen
at
fixed
load,
G
increases
as
the
crack
grows.
LOAD CONTROL
25
Consider two simple situations, a fixed strain where a growing crack reduces the load (strain control) and a fixed load where the crack growth increases the length of the specimen (load control).
G=
1 " dU % 1 " dU % $ ' for strain control and G = $ ' for load control. B # da &u B # da &P
*Note U = potential energy and u = displacement and P = load. Consider a plate, thickness B, loaded with a force P. This contains a crack length a and as a result of the crack the plate has extended a distance u. The crack extends by da. Under load control the specimen lengthens by du, and the work done by the external force is dUF = - Pu. The extra work stored elastically by virtue of the change in crack length and the consequent change in specimen length dUE = 1/2Pu. Thus half the work done is stored in the regular way as in an un-cracked body and the rest is released as the elastic response of the body changes as a result of the crack growth. Under strain control the load is reduced by dP and the energy released: dUF = -1/2uP as no external work is done (dP is negative). LC: dUE LC:
We now introduce the Compliance: the inverse stiffness C = u/P. LC: SC:
SC: SC:
G=+
G=
The expression for G is the same in both cases. The compliance depends on the specimen shape, in particular on the crack geometry and length, remember the sample is assumed to be elastic at all points. By measuring the compliance as a function of the crack length the energy release rate can be calculated from the load P.
26
Lets look at this graphically: for a specimen under strain control (the grips are fixed) the crack growth causes a fall in the external force P which is equal to the energy released by the crack in growing a. This is equal to the area of the shaded triangle OAC.
a a+da O P u
C Pdu
du
For Load control, the specimen extends at fixed load and the energy released is the area of the triangle OAB. Thus the only difference between the two cases is the area of the triangle ABC which is of the order 1/2Pu and approaches zero in the limit. Thus the value of G depends only on the geometry of the sample: shape, crack length etc, and the loading, P.
27
MEASURING R: For brittle materials R does not change as the crack grows and failure occurs when the stress rises to the point where G equals R.
The R curve can be measured from a plot of load P against extension u, using the gradient of the unloading line at any point to give the compliance as the crack extends. G =
P 2 ! dC $ # & 2B " da %u
For a rising R curve G must exceed R at any crack length, but as the crack grows R can exceed G. Hence, for fast fracture, G must increase with the crack length faster than the resistance to crack growth. Fast fracture will occur when dG/da > dR/da. If dG/da = dR/da the crack will continue growing in a controlled manner (so-called stable crack growth).
28
In principle k can be measured from the load at failure and the crack length in a standard sized specimen containing a sharp crack grown usually by fatigue. However, for the test to be valid three criteria must be satisfied: the specimen must be large enough for the plastic zone size to be a small proportion of the sample and we have the criterion for the dimensions a, B and W discussed earlier:
The maximum fatigue stress intensity K is less than 80% of KIc the crack is still roughly in the middle of the sample, 0.45 a/W 0.55.
If the testpiece were entirely elastic and the load displacement curve would be linear, it is generally not as the tip of the crack begins to yield. The value of the load, PQ, to be used to assess KIC is taken as the point at which the curve crosses a line drawn with a gradient 95% of the initial tangeant. Sometimes there is a small amount of unstable crack growth prior to failure at a higher load, pop-in behaviour. In this case or if the sample fails before a 5% deviation from linearity, the pop-in stress or the ultimate stress prior to failure are used.
The provisional value of KIc, KQ can then be calculated from the equation:
KQ =
PQ B W
f a / W
where f(a/W) is a dimensionless function of the specimen dimensions specific to the testpiece design. These are all set out in the ASTM standard E399.
29
As an example, for the most common compact specimen testpiece the equation is:
f a /W =
2+a /W
+ 14.72 a / W
Part II Lent 2013 FRACTURE AND FATIGUE ELASTIC PLASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS
30
The requirements for the minimum specimen test-piece size for LEFM to be valid are very stringent for ductile materials. In fact the size of test-piece needed to produce a valid and representative value of KIc are such that large amounts of material and huge machines are required for testing. More importantly, the scale could well exceed the size of the component the results are to be applied to. Under these circumstances we still need a measure of the fracture toughness of these materials in order to predict and avoid possible failure. Two methods have been developed which enable small scale testing to be applied to the failure of ductile materials. These are the Crack Opening Displacement and the J Integral method.
Additional crack opening as a result of plasticity at crack tip. We saw earlier that the effect of a plastic zone at the crack tip is to extend the effective length of the crack by ry ~ half the diameter of the plastic zone. Hence the opening of the crack at its real tip can be approximated from the calculated elastic displacements of the virtual (extended) crack evaluated at a point some ry from the virtual crack tip. See Figure above.
31
The CTOD is given by double the displacement uyy in the tensile direction, for plane stress this is given by the equation:
uyy =
KI 2
! $( ! $+ 3 r for plane stress sin # &* + 1 2cos2 # &- where = 1+ 2 " 2 %) " 2 %,
uyy =
KI + 1 2
ry 2
and substituting for the plastic zone size from the Irwin value (second estimate, page 18):
uyy
( + 1) =
K I2 2 2 ys
( + 1) =
2
1+ 4 4 = E E 1+
G m ys
where m is a constant 1 for plane stress and 2 for plane strain. Remember that this is all derived from the elastic solution surrounding a small plastic zone (page 10) but it has since been demonstrated from plasticity theory that this is generally true even if the plastic zone is extensive. The critical value of the CTOD thus gives a reliable measure of the fracture toughness of the material. Clearly this will be a function of the specimen thickness but provided the thickness of the test-piece is similar to the component the test result can be used.
32
MEASURING CTOD This is very difficult to measure directly and is usually inferred from the width of the crack opening V of a three point bending specimen. It is assumed that the specimen behaves as a rigid hinge pivoting about some point in the uncracked ligament of the specimen the displacement is then proportional to V:
V =
(W a) (W a) + a
where
is
a
dimensionless
constant
between
0
and
1.
a r(W-a) (W-a)
P
CTOD
measured
from
a
three
point
bend
specimen.
Painstaking
experiments
measuring
the
value
of
V
and
then
by
sectioning
the
crack
established
this
relationship.
But
beware
-
it
depends
on
the
specimen
thickness
and
the
width
of
the
slot
and
the
length
of
the
crack.
There
are
four
values
of
recognised
by
the
ASTM
standards:
i
the
CTOD
at
the
onset
of
stable
ductile
crack
growth.
c
the
CTOD
at
the
onset
of
unstable
cleavage
failure,
u
the
CTOD
at
the
onset
of
unstable
crack
growth
following
extensive
ductile
stable
crack
growth
m
the
CTOD
at
maximum
load
where
the
specimen
does
not
break.
The
first
is
hard
to
detect;
the
only
clue
in
the
load
curve
being
a
slight
change
in
gradient.
The
next
two
are
identified
by
the
failure
of
the
sample
and
the
last
by
a
maximum
in
the
load
curve
without
the
failure
of
the
sample.
33
LOAD P
V
Mouth
Opening
Displacement
v
Load
curves.
J
INTEGRALS
The
J
integral
is
the
equivalent
of
the
G
for
the
elastic-plastic
case.
It
is
the
rate
of
energy
absorbed
per
unit
area
as
the
crack
grows;
it
is
not
however
the
energy
release
rate
because
the
plastic
energy
is
not
recoverable
as
it
would
be
in
the
elastic
case.
The
definition
is:
J =
where
U
is
the
potential
energy
of
the
system
and
A
the
area
of
the
crack.
P P Load a a + da dU d dP
dU dA
Displacement
Energy
release
rate
for
non-linear
deformation.
An analogy with the Linear elastic case can be made; compare the Figure above with those on page 25. The stress strain curve is no longer linear, but the area under the curve represents the work done in extending the cracked body (without extending the crack).
34
Plotting two curves for specimens differing only in the length of the crack, a and a+a, the energy required to grow the crack is the difference in the areas under the two graphs shaded in the Figures on page 25. Since the area decreases as the crack grows dU/da is negative and J =-dU/da at unit thickness. Although this is the same as the definition of the energy release rate we used earlier, the J integral for the plastic case does not represent the energy released as the crack grows because much of the energy used performs plastic deformation. This is fine so long as you are just loading the specimen but becomes tricky if you try and reverse the stress. The term J integral comes from the property of J which can be expressed and evaluated as a closed line integral around the crack tip. J is the strain energy density within the line minus the surface integral of the normal traction stress forces normal to the surface defined and is independent of the path the integral takes.
Diagram showing the line integral around the crack tip J integral.
It can be evaluated experimentally by measuring the stress strain curves for a number of identical specimens containing cracks of different lengths and plotting the area under the graph U for each specimen as a function of the crack length and thus evaluating dU/dA and hence J. There are also specific specimen geometries (deeply double notched and notched three point bending specimens) that allow J to be measured from a single specimen. These experiments allow J to be plotted as a function of the crack extension. Thus although J is defined in similar terms to the energy release rate G, and indeed reduces to G for linear elastic behavior, J for elastic-plastic materials is closer to R, the resistance to crack growth, in both interpretation and form. The curve plotted against the crack growth from the original crack length a, shows three distinct regions; an initial zone where the original crack blunts but does not grow and the curve rises steeply, a secondary region initiating at JIc, where a new crack nucleates and grows developing the elastic-plastic zone at the crack tip, until finally steady state crack tip conditions are achieved and the crack propagates at a constant value of the J resistance JR.
35
Crack blunting
JR
Fracture Initiation
C a
Diagram indicating the J curve during crack growth. The validity of this approach has limits, just as the LEFM has. These are reached, in general terms, when the extent of plastic yielding becomes a large proportion of the remaining ligament length. At this point a single parameter for crack growth is not sufficient and even more complicated analysis is necessary.
36
Ductile failure in uni-axial specimen is characterised macroscopically by cup and cone failure, and on a microscopic scale by the formation and coalescence of voids generally nucleated at second phase particles. This occurs after the point of plastic instability has been reached when the rate of work hardening can no longer compensate for the increase in the stress as the section decreases. Voids nucleate and grow most rapidly in the centre of the sample where the state of triaxial stress exists. These grow and coalesce to produce a circular internal crack which grows, and finally fails by shear in the plane stress outer regions of the sample. Where void formation is difficult, (for example in pure metals) much more ductility is observed and the sample can thin almost to a point before failure occurs.
Diagram showing cup and cone failure in tensile specimen Voids almost always nucleate at second-phase particles either by decohesion at the interface or by fracture of the second phase or inclusion. A number of models have been developed which look at the effect of dislocation pile-ups at second-phase precipitates formed during plastic flow as the trigger to void nucleation but fail to predict the observation that voids appear to nucleate most readily at larger particles. This is not entirely surprising because the largest precipitates are likely to be those with the highest interface energy and thus the largest incentive to reduce surface to volume ratio, and, in addition, are also those most likely to crack under extensive plastic flow in the surrounding matrix. This latter process is the most likely to occur where large precipitates are present and can be readily observed. The 45 sides of the cone fail last as the central crack propagates outwards. In the absence of general yielding across the full remaining section of the sample the progress of a crack by ductile means relies upon the nucleation and growth of voids ahead of the crack tip. The stress ahead of the crack tip is raised to about 4 times the stress at approximately two times the crack tip opening displacement or CTOD from the tip. Voids form in this area of raised stress ahead of the crack tip.
37
Once formed, the voids grow, becoming elliptical and undergoing extensive plastic flow at the sides. The ligaments between the voids fail by shear on the plane of highest shear stress at 45 to the tensile axis.
Facetted brittle failure showing river lines. The steps or river lines on the facets converge and eventually disappear in the direction of crack growth. They are formed at a grain boundary where the cleavage plane in one grain is not parallel to the plane in the adjacent grain; the difference being accommodated by a series of steps. These gradually diminish as the crack propagates adopting the cleavage plane of the new grain before being re-formed at the next grain boundary. If a cleavage crack is to propagate across a grain boundary distinct new cracks must be nucleated ahead of the interface before sufficient plasticity in the material is achieved to relieve those stresses.
38
Polycrystalline
Ni-Based
superalloy
RR1000,
Fatigue
failure
at
Room
temperature
showing
transgranular
cleavage
Ductile failure at high temperature in IN 738 showing gross tearing. AlMg Si alloy failed by microvoid coalescence
39
Conditions favoring brittle fracture are: high yield stress, reduced slip systems (HCP and BCC metals, low temperature), high constraint (plane strain) and rapid deformation.
However, for metals, in particular for iron , it has been shown that the fracture stress follows the value of yield stress measured in compression (even though in tension the material demonstrates brittle failure). For small grains sizes yielding precedes failure, at larger grains sizes the two occur together. At the tip, the crack becomes blunted through plasticity and thus the potentially very high stresses are reduced (see next section). As a result the stresses achieved ahead of the crack tip do not in effect exceed 3-4 times the yield stress. This is way below the theoretical strength of most materials:
Hence the crack cannot simply propagate as it would in a brittle ceramic. (e.g. the wedging discussed on page 5. There must be a crack or defect ahead of the crack to further raise the stress and propagate the crack if cleavage is to occur. Under conditions of plane strain i.e. constraint, the critical length for a crack from the Griffiths criterion is:
acrit =
2E s
1 2 f2
= 0.3m
-2 -2 -2 where,
for
example
in
iron,
f
=
1GNm
and
E
=
200GNm ,
and
s
=
2Jm .
Hence
some
plasticity
at
the
crack
tip
is
necessary
to
form
cracks
of
roughly
this
size
in
order
to
propagate
the
crack
further.
A
number
of
mechanisms
by
which
micro-cracks
can
form
have
been
proposed
and
are
illustrated
on
the
next
page.
The
micro-crack
is
limited
to
a
single
grain
due
to
the
difficulty
in
propagating
across
the
boundary.
Hence
the
stress
intensity
ahead
of
a
micro-crack
is
limited
by
the
(grain
size),
this
limits
the
stress
to
nucleate
further
cracks
and
propagate
the
failure.
This
results
in
a
Hall-Petch
type
relationship
between
the
failure
stress
and
the
grain
size:
1
' *2 E gb , )
f ) #1 2 % d , & + ($
where
gb
is
the
plastic
work
to
propagate
across
the
grain
boundary
and
generally
exceeds
the
usual
p
term.
There
are
other
mechanisms
by
which
grain
refinement
to
affect
the
fracture
stress;
in
mild
steels
the
cleavage
fracture
is
controlled
by
the
fracture
of
grain
boundary
carbides,
and
an
increase
in
the
overall
grain
boundary
area
with
smaller
grain
size
leads
to
smaller
carbides
and
thus
a
higher
fracture
stress.
Grain
size
is
hence
the
one
of
the
best
strengthening
mechanisms
as
it
increases
both
strength
and
ductility.
40
41
Macroscale: The brittle ductile transition represents the change from general plastic yielding to the propagation of a distinct crack this so-called brittle failure can be very ductile and the fracture surface show evidence of extensive plasticity. The brittle ductile transition is governed by the macroscopic yield in the specimen, not what is going on at the crack tip. Hence values depend, within limits, on the particular geometry of the specimens. Tests such as the impact test of which there are several standards (Charpy, Izod etc) provide relative rather than quantitative data. They are nevertheless extremely useful as they are quick and simple to perform can be compared with reference data to provide excellent quality control. If the energy absorbed by rapid failure is plotted against the temperature for steels a transition is observed from a high to a low value over a limited temperature range.
Energy absorbed
Energy absorbed
Two of the transition temperature defined are: the nil ductility temperature where the curve just begins to rise, and the fracture-surface appearance transition temperature, FATT, based on 50% of the surface being cleavage failure. The former corresponds to the point at which general yield occurs throughout the remaining width of the sample. Factors promoting cleavage failure are: 1 2 3 4 5 high yield stress large amount of stored elastic energy large grain size large build up of stress from pile-ups coarse carbides can crack deep notches - constraint thick specimens (plane strain).
42
At the nano-micro scale: Fracture of very small components is crucial to the development of small devices and it is here that much interest in fracture is currently focused. Here plasticity is also crucial, particularly in materials with limited dislocation mobility (Si, Ge, Fe, Cr, Al2O3, and inter-metallics) essentially everything other than fcc metals. All these materials display very brittle behaviour at low temperatures and a transition to a more ductile behaviour as temperature rises. Rice introduced the concept that brittleness was determined by the competition at the crack tip between the generation of dislocations in the very high stress field at the crack tip and cleavage. His paper of 1974 explains the issue very lucidly (skip the mathematics in the middle) J.R. Rice and R Thomson, Phil Mag 29, 1, p73, (1974), with a more modern interpretation given by J.R. Rice, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, V.40, Iss.2 p.239-271 (1992). This is demonstrated by a series of experiments performed by Prof Steve Roberts on pure iron single crystals. (Acta. Mat. 56 (2008) 5123)
4Pt
bending
with
pre-cracked
single
crystals
of
specific
orientation
(2
slip
planes
at
45
to
the
crack
tip)
Strain
rate
varied
from
4
x
10
to
4
x
10
s
KIc
calculated
from
failure
stress
and
geometrical
factors
DBT
indentified
from
examination
of
the
fracture
surface
and
evidence
of
slip
bands
Plotting
1/TDBT
against
strain
rate
shows
an
Arhenius
relationship
Activation
energy
correlates
very
well
with
that
for
dislocation
movement
-3 -5 -1
The DBT decreases from 130K at the lowest strain rate to 154K at the highest. The observed behaviour can be modeled very accurately by dislocation dynamics. This means calculating the distribution and movement of dislocations during the test from their initial positions, the complete stress field and an exponential equation for dislocation velocity. Essentially the DBT occurs when the shielding effect of the dislocations on the two slip planes (i.e. the elastic stress fields from those generated) reduces the stress at the crack tip sufficiently rapidly to prevent the stress at the tip reaching the cleavage stress.
43
Fatigue is damage (usually failure) caused by oscillating stress below the fracture stress. 90% of all mechanical failures can be attributed to fatigue. Paradoxically, although the stress is below the yield stress, fatigue is essentially concerned with the generation of defects by plastic flow and the movement of dislocations.
Stress
max a m
0
Time
min
The
diagram
above
defines
some
of
the
variables
used
to
describe
a
fatigue
test
run
under
stress
control:
the
stress
range
Ds,
stress
amplitude
a,
mean
stress
m.
the
R
ratio
R
=
min/max
.
Similar
definitions
apply
to
tests
where
the
strain
on
the
sample
is
controlled
and
the
maximum
stress
may
vary
through
the
test.
Real
fatigue
situations
cover
a
baffling
range
of
variables;
examples
include
high
frequency
mechanical
fatigue
for
example
in
a
crankshaft,
to
low
frequency
pounding
of
a
north-sea
oil
rig
structure
in
a
highly
corrosive
environment,
to
thermal
fatigue
caused
by
the
periodic
heating
and
cooling
in
the
turbine
of
a
transatlantic
jet
engine.
We
need
to
understand
fatigue
so
that
we
are
able
to:
i) predict
the
engineering
life
of
these
components,
ii) design
structures
and
materials
which
maximise
economic
life.
Factors
affecting
fatigue
which
we
will
consider
in
varying
degrees
of
detail
are:
Mean
stress
m
Stress
amplitude
Frequency
Waveform
Temperature
Temperature
variation
Environment
corrosion
and
oxidation
Surface
finish
Coatings
Microstructure
44
Test procedures have been developed which address these variables and by the use of a number of mostly empirical laws these are able to provide some degree of predictability in most situations. Fatigue conditions fall into a number of regimes: High Cycle Fatigue HCF: Low amplitude stresses induce primarily elastic strains which results in long life, i.e. endurance in excess of 10,000cycles Low Cycle Fatigue LCF: Considerable plastic deformation during cyclic loading results in an endurance limit below 10,000 cycles and behavior dominated by plastic deformation. Thermo-mechanical Fatigue TMF: varying both stress and temperature to give strain cycles in phase, out of phase (and all things in between) with the temperature cycle.
APPROACHES
TO
FATIGUE
We
can
break
Fatigue
in
ductile
materials
into
several
stages:
1. Initial
micro-structural
changes
leading
to
the
nucleation
of
permanent
damage
2. 3. 4. 5. Nucleation
of
the
first
micro-cracks
Growth
and
coalescence
of
these
flaws
to
produce
a
dominant
crack.
Stable
propagation
of
the
dominant
crack.
Failure
Macroscopically there are ambiguities in defining the initiation and growth stages of cracks depending on the resolution of the techniques being used to investigate. Generally stages 1-3 constitute crack initiation and stages 4-5 crack growth. Depending on the conditions, these stages occupy widely differing fractions of the sample life and thus require different strategies to determine life. The method adopted also depends on the consequences of failure.
45
This strategy is to predict the total life and retire the component at a fixed proportion of this, to include a considerable margin for error. The aim is to retire the component before a crack forms and it is used where fatigue failure would result in component failure. Total-life can be wasteful as much useful life remains unused where the scatter in the data is large. This approach focuses on predicting the number of cycles to failure, N for an initially un-cracked specimen. This is most appropriate where the initiation of the dominant crack occupies the majority of the total life (as much as 90%). For HCF where the stress range is low and the stresses principally elastic, the stress range is used to characterise the component and produce a reference S-N curve. For higher stresses resulting in LCF plastic strain is extensive and the strain range is typically (but not always) used.
DAMAGETOLERANT
OR
FAIL-SAFE:
This
approach
recognises
that
all
structures
contain
defects
and
that
these
grow
at
stable
and
predictable
rates.
The
strategy
involves
periodic
inspection
of
the
structure
and
repairs
or
replaces
components
as
cracks
are
found.
This
is
generally
used
where
failure
would
not
result
in
component
failure
due
to
structural
redundancy.
A
greater
proportion
of
the
useful
life
is
used
and
the
risk
of
wrong
assumptions
in
the
predictive
process
are
dimished.
Thus
if
the
maximum
size
of
the
initial
defects
in
the
structure
is
known
(amax)
the
interval
between
inspections
is
determined
by
the
time
predicted
for
this
crack
to
achieve
critical
size
(t1).
The
component
may
survive
several
iterations
(two
in
the
case
below)
before
being
replaced.
Following the development of fracture mechanics for monotonic deformation Paris recognised in the 1960s that the same concepts of stress intensity could be applied to fatigue to estimate the fatigue crack growth rate and thus predict the time taken for the crack to reach an unstable size.
46
PARIS LAW If the rate of crack growth is measured and plotted against the K on a log-log plot the curve takes the general sigmoidal form shown below. I: Crack initiation, crack at Fracture 45 following slip planes II: Crack propagates at I II III 90 to tensile axis, m striations formed III: Final rupture KIc log K There are three distinct regions, an initial stage usually showing a threshold value for K, a 2nd stage where the crack growth rate shows a power law dependence on K only; and a final stage where the crack growth rate approaches infinity as the K reaches KIc. The central region is the most useful as it allows the CGR for the major part of the life to be predicted from a knowledge of the conditions at the crack tip. This equation is known as the Paris Equation.
log(da/dN)
where m 4 but can vary from 2-7 for various materials. This implies that da/dN does not depend on the value of R. This is not strictly the case particularly for low values of R where the crack closes during the cycle (see p59).
da = CK m dN
Note: Minors Law follows directly from the Paris Law see question sheet 2
47
If we perform a series of tests at varying stress ranges and plot the number of cycles to failure the life increases as the stress range decreases. Some materials (typically low alloy steels and Titanium alloys) show an asymptote to a fatigue limit, otherwise (high alloy steels and aluminium), an endurance limit is set.
Fatigue limit
BASQUINS LAW S-N curve The curve can be approximated by an empirical expression due to Basquin:
ln N
= a = f" 2Nf 2
where f is the fatigue strength coefficient f the static fracture strength and b takes the value 0.05 to 0.12 for metals. COFFIN MANSON LAW. Under conditions of high plastic deformation we have low cycle fatigue conditions and for strain controlled tests, Coffin and Manson independently noted an empirical relation very similar to Basquins law. The total strain amplitude can be split into plastic and elastic components:
where the plastic component is linear when plotted against the log (number of load reversals), 2Nf :
e p = + 2 2 2
p 2
= f" 2Nf
Here f is the fatigue ductility component and roughly equal to the failure ductility in tension, and c takes the value 0.5 to 0.7 for metals. Adding in the Basquins law for the elastic (high cycle fatigue) component we have:
Plotting log() against log (2Nf) gives two distinct regimes, at low strain and long life the gradient b
f" = 2Nf 2 E
+ f" 2Nf
48
(-0.1) dominates, HCF conditions, and at high strain and short life the gradient is c (-0.5). The transition is gradual but extrapolating the asymptotes allows a transition number of cycles, 2Nt, to be identified.
f
log c
b 2Nt log 2Nf
Note:
fatigue
is
inherently
variable
variation
in
life
of
100%
is
not
unusual
for
nominally
the
same
test.
This
is
masked
by
the
widespread
use
of
log
plots.
The
intercepts
of
the
two
parts
of
the
curve
correspond
roughly
to:
1. LCF:
the
total
strain,
plastic
and
elastic,
at
failure.
2. HCF:
the
elastic
component
of
the
strain
at
failure
Lets
put
some
figures
in
here:
E
b
c
f
f
Aluminium
7075
72GPa
193MPa
1.8
-0.106
-0.690
Steel
0.15%C
210GPa
827MPa
0.95
-0.110
-0.640
Aluminium:
(HCF intercept 666 times less than the LCF intercept - note log scale) Steel:
0.106
+ 1.8 2Nf
0.69
0.11
+ 0.95 2Nf
0.64
49
a = a | m = 0 1 m
y
a = a | m = 0 1 m
TS
50
GOODMAN DIAGRAM The effect of mean stress and R value can be expressed on a Goodman diagram shown below:
max
min
TEMPERATURE
Temperature
has
environmental
effects
on
fatigue
developed
later.
It
is
possible
to
adjust
for
the
simple
effect
on
yield
stress
where
the
nature
of
fatigue
does
not
change
by
normalizing
the
applied
stress
with
the
yield
stress.
Plotting
against
/y
often
collapses
datasets
to
the
same
curve.
51
COPING WITH VARIABLE STRESS - MINERS LAW: In real situations components very rarely experience constant regular damage. The level of stress or strain can vary throughout life and the simplest way of dealing with this is by the use of Miners law. This proposes that the life of a component experiencing fatigue at various stress amplitudes can be assessed by expressing the number of cycles at each amplitude as a proportion of total life and summing the fractions. When the fraction reaches 1, the fatigue life is exhausted. The order of exposure is not taken into account.
time
m
N
i =1
ni
fi
= 1
Miners Law
This is useful as a first approximation but has serious shortcomings. The most important being that no account can be taken of the impact of prior damage on the later exposure at a different stress (or strain) amplitude. In particular the balance between crack initiation and crack growth can vary considerably with stress, thus brief exposure to high amplitude may nucleate damage which at a lower stress would not occur until a much later stage and thus accelerate the damage rate at a subsequent lower stress. Conversely, early exposure to low stress amplitude may strain harden the material and thus prolong life during later high amplitude exposure. This emphasizes the importance of looking at the specific mechanisms of damage and how it accumulates in the material.
52
DEVELPOMENT
OF
INTERNAL
MICROSTRUCTURE
DURING
FATIGUE
t t
For
some
situations
the
loading
c onditions
a re
c ontrolled
b y
t he
a mplitude
of
the
strain
rather
than
t t the
stress.
This
is
reflected
in
the
tests
which
are
done
under
strain
control.
These
are
also
most
likely
to
be
the
conditions
where
plastic
deformation
forms
a
considerable
proportion
of
the
strain,
LCF.
c c
c c c < t c < t
Where
the
strain
is
kept
constant
the
stress
can
either
increase
(cyclic
hardening)
decrease
(cyclic
softening)
or
stay
the
same.
Cyclic hardening
Cyclic softening
To understand why this occurs we need to consider dislocation microstructure of the material. From the above materials where the initial state is highly work hardened the dislocation density is high, the effect of the cyclic strain is to allow the rearrangement of the dislocations into stable networks, reducing the stress at which the plastic component occurs, and thus the effective stress. Conversely where the initial dislocation density is low, (soft material) the cyclic strain increases the dislocation density increasing the amount of elastic strain and the stress on the material. For a given alloy both hard and soft materials tend to a stable dislocation configuration. For example, detailed work on the development of dislocation configurations in copper and shows that a stable Labyrinth structure develops (see the figure on page 52 from Suresh, chapter 2)
53
As the fatigue establishes a stable microstructure the hysteresis loop becomes stable at some point during the test. When this stable loop is plotted as a function of increasing stress (or strain) the locus of the maximum values from a series of tests defines a cyclic stress strain curve.
54
t t t
t
b
c c
Strain
control
first
cycle
showing
the
Bauschinger
effect.
c c < t c c < t
During cyclic deformation the material can retain a memory of the initial plastic strain which reduces the stress at which plastic yield occurs in the reverse cycle. This effect can persist for many cycles and is known as the BAUSCHINGER EFFECT. This reversible but plastic deformation can occur by dislocation pile-ups at, for example, incoherent or semi-coherent precipitates exerting a back-stress which assists plastic yield in compression. This reduces the yield stress in compression.
55
The picture above shows a single crystal superalloy CMSX-4 fatigued in LCF at 750C and interrupted at about half the expected life. In this section cut on the primary slip plane dislocation loop enter the phase precipitates trailing Anti-Phase Boundary faults under max stress the loops expand contracting as the stress decreases.
56
For high SFE materials the cell size is a decreasing function of the strain range and ultimately does not depend on the starting microstructure. Very low SFE e.g. Cu 7.5% Al, materials do not form stable cell structures, the highly dissociated dislocations being arranged in planar arrays where the spacing depends on the initial state. The microstructures and lives are thus very sensitive to the prior deformation state.
57
(a) OP (0.4)
Here cutting of precipitates early in this test (TMF of Nimonic 90) has caused the to dissolve leaving precipitate free channels in the alloy. The precipitates are visible from the dislocations wrapped around them
58
The three regions can be identified from the morphology of the fracture surface. I. Initiation; crack initiates at intrusions and follows slip plane at approximately 45 to principle stress direction. When the length is sufficient for the stress field at the tip to become dominant the overall crack plane becomes perpendicular to the principle stress and the crack enters stage II. II. Growth typically showing striations for each cycle and beach marks at points where conditions changed. Striations may be obscured by closure damage or by oxide formation at high temperatures. III. Final failure ductile or brittle rupture associated with fast fracture.
Crack Stage II
Crack stage I growth at 45 to stress axis, following persistent slip bands, during stage II turns to growth normal to stress axis.
Formation
of
striations
by
ductile
flow
during
crack
growth
WARNING: Crack morphologies can differ from this simple formula having more or fewer stages. Not all fatigue failures show striations or a clear stage I. There may also be different morphologies as K or the microstructure change.
59
Diagram showing the formation of intrusions and extrusions at a persistent slip band.
In the vast majority of cases fatigue initiates on the surface, however cracks can sometimes initiate internally at defects cracked precipitates of internal porosity. The crack then grows under vacuum until it reaches an external surface. This gives a characteristic circular area on the fracture surface. Once the crack becomes a surface crack and air is admitted and the stress intensity increases and the growth rate increases. This sometimes leads to immediate failure.
60
EFFECTS OF OXIDATION AND CORROSION The absence of a fatigue limit is normally and indication of material which is immune from corrosion or oxidation effects otherwise the mere passage of time will eventually allow the initiation and propagation of cracks even at very low stress.
At high temperatures oxidation at grain boundaries, Carbides or as in the single crystal above, in areas where the composition varies slightly, results in crack initiation. The oxide layer cracks and the crack propagates into the substrate thus allowing further oxidation.
61
COATINGS
AND
SURFACE
LAYERS
Coatings
with
different
mechanical
properties
to
the
substrate
can
accelerate
cracking
by
promoting
rapid
initiation.
TMF
300C
850C
CoNiCrAlY
coating
on
IN738
Tested
in
DESIGN AGAINST INITIATION Where initiation occupies most of the life of the sample, initiation control, any measure which reduces crack nucleation will extend life. Surface damage, even scratches can act as stress concentrators and lead to local plastic deformation and crack initiation. High cycle fatigue is very sensitive to surface finish and can be extended by polished surface finish. Corrosion protection to suppress the formation of cracks at interfaces by preferential attack Treatments which induce a residual compressive stress in the surface layer will extend life by reducing the mean stress at the surface and delaying the onset of cracking. Carburising, Nitriding, shot peening. Coatings have different stress and/or thermal response to the imposed stress may crack. The crack can act as a stress concentrator and promote early cracking. Thermal barrier coatings accelerate HCF failure. Pores act as stress concentrators and a major source of fatigue cracks in single crystal superalloys: remove by HIPING. As with fracture plastic deformation in the matrix can cause cracking of carbides and the nucleation of cracks.
62
In predicting the life of a component we have to consider the possibility that the material is subject to other degradation processes such as corrosion, oxidation or creep which affect the crack growth. Damage usually accelerates crack growth, but can repair and mitigate the effects of the other process. Tests investigating these effects compare behaviour in vacuum with that in air or other damaging environments. Alternatively, introducing a dwell time at maximum and or minimum stress can change the crack growth rate. The higher the test frequency the smaller the possible contribution from creep/corrosion will be and a strong dependence of life on the frequency can indicate some other contribution. (This may also show up as a mismatch between HCF and LCF data when plotted on the same graph as on page 47.)
CREEP
Creep can increase or decrease fatigue life: possible mechanisms of interaction are: An increase in dislocation density due to fatigue can increase creep rate through dislocation movement and /or enhanced diffusion. Increasing dislocation density can also decrease primary creep (see earlier). Cutting of grain boundary porosity increasing the growth rate of the pores Blunting of crack tip by creep can reduce crack growth rate and hence fatigue damage rate.
Graph of a constant strain fatigue test with a dwell at both the upper and lower temperatures. During the dwell the specimen creeps to reduce the stress.
63
Allvac 718Plus: Fatigue of this Ni-based alloy deformed with 3s cycle (3S) and same plus 100 s dwell (3S+100) at 650C. Here the effects are due to oxidation at the crack tip. The two heat treatments A1 and A3 respond differently to the 3 s cycle but the dwell removes this difference.
At low temperatures water can have a profound effect on the crack growth rate. Hydrogen embrittlement in steels is a good example. The electrochemical cell set up within the crack allows H to enter the metal and diffuse ahead of the crack tip. The resulting hardening enhances crack growth. The apparent activation energies for the crack growth rate match those for H diffusion.
64
Al alloy fatigue tested in Argon and damp air the water vapour accelerates crack growth above a threshold of ~ 2.0 Pa but the effect becomes saturated at 6.9 Pa. Studies analysing the surface show a similar trend in the oxides formed at the newly exposed crack tips.
CRACK
CLOSURE
The
plastic
deformation
at
the
fracture
surface,
distortion
or
oxide
growth
during
exposure
can
all
act
to
cause
the
crack
faces
to
touch
before
the
elastic
deformations
of
the
sample
would
predict.
This
means
that
the
stress
intensity
range
is
effectively
reduced.
Clearly
this
will
have
a
greater
effect
the
closer
the
minimum
stress
intensity
is
to
zero.
Kmin Time
Crack
Closure:
Effective
stress
range
where
crack
does
not
fully
close.
The
Paris
equation
can
be
modified
to
use
a
reduced
value
of
the
stress
intensity
factor
Keff.
da m = CK m UK ) eff = C( dN
where
U=
K eff K
65
Plasticity
Mode II displacement
Oxide debris
The crack growth rate curves below have been measured at different R ratios this gives rise to different amounts of crack closure. All the data can by condensed onto a single line by judicious use of Keff. Usually suitable U values are fitted experimentally.
QUESTION SHEETS
QUESTION SHEETS
2. A directionally solidified inter-metallic has a grain structure which can be modelled as a series of hexagonal prisms separated by high angle grain boundaries. The material has limited ductility and fails in a brittle manner. By considering the value of G, the energy release rate and R, the energy of fracture, evaluate whether the intermetallic will fail in an inter-granular of a trans-granular manner for the two different orientations of the grain structure below loaded in pure mode I opening. You can assume that the energy of fracture R is reduced by the grain boundary energy for intergranular failure. The grain boundary energy is half the surface energy of the material and equal for all the boundaries. The variation of the energy release rate, G, as the fracture plane deviates from the plane normal to the loading axis, is given by the graphs on page 16 of the handout. Would there be any difference for propagation parallel to the grain axes? Following your conclusions from the above, describe the fracture path you would expect in a more realistic structure where the grains were not so regular.
QUESTION SHEETS
a) A wedge driven into a pre-existing crack along the grain of piece of wood opens up the crack and eventually causes the wood to split along the grain. Sketch how the stored elastic energy varies as the wedge is driven in both before and after the crack starts to grow. Plot U against x. Assume that the crack lies very close and parallel to the straight edge of the wood and that all the strain is in the thinner layer of wood. The elastic energy stored, UE, in a cantilevered beam of depth d opened by a Ed 3 h 2B wedge of height h is given by: UE = (B is the width into the page) 8a 3
b) Derive an expression for the energy release rate as the crack grows. Will the crack grow in a stable or unstable manner as the wedge is driven in at a steady rate? It is found that the crack starts to grow when the wedge is on average 100 mm from the crack tip, i.e. a = 100 mm. If the modulus of the wood along the grain is 10 GPa, d = 5 mm and h = 3 mm estimate the resistance to crack growth R of the wood along the grain. Hence estimate the toughness.
QUESTION SHEETS
c) A manufacturer of disposable chopsticks makes them from the same wood leaving a small section of wood joining the pair for the user to break. He wants to ensure that the two sticks will be easy to separate along the grain.
Show that the force required to pull the two sticks apart as shown in the diagram # Ed 3R &1/ 2 B is given by the expression Fmax = % ( $ 43' a If the length of the cut between the two sticks is 200 mm and the sticks are a square section of 5 mm calculate the force. 4. a) A cylindrical pressure vessel of diameter 1 m is made from a steel of toughness 70 MPa m1/2 and with a yield strength of 440 MPa. What is the maximum possible thickness that the vessel can be made if it were to leak before break? The internal pressure is 10 MPa. Design criteria specify a safety margin of 10% for the thickness what thickness would you specify to ensure leak before break? What is the maximum stress and does this exceed the yield stress? b) The inside of the vessel is given a proprietary laser treatment to double the hardness and improve the resistance to chemical attack. This coating reaches a depth of 2 mm. Unfortunately it also decreases the toughness to 35 MPa m1/2. What is the critical crack size in the laser treated material? Describe what will happen to a crack propagating from the inside through the hardened layer and into the untreated steel of the pressure vessel. Does the layer affect the safety of the vessel? Consider the effects of the coating on both static loading and fatigue. Estimate the plastic zone size i) in the coating and ii) in the main body of the vessel and explain the basis of your calculation.
QUESTION SHEETS
QUESTION SHEETS
As a general rule the fatigue tolerance of a material scales with the yield stress. A new alloy Wondalloy is available for turbine disks with a higher yield stress which will allow a maximum cyclic stress range of 1000 MPa , increased from the value of 800 MPa for the existing alloy Mundalloy (for this application R = 0). The fatigue crack growth rates for both alloys is given by the equation:
da = AK 4 dN where the constant A = 2.5 x 10-14 for Mundalloy
The fracture toughness of both alloys is 100 MPa m1/2 What is the constant A for Wondalloy if the fatigue performance is improved in proportion to the yield stress; conditions of stress and the initial defect size remaining the same? If Wondalloy is to be used with an increased stress range but with the same service interval of 5,000 cycles what are the implications for the detection of the minimum flaw size? Use the value for A calculated above. If the inspection technique used for defect detection in Wondalloy is the same as that used for Mundalloy, what would be the maximum interval between inspection services operating Wonderalloy at the higher stress rating? As an interim measure it is decided to use Wondalloy assessing the defect size with the same accuracy as Mundalloy. What would be the maximum stress range that could be used? Quantify your conclusions and state any assumptions you have made.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)