CORE STUDY: WORLD WAR 1

1. WAR ON THE WESTERN FRONT

1.1 The reasons for stalemate on the Western Front Failure of the Von Schliefen Plan - Failed to encircle Paris (met with strong resistance from the allied powers at the battle of the Marne) - Germans forced to retreat to the river Aisne but had no plans for a defensive role, so tried to capture the allies Channel Ports (cut off allies resources). - This became known = Race to the Sea. - This race stretched the front line of entrenched troops across Belgium and France - Trench Systems developed - A war of movement had ended: neither side was able to make a decisive gain in land due to the comprehensive, defensive system of trenches. - Neither side was able to break the defenses of the other = stalemate! Failed to take into account the railways through Belgium and France, which the French had used to their advantage = transport soldiers faster. Invasion of Belgian Neutrality = Britain became involved unanticipated allied power. Russia had mobilized quicker than anticipated, which mean that Germany had to redirect its troops from invasion of France = weakening forces. Austria-Hungary was more intent on invading Serbia did not provide expected support to Germany.

Modifications made by Von Moltke & Ludendorff - Abandoned the advance through Holland, which meant that a bottleneck was created as German forces tried to advance through Belgium (Liege) = slowed German advance - Weakened the vital right flank, and redistributed it into (Alsace and Lorraine) - The plan originally depended on speed and strength, so that the Germans could have Paris for lunch, St. Petersburg for dinner (Kaiser Wilhelm 2). 1

But, changing the distribution of the soldiers from the right flank meant that no decisive moves were made by the Germans in the north.

War of movement / Nature of trench warfare - Most important factor contributed to the stalemate: both the allies and central powers had developed such a comprehensive system of trenches designed for defense = neither side could make a decisive move without getting gunned down. - The advantage was always with the defender i.e. Somme No new tactics / strategies - Generals Joffre and Haig had failed to learn from their mistakes by adopting new strategies. - Persisted with frontal attacks kept getting annihilated by defences 1.2 Overview of Strategies and Tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendale 1. Frontal Attacks - Artillery Bombardment: destroy barbed wire, machinery, front-line defenses - Infantry Advance: take over front line trenches, creeping barrage too slow (35kg backpacks). - Advantage always lay with the defender. One the soldiers were on nomans land, easily targeted by enemies defenses i.e. Somme, machine gun. - This is why stalemate persisted so long; neither side was able to make gains. 2. Introduction of new technology Gas Tank Designed to break deadlock, drive enemy away from trenches Backfired wind pressure Chlorine / Mustard gas burn skin / respiratory systems It was not gas, but the fear of gas (Harber, 1917) Designed to break dominance over no-mans land Psychological support to soldiers / shield / mobile artillery Unable to make a punch-line Mechanical failures, caught in the churned up mud in no-mans land.

Flame Throwers / Mortars - Flamethrowers dangerous and difficult to control - Mortars not enough damage due to strong defenses 3. Attrition - mobilize all resources to wear down opponent - Deplete enemies resources i.e. Verdun, Passchendale 2

It was a war that Germany could not win: British blockade had blocked their supplies, Allie industrial production was up due to easy trade and accessibility to resources (US, colonies). Germany was isolated for a war between two fronts. No trading occurred. In the end, it is attrition that had made the allies victorious in 1918: Germany was on the verge of economical collapse.

4. Opening New Fronts - Opened to drive forces away from central points - Germans tried to cut of supplies to Russia through the Black sea i.e. Gallipoli. Verdun - Germans tried to bleed French Army dry = war of attrition - Mincing machine of Verdun - Drive French forces into one area (symbolic importance) and Germans make another attack elsewhere, where the enemies forces were sparse on the Hindenburg line. - War of attrition was useless = Germans had failed to close supply route to the French Sacred Way. - Allied Victory Somme - Relieve pressure on French - Make an Allied breakthrough whilst the majority of German soldiers where at Verdun - Wear down German forces breakthrough at Ypres a few weeks later - War of attrition Haig had lost 60,000 men - Simply told he could walk across no mans land, smoking his pipe and cigarettes gave enough time for Germany to mobilize and gun down. Passcendale - Break the salient push Germans back - War of attrition Haig argues that as long as the Germans lost more men then the British and French, the Allies could win in the end. - Over 4.5 million shells were fired, aprox.1 million casualties sustained NO GAIN. 1.3 The Nature of Trench Warfare and Life in the trenches with experiences of Allied and German Soldiers. To protect soldiers from the harsh winter, and enemys fire trenches were developed. They were believed to be temporary until Spring, when warfare would be resumed. Trenches Front line (4 days) Support (4 days) Reserve (8 days) maintenance of trenches / sleep / read letters 3

Communication: connected from towns to all trenches Firestep (repel attacks, stand-to) Parapet (protection against front-attacks) Parados (protection from eager comrades shooting from behind) Zigzag pattern = contain explosions / each bend could be separately defended. Separated by no-mans land usually 200m 1km wide German trenches were superior positioned in hills, ridges and small villages (Marne). French felt obliged to occupy every piece of soil, so generally took what they could.

Challenge of Trench Warfare Germans: Allies: - took a defensive role, as they new that they were going to be fighting a two-font war, so they made sure they could hold on. Concrete / wood construction + electricity + lighting French took an offensive role, as they hated the Germans so much as they were already on their soil. Not as strongly and well built, as they did not expect to stay in them for long. expected to drive the enemy of homeland soil The British also followed this strategy as they were obliged to help the French Also, British font-line in north-France = 80km from Channel Ports a German breakthrough could take these vital ports from them, and isolate the British from their homeland.

British Generals = obsessed with getting as close to the enemy (offensive approach) constant frontal attacks. Germans: General Hindenburg decision to withdraw to a well established defensive line (Hindenburg Line), March 1917 example of contrasting view of Trench warfare. Life in the trenches - Siegfried Sassoon (poet) anyone who had been in the trenches would be everlastingly different from those who hadnt. Experiences - Lice: made homes in soldiers clothing left red-rashes = trench fever - Rats: thrived on plentiful supplies became selective eyes/tongues - Latrines: caused disease due to close proximity - Sickness: Trench foot (constantly immersed in water and mud), frostbite, pneumonia (infections from rats). - Food: rationed tinned beef, biscuits, jam, rum 4

Routine: varied from different trench lines It is the rum that gave the British soldiers the courage to fight, and endure the harsh conditions. If it werent for the war, I dont think the British would have won the war (....................................)

1.4 Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time Outbreak of War - greeted with enthusiasm - opportunity adventure and excitement - honor to serve ones country poet Rupert Brook (richer dust concealed) - Belief that the war would be over by Christmas men feared that they wouldnt have a chance to fight civilians reassured that the war would be over by Christmas. - Upper class initially accepted it = provided a release from confinement and regulation - Middle class = provided an option away from factory = unemployment (monotony) - Some soldiers like it, more hated it but there was a general acceptance that it had to be done (Dennis Winter) Christmas Truce 1914 - Fraternization between British and German soldiers i.e. soccer, games, Christmas carols - Soldiers realized that the enemy they were fighting were not so different from themselves changed soldiers attitude into killing - Generals ordered this to stop effected soldiers morale - Fighting resumed the next day Changing Attitudes after 1916 - worst aspects of trench life began = despair replaced enthusiasm - accentuated with losses at the Somme (large loss of life, little gain) = Futility - reflected in poems of Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon - faces masked fear make it stop - When the war ended armistice = folks at home, frantic with joy and excitement (Simpson, 1993) - Soldiers too overcome with significance to rejoice.

2. THE HOME FRONTS IN BRITAIN AND GERMANY

2.1 Total War and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany Winston Churchill described the war as a massive demand [for] both human and material resources. War had traditionally been fought by men on battlefields = WW1 different = communities left behind on the home front to deal with munitions, men and machinery. Britain Economic Rationing: meat, sugar, butter and eggs (basic foods) Inflation: the cost of living rose by 81% for the skilled labourer Working Hours: clocks altered daylight saving time = more working hours - Alcohol: watered down avoid drunkenness effect hindrance in work production A war of attrition meant that the home front would have to work longer and harder, get paid less, to make sure that fighting on the Western Front could be sustained. Britain Social - Governments gained more executive power = control wages / hours / working conditions (because war demanded clear and quick decisions: debates in parliament would not be decisive)- Defence of the Realm Act (DORA): passed on 8th Aug, 1915 - Women enter workforce for 1st time - Class barriers = partially broken down, as women had to converse with other women from different classes in the workforce - Curfews were imposed, and normal activates such as flying kites were banned Germany Economic - Before war broke out, trade accounted for 1/3 of Germanys food supply. - War had isolated Germany, and stopped trade Therefore: - Rationing: The K.R.A agency in charge of feeding the nation. Food was regulated, controlled and never wasted. - Synthetic Manufacture: natural/imported products replaced by products that were created by other means. - Agricultural / Industrial production levels fell severe frosts (1917) = turnip winter = low morale (due to starvation + long working hours) = difficult to control production levels. - Opposition to war grew in the face of the privations. 6 -

Germany - Social Food and fuel rationing eventually led to a breakdown in the economy, and strikes proceeded until a revolution in the German government proceeded. - Hunger strikes turned into strikes against the government - Kaiser neglected their concerns - Led to an eventual revolution Germany faced harder economic and social hardships than Britain = because of Germanys isolation from trade, strict governmental measures i.e. rationing, and severe frosts. 2.2 Recruitment, Conscription, Censorship, and Propoganda in Britain and Germany Recruitment - Initial outbreak of war = greeted with enthusiasm among Britain + Germany. - But as war would progress, propaganda + censorship would be employed to promote governments pro-war motives. - But, soldiers felt excitement + patriotism (Humphries, 1998) Britain (Recruitment) - In Britain = war greeted with a rush to volunteer = August Madness - Calls for recruitment = newspapers, speeches, universities and gentlemens clubs Germany (Recruitment) - Germany already had a standing army of conscripts (100yr background) Conscription (Germany) - Germany already had a standing army of conscripts - When war broke out it was a matter of calling them up - Strong quality = readiness of its conscripts Conscription (Britain) - conscription against the traditions of Britain - Pro-conscription campaign began so that the target of 500,000 men would be met (Derby Scheme) - Did not produce enough men - Universal Conscription Bill introduced conscripts all single men Conscientious objectors: opposed war and conscription on grounds of political, moral or religious reasons. Tribunal was unsympathetic to objectors a portion agreed to serve in non-combatant war-roles i.e. munitions, ambulance the rest went to jail. 7

PROPOGANDA - encourage particular ideal/s - based on truth = but exaggerated - Medium: Posters / Newspapers / comics / films - Target: young men / women - Purpose: recruit, raise morale, put down enemy Propaganda (Britain) - usually highlighted the Germans as the aggressors / bullies due to their uboat bombings on civilian boats i.e. Lusitania - the British had separated the world into two divisions human beings and Germans (Kipling, 1914) - War Propaganda Bureau Atrocity Story = popular way to arouse enthusiasm for hatred of the Germans. I.e. British Nurse Edith Cavell (executed by Germans) = murderous act / criminal on a civilian.

Propaganda (Germany) - Germanica poster = God punish England - Germany portrayed as the strong warrior (sword, helmet, shield) against Britain over the sea (thunder-sky = evil). Encirclement of Germany = popular theme (war was a plot by the Allies to suppress Germanys greatness). Atrocity Story (also embellished by Germans) = Allies had blinded German prisoners of war.

Censorship (Britain) - minimize the bad-news of war, to promote feelings of war - In trenches, soldiers forbidden to keep diaries to stop home front reading the reality of conditions, to stop, the stop of support for the war. - The government forbid photographs to be taken of ques lining up for food = effect morale of population. - Directorate of Special Intelligence (DSI) was set up to coordinate all censorship Censorship (Germany) - extent of German resources was exaggerated - German public told that the war had started = French invasion of German soil

2.3 The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany In both Britain and Germany during 1914, the reaction of the civilian population was to support the war, and bury any political indifferences to support the war effort. - Adventure patriotism nationalism romanticism noble sacrifice Changing Attitudes in Britain - Turning point: Battle of the Somme - Enormous loss for so little gain - People began to question the way war was being fought = futility - There was still a determination to finish the war, but the enthusiasm had evaporated - London bombings - The nation had become war weary queuing for food became a national past-time - Rise of pacifism Changing Attitudes in Germany - masses effected by turnip winter 1916 1917 - political left inspired by revolution in Russia - If people could not have bread, they demanded political rights - Social Democratic Party = split over views in the continuation of war - Germanys population starving - Tiered because of the strenuous war effort - Strikes and hunger-strikes turned into anti-war movement - Kaiser opposed to cease war by October 1918 Germany on the fringes of revolution Economic hardships on the home fronts due to total war, had made both Germany and Britain war weary 2.4 The impact of war on womens lives, and experiences in Britain Economic As men were fighting on the western front, women became a key element in maintaining production levels at home. Initially, war work was avoided for women, so they entered fields such as: - Transport, education, fianc and administration - Entered employment (previously reserved for men) But, to maintain the production levels women had to be employed in factories to continue the production of weaponry and machinery for the war. More than 7 million women became involved in war work. - Largest single employer for women: Ministry of Munitions 9

Impact: - women became more financially dependent - Under DORA = equal pay and conditions but never the same as men. After the war finished, there was a general expectation by men to return to their homes, and thats just what happened. Social Politically - gained the vote (after war) The contribution of women to the war effort convinced men of parliament that they had earned a fuller place in society = hence, vote. women were liberated by the war effort / new experiences conversed with women from all social groups, unlike before smoked in public For practicality in the workforce, women = cut hair shorter = wore shorter skirts = bras replaced corsets women no longer needed chaperones in public

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3. TURNING POINTS
3.1 Impacts of the Entry of the USA and of the Russian Withdrawl Entry of the United States - America originally = too proud to fight (Woodrow Wilson, 1915) - Saw no reason for their boys to become involved - Feeling reinforced with isolationism better to stay away from Europes problems But: - German suggests an alliance with Mexico Germany offered Texas & Arizona to Mexico in return. - Germanys unrestricted marine warfare sinking civilian ships i.e. Lusitania Impact the entry of the US into the Great War = Kaiser knew that he was doomed Americas role in the war was potential, rather than actual (100, 000s, fresh, eager troops would become available to the allies + seemingly limitless industrial and economic resources of America) This in turn added increasing urgency to Germanys efforts to drive Britain out of the war (as Ludendorff knew that he was on borrowed time) Response: Ludendorrf initiates Spring Offensive (1918) so that he could achieve a victory before the full weight of Americas potential power became real.

Russian Withdrawal - 1917 revolution = Tsar forced to abdicate + cousin refused the throne = dual government created - Soldiers no-longer support war: - Too much social + political upheaval (home front) - the war wasnt going anywhere (stalemate) - 7 million casualties = futility - army voted with its feet: walked away battlefield - Russia looses territorial land + resources (Poland + Ukraine) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Impact - Allowed Germany to shift troops to the Western Front - Used for Germany in their Spring Offensive - Boosted German confidence against allies But, the withdrawal of Russia from the war was not as damaging as expected = allies were soon reinforced by the Americans. 11

3.2 Ludendorffs Spring Offensive and the Allied Response Lundendorffs Spring Offensive - Russias withdrawal from the war = freed 52 German divisions - Launch attack at several points along the Hindenburg Line - March 21st, 1918 Enormous final offensive, with new tactics (enormously effective): - storm troopers - portable mortars - rapid surprise attacks - rolling barrages, poison gas, night concentrations = break font-line trenches - avoid strongly defended points sweep around them Aim: Attack and divide, then defeat British / French forces at Arras and Quentin forcing retirement of the US*
* The defeat of British and French would render the US useless as the war would already be one.

Germans launched 5 attacks: - allied lines were breached, and forced to retreat 1st Offensive: 2nd Offensive: 3rd Offensive: 4th Offensive: 4th Offensive: Allied Offensive Background - During Ludendorffs 5th Offensive Allies counter-attack German salients across Marne. - Through tanks + aero planes - Ludendorff retreats - German fighting capacity was reduced (death of elite storm troopers / moral declined) Attack - counter attack = black day (for Germans) - Surprise attacks by Allies 8 August - Germans fall back to Hindenburg line (tactics = short, sharp attacks of tanks and infantry) - Allies make final assault (26 September) = Foch everyone into battle - Hindenburg line = breached in many places Germans retreat Ludendorff demands German Chancellor to sue for an armistice Germany sued for peace (3 October) Signed armistice 11, November, 1918 12 Forced the British back to Amiens, Germans gain 65km Germans attack in Flanders failed breakthrough reached the Marne (met no resistance)within shelling distance of Paris German advance halted, as they sought to eliminate salient German advance halted by French in Champagne - Offensives failed!

4. ALLIED VICTORY
4.1 Events leading to the armistice - Ludendorffs Spring Offensives - Allied Counter-attacks = retreating Germans to Hindenburg line - British increase in technology and firepower - Entry of US / withdrawal of Russia - Declining morale of German soldiers (Troops soon discovered that their British enemies far from starving as German Propaganda had told them desertion rates rose alarmingly) 4.2 Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse 1. Failure of the Von Schilieffen Plan - failed to encircle Paris - The Battle of the Marne (crucial turning point for Germany); was indecisive resulted in the Race to the Sea - Trench systems created from the channel ports through France / Belgium - War of Attrition adopted allies proved superior 2. Entry of the United States - financed the Allied war efforts by providing massive loans - compensated for Russias withdrawal 3. Domestic Problems in Germany - Food shortages turnip winter 1916-1917 - Riots and strikes became common - Opposition to the war war weariness 4. Weakness of German Allies - Germanys allies lacked economic + military strength to sustain a long war - 1918 Bulgarian armies defeated by British - 1918 Austrians defeated by Italy - October 1918 Turkey surrendered 5. Allied Naval Supremacy - economic blockade of Germany created serious shortages of raw materials to Central Powers - Allied control of the seaways ensured steady supply of troops/food/supplies to the Western Front 6. Failure of the March 1918 Offensive - failed and opened the way for a massive Allied counter-attack - Under the superior leadership of General Foch (France) - Germans retreated to the Hindenburg line - German army was exhausted 13

4.3 The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George, and Wilson in creating the Treaty of Versailles The Conference - 18 January 1918 convened in the Great Hall of Versailles - 32 Allied Nations assembled - All decisions rested with the Big Three Clemenceau/George/Wilson Germany had only agreed to end the hostilities and sign the armistice on the proviso that Wilsons Fourteen Points would serve as the basis of future peace negotiations. But the Fourteen Points did not include any reparations, and France and Britain were all about making Germany pay. War Guilt Clause - article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles - Germany accepts full responsibility for the war: moral justification for reparations. Terms of the Treaty - army limited to 100,000 men - no air-force, navy limited to 6 battleships - conscription banned (seeds of militarism) - no colonies - Allied occupation of the Rhineland for fifteen years - Banned from membership of the League of Nations Signing the Treaty - 28 June 1919 Hall of Mirrors - Same room where the German Empire had been proclaimed = reminder to Germany of its total defeat. Clash of Personalities - Clemenceau + Lloyd George = at times, irritated by Wilsons assumed air of moral superiority - Clemenceau + Lloyd George = wanted reparations (Wilson did not) - Lloyd George + Wilson against Clemenceau over the detachment of Rhineland - Wilson and Clemenceau were against George over revisions to the terms Fontainebleau Memorandum, 25 March 1915 - Lloyd George feared if treaty too severe = Germany would turn to Bolshevisms and seek retribution against Allies - Set out new guidelines, to which Clemenceau thought he was too moderate: - Annual reparation sums settlement should contain no provocation for future wars nationalities be allocated to motherlands Germany should be admitted to League of Nations 14

Roles of the Big Three Clemenceau (France) - disarmament of Germany - guarantees of French security - Restoration of Alsace and Lorraine - Reparations - Creation of a separate buffer state to the west of the Rhine the Rhineland Woodrow Wilson (USA) - idealist: seeking a peace, fair and just - Self-determination (the right for people to rule themselves) - Opposed the annexation of Germanys colonies by allied powers - Germany should retain most of its pre-war territory (except Alsace + Lo) - Reparations Germany should be limited to pay little or nothing (trade) - League of Nations : preserve peace - Fourteen Points: preserve peace and status quo in Europe Lloyd George - keeping faith with the British public political chameleon - desire to soften harsh French demands - resumption of trade and an econonomically viable Europe - Hang the Kaiser Squeeze Germans till pips squeak - War pensions = seek reparations for financial losses of Britain The Treaty of Versailles was never carried through, as Congress failed to ratify Americas involvement from the League of Nations - hence, America drew herself away from European affairs - there was no-one left to sanction Germany to pay

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