Senior Welding Inspection Contents Section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Subject Duti es of the Senior Welding Inspector Terms and Definitions Planning

Codes and Stan dards Calibration of Welding Equipment Destructive Testing Heat Treatment WPS an d Welder Qualifications Materials Inspection Residual Stress and Distortion Weld ability of Steels Weld Fractures Welding Symbols NDT Welding Consumables GMAW SM AW SAW GTAW Weld Imperfections Weld Repairs Welding Safety Appendices Rev 1 January 2010 Senior Welding Inspection Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 General The Senior Welding Inspector has primarily a supervisory/managerial role, which could encompass the management and control of an inspection contract. The role w ould certainly include leading a team of Welding Inspectors, who will look to th e Senior Welding Inspector for guidance, especially on technical subjects. The S enior Welding Inspector will be expected to give advice, resolve problems, take decisions and generally lead from the front, sometimes in difficult situations. The attributes required by the Senior Welding Inspector are varied and the empha sis on certain attributes and skills may differ from project to project. Essenti ally though the Senior Welding Inspector will require leadership skills, technic al skills and experience. 2 Leadership Skills Some aspects on the theory of leadership may be taught in the classroom, but lea dership is an inherent part of the character and temperament of an individual. P ractical application and experience play a major part in the development of lead ership skills and the Senior Welding Inspector should strive to improve and fine tune these skills at every opportunity. The skills required for the development of leadership include: A willingness and ability to accept instructions or orde rs from senior staff and to act in the manner prescribed. A willingness and abil ity to give orders in a clear and concise manner, whether verbal or written, whi ch will leave the recipient in no doubt as to what action or actions are require d. A willingness to take responsibility, particularly when things go wrong, perh aps due to the Senior Welding Inspectors direction, or lack of it. A capacity to listen (the basis for good communication skills) if and when explanations are ne cessary, and to provide constructive reasoning and advice. A willingness to dele gate responsibility to allow staff to get on with the job and to trust them to a ct in a professional manner. The Senior Welding Inspector should, wherever possi ble, stay in the background, managing. A willingness and ability to support memb ers of the team on technical and administrative issues. Rev 1 January 2010 Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector. Copyright TWI Ltd 201 0

3 Technical Skills A number of factors make up the technical skills required by the Senior Welding Inspector and these are a knowledge of: Technology; Normative documents; Plannin g; Organisation; Auditing; 4 Knowledge of Technology Welding technology knowledge required by the Senior Welding Inspector is very si milar to that required by the Welding Inspector, but with some additional scope and depth. Certain areas where additional knowledge is required are: A knowledge of quality assurance and quality control. A sound appreciation of the four comm only used non-destructive testing methods. A basic understanding of steel metall urgy for commonly welded materials and the application of this understanding to the assessment of fracture surfaces. Assessment of non-destructive test reports, particularly the interpretation of radiographs. 5 Knowledge of Normative Documents It is not a requirement for Inspectors at any level to memorise the content of r elevant normative documents, except possibly with the exception of taking examin ations. Specified normative documents (specifications, standards, codes of pract ice, etc) should be available at the workplace and the Senior Welding Inspector would be expected to read, understand and apply the requirements with the necess ary level of precision and direction required. The Senior Welding Inspector shou ld be aware of the more widely used standards as applied in welding and fabricat ion. For example: BS EN ISO 15614 / ASME IX BS 4872, BS EN 287 / ASME IX PED BS 5500 / ASME VIII BS EN ISO 9000 2000 Standards for welding procedure approval St andards for welder approval. Standards for quality of fabrication. Standards for quality management. Rev 1 January 2010 Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector. Copyright TWI Ltd 201 0

6 Knowledge of Planning Any project or contract will require some planning if inspection is to be carrie d out effectively and within budget. See unit: Planning for more detailed inform ation. 7 Knowledge of Organisation The Senior Welding Inspector must have good organisational skills in order to en sure that the inspection requirements of any quality/inspection plan can be met, within the allocated time, budget and using the most suitable personnel for the activity. Assessment of suitable personnel may require consideration of their t echnical, physical and mental abilities in order to ensure that they are able to perform the tasks required of them. Other considerations would include availabi lity of inspection personnel at the time required, levels of supervision and the monitoring of the inspectors activities form start to contract completion. 8 Knowledge of Quality/Auditing There are many situations in manufacturing or on a project where the Senior Weld ing Inspector may be required to carry out audits. See section on: Quality Assur ance/Quality Control and Inspection for more detailed information. 9 Man Management As mentioned above, the Senior Welding Inspector will have to direct and work wi th a team of Inspection personnel which he may well have to pick. He will have t o liaise with Customer representatives, sub-contractors and third party Inspecto rs. He may have to investigate non-compliances, deal with matters of discipline as well as personal matters of his staff. To do this effectively he needs skills in man management. 10 Recruitment When recruiting an individual or a team the SWI will first have to establish the requirements of the work. Among them would be: What skills are definitely requi red for the work and what additional ones would be desirable? Are particular qua lifications needed? Is experience of similar work desirable? What physical attri butes are needed? Is the work local, in-shop, on-site, in a third world country? Does the job require working unsociable hours being away from home for long per iods? Rev 1 January 2010 Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector. Copyright TWI Ltd 201 0

 Is the job for permanent staff or for a fixed term? If overseas what are the lea ve and travel arrangements? What is the likely salary? During subsequent interviews the SWI will need to assess other aspects of the ca ndidates suitability: Has he the ability to work on his own initiative? Can he wo rk as part of a team? If overseas has the person been to a similar location? Wha t is his marital/home situation? Are there any Passport/Visa problems likely? 11 Morale and Motivation The morale of a workforce has a significant effect on its performance so the SWI must strive to keep the personnel happy and motivated and be able to detect sig ns of low morale. Low morale can lead to among other things: Poor productivity, less good workmanship, lack of diligence, taking short cuts, ignoring safety pro cedures and higher levels of absenteeism. The SWI needs to be able to recognise these signs and others such as personnel n ot starting work promptly, taking longer breaks, talking in groups and grumbling about minor matters. A good supervisor should not allow his workforce to get in to such a state. He must keep them motivated by: His own demeanour does he have drive and enthusiasm or is he seen to have no energy and generally depressed. Th e workforce will react accordingly. Is he seen to be leading from the front in a fair and consistent manner? Favouritism in the treatment of staff, on disciplin ary matters, the allocation of work, allotment of overtime, weekend working and holidays are common causes of problems Keep them informed in all aspects of the job and their situation. Rumours of impending redundancies or cuts in allowances etc will not make for good morale. Rev 1 January 2010 Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector. Copyright TWI Ltd 201 0

12 Discipline Any workforce must be working in a disciplined manner, normally to rules and sta ndards laid down in the Companys conditions of employment or relevant company han dbook. The SWI must have a good understanding of these requirements and be able to apply them in a fair and equitable manner. He must have a clear understanding as to the limits of his authority knowing how far he can go in disciplinary pro ceedings. The usual stages of disciplinary procedure are: The quiet word Formal verbal warning Written warning Possible demotion, transfer, suspension Dismissal with notice Instant dismissal. Usually after the written warning stage the matter will be handled by the Compan ys Personnel or Human Resources Department. It is of vital importance that the co mpany rules are rigorously followed as any deviation could result in claims for unfair or constructive dismissal. In dealing with disciplinary matters the SWI m ust: Act promptly Mean what he says Treat everyone fairly and as an adult. Avoid constant complaining on petty issues Where there are serious breaches of company rules by one or two people the rest of the workforce should be informed of the matter so that rumour and counter-rum ours can be quashed. Some matters of discipline may well arise because of incorr ect working practices, passing off below quality work, signing for work which ha s not been done, etc. Rev 1 January 2010 Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector. Copyright TWI Ltd 201 0

In all such cases the SWI will need to carry out an investigation and apply disc iplinary sanctions to the personnel involved. To do this: First establish the fa cts by interviewing staff, from the relevant records, by having rechecks on part of the job. If any suspicions are confirmed, transfer/remove suspect personnel from the job pending disciplinary proceedings. If the personnel are employed by a sub-contractor then a meeting with the sub-contractor will be needed to achiev e the same end. Find out the extent of the problem, is it localised or widesprea d? Is there need to inform the customer and third party inspector? Formulate a p lan of action, with other company departments where necessary, to retrieve the s ituation. Carry out the necessary disciplinary measures on the personnel involve d. Convene a meeting with the rest of the workforce to inform them of the situat ion and ensure that any similar lapses will be dealt with severely. Follow up th e meeting with a written memo. 13

Summary The Senior Welding Inspectors role can be varied and complex, a number of skills need to be developed in order for the individual to be effective in the role. Ev ery Senior Welding Inspector will have personal skills and attributes which can be brought to the job, some of the skills identified above may already have been mastered or understood. The important thing for the individual to recognise is not only do they have unique abilities which they can bring to the role, but the y also need to strive to be the best they can by strengthening identifiable weak areas in their knowledge and understanding. Some ways in which these goals may be achieved is through: Embracing facts and realities. Being creative. Being in erested in solving problems. Being pro-active not reactive Having empathy with o ther people. Having personal values. Being objective. Rev 1 January 2010 Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector. Copyright TWI Ltd 201 0

Note: The following definitions are taken from BS 499-1:1991 Welding terms and sy mbols Glossary for welding, brazing and thermal cutting Welding: An operation in which two or more parts are united by means of heat, pressure or both, in such a way that there is continuity in the nature of the metal between these parts. Br azing: A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during or afte r heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or retained in the space between cl osely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary attraction. In ge neral, the melting point of the filler metal is above 450C but always below the m elting temperature of the parent material. Braze welding: The joining of metals using a technique similar to fusion welding and a filler metal with a lower melt ing point than the parent metal, but neither using capillary action as in brazin g nor intentionally melting the parent metal. Weld: A union of pieces of metal m ade by welding. Joint: Connection where the individual components, suitably prep ared and assembled, are joined by welding or brazing. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Type of joint Butt joint Sketch T joint Definition A connection between the ends or edges of two parts making an angle t o one another of 135 to 180 inclusive in the region of the joint A connection betw een the end or edge of one part and the face of the other part, the parts making an angle to one another of more than 5 up to and including 90 in the region of th e joint Corner joint A connection between the ends or edges of two parts making an angle to one anoth er of more than 30 but less than 135 in the region of the joint Edge joint A connection between the edges of two parts making an angle to one another of 0 t o 30 inclusive in the region of the joint Cruciform joint A connection in which two flat plates or two bars are welded to another flat pla te at right angles and on the same axis Lap joint A connection between two overlapping parts making an angle to one another of 0 to 5 inclusive in the region of the weld or welds Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 1.1 Types of Welds From configuration point of view Butt weld In a butt joint Fillet weld Butt weld In a T joint In a corner joint Autogenous weld: A fusion weld made without filler metal. Can be achieved by TIG , plasma electron beam, laser or oxy-fuel gas welding. Slot weld: A joint betwee n two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet weld round the peripher y of a hole in one component so as to join it to the surface of the other compon ent exposed through the hole. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Plug weld: A weld made by filling a hole in one component of a workpiece with fi ller metal so as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed t hrough the hole (the hole can be circular or oval). 1.2 From the penetration point of view Full penetration weld: A welded joint where the weld metal fully penetrates the joint with complete root fusion. In US the preferred term is complete joint pene tration weld or CJP for short (see AWS D1.1.) Partial penetration weld: A welded joint without full penetration. In US the pre ferred term is partial joint penetration weld or PJP for short. 2 Types of Joint (see BS EN ISO 15607) Homogeneous joint: Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have no significant differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition . Example: two carbon steel plates welded with a matching carbon steel electrode . Heterogeneous joint: Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have significant differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical compositio n. Example: a repair weld of a cast iron item performed with a nickel base elect rode. Dissimilar joint: Welded joint in which the parent materials have signific ant differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example: a carbon steel lifting lug welded onto an austenitic stainless steel pressure ves sel. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3 Features of the Completed Weld Parent metal: Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazin g. Filler metal: Metal added during welding, braze welding, brazing or surfacing . Weld metal: All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the w eld. Heat-affected zone (HAZ): The part of the parent metal that is metallurgica lly affected by the heat of welding or thermal cutting, but not melted. Fusion l ine: Boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld. This is a non -standard term for weld junction. Weld zone: The zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ. Weld face: The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from wh ich the weld has been made. Root: The zone on the side of the first run farthest from the welder. Toe: Boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or betw een runs. This is a very important feature of a weld since toes are points of hi gh stress concentration and often they are initiation points for different types of cracks (eg fatigue cracks, cold cracks). In order to reduce the stress conce ntration, toes must blend smoothly into the parent metal surface. Excess weld me tal: Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes. Other non-standard ter ms for this feature: reinforcement, overfill. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Weld face Parent metal Weld zone Toe Parent metal HAZ Weld metal Root Fusion line Excess weld metal Butt weld Excess weld metal Parent metal Excess weld metal Toe Fusion line Weld face Weld zone Root Weld metal Fillet weld HAZ Parent metal Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4 Weld Preparation A preparation for making a connection where the individual components, suitably prepared and assembled, are joined by welding or brazing. 4.1 Features of the weld preparation Angle of bevel: The angle at which the edge of a component is prepared for makin g a weld. In case of a V preparation for a MMA weld on carbon steel plates, this angle is between 25-30. In the case of a U preparation for an MMA weld on carbon steel plates, this angle is between 8-12. In case of a single bevel preparation for an MMA weld on carbon steel plates, this angle is between 40-50. In case of a single J preparation for a MMA weld on carbon steel plates, this angle is betwe en 10-20. Included angle: The angle between the planes of the fusion faces of par ts to be welded. In the case of single V, single U, double V and double U this a ngle is twice the bevel angle. In case of single bevel, single J, double bevel a nd double J, the included angle is equal to the bevel angle. Root face: The port ion of a fusion face at the root that is not bevelled or grooved. Its value depe nds on the welding process used, parent material to be welded and application; f or a full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it has a value between 1-2mm (for the common welding processes). Gap: The minimum distance at any cross secti on between edges, ends or surfaces to be joined. Its value depends on the weldin g process used and application; for a full penetration weld on carbon steel plat es, it has a value between 1-4mm. Root radius: The radius of the curved portion of the fusion face in a component prepared for a single J, single U, double J or double U weld. In case of MMA, MIG/MAG and oxyfuel gas welding on carbon steel plates, the root radius has a value of 6mm in case of single and double U prepar ations and 8mm in case of single and double J preparations. Land: The straight p ortion of a fusion face between the root face and the curved part of a J or U pr eparation, can be 0. Usually present in case of weld preparations for MIG weldin g of aluminium alloys. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4.2 Types of preparation Open square butt preparation This preparation is used for welding thin components, either from one or both si des. If the root gap is zero (ie if components are in contact), this preparation becomes a closed square butt preparation (not recommended due to the lack of pe netration problems!). Single V preparation Included angle Angle of bevel Gap Root face The V preparation is one of the most common preparations used in welding; it can be produced using flame or plasma cutting (cheap and fast). For thicker plates a double V preparation is preferred since it requires less filler material to co mplete the joint and the residual stresses can be balanced on both sides of the joint resulting in lower angular distortion. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Double V preparation The depth of preparation can be the same on both sides (symmetric double V prepa ration) or deeper on one side (asymmetric double V preparation). Usually, in thi s situation the depth of preparation is distributed as 2/3 of the thickness of t he plate on the first side with the remaining 1/3 on the backside. This asymmetr ic preparation allows for a balanced welding sequence with root back gouging, gi ving lower angular distortions. Whilst single V preparation allows welding from one side, double V preparation requires both sides access (the same applies for all double side preparations). Single U preparation Included angle Angle of bevel Root radius Gap Land Root face U preparation can be produced only by machining (slow and expensive). However, t ighter tolerances obtained in this case provide for a better fit-up than in the case of V preparations. Usually it is applied for thicker plates compared with s ingle V preparation (requires less filler material to complete the joint and thi s lead to lower residual stresses and distortions). Similar with the V preparati on, in case of very thick sections a double U preparation can be used. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Double U preparation Usually this type does not require a land (exception: aluminium alloys). Single V preparation with backing strip Backing strips allow the production of full penetration welds with increased cur rent and hence increased deposition rates/productivity without the danger of bur n-through. Backing strips can be permanent or temporary. Permanent types are of the same material being joined and are tack welded in place. The main problems r elated with this type of weld are poor fatigue resistance and the probability of crevice corrosion between the parent metal and the backing strip. It is also di fficult to examine by NDT due to the built-in crevice at the root of the joint. Temporary types include copper strips, ceramic tiles and fluxes. Single bevel pr eparation Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Double bevel preparation Single J preparation Double J preparation All these preparations (single/double bevel and single/double J) can be used on T joints as well. Double preparations are recommended in case of thick sections. The main advantage of these preparations is that only one component is prepared (cheap, can allow for small misalignments). For further details regarding weld preparations, please refer to BS EN ISO 9692 standard. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5 Size of Butt Welds Full penetration butt weld Actual throat thickness Design throat thickness Partial penetration butt weld Actual throat thickness Design throat thickness As a general rule: Actual throat thickness = design throat thickness + excess we ld metal. Full penetration butt weld ground flush Actual throat thickness = design throat thickness Butt weld between two plates of different thickness Actual throat thickness = maximum thickness through the joint Design throat thickness = thickness of the thinner plate Run (pass): The metal melted or deposited during one passage of an electrode, to rch or blowpipe. Single run weld Multi run weld Layer: A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more runs. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Types of butt weld (from accessibility point of view): Single side weld Double side weld 6 Fillet Weld A fusion weld, other than a butt, edge or fusion spot weld, which is approximate ly triangular in transverse cross section. 6.1 Size of fillet welds Unlike butt welds, fillet welds can be defined using several dimensions. Actual throat thickness: The perpendicular distance between two lines, each parallel to a line joining the outer toes, one being a tangent at the weld face and the oth er being through the furthermost point of fusion penetration Design throat thick ness: The minimum dimension of throat thickness used for purposes of design. Als o known as effective throat thickness. Symbolised on the drawing with a. Leg lengt h: The distance from the actual or projected intersection of the fusion faces an d the toe of a fillet weld, measured across the fusion face. Symbolised on the d rawing with z. Actual throat thickness Leg length Design throat thickness Leg length Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.2 Shape of fillet welds Mitre fillet weld: Flat face fillet weld in which the leg lengths are equal with in the agreed tolerance. The cross section area of this type of weld is consider ed to be a right angle isosceles triangle with a design throat thickness a and a l eg length z. The relation between design throat thickness and leg length is: a = 0 ,707 z. or z = 1,41 a. Convex fillet weld: Fillet weld in which the weld face is convex. The above rela tion between the leg length and the design throat thickness written in case of m itre fillet welds is also valid for this type of weld. Since there is an excess weld metal present in this case, the actual throat thickness is bigger than the design throat thickness. Concave fillet weld: Fillet weld in which the weld face is concave. The above re lation between the leg length and the design throat thickness written in case of mitre fillet welds is not valid for this type of weld. Also, the design throat thickness is equal to the actual throat thickness. Due to the smooth blending be tween the weld face and surrounding parent material, the stress concentration ef fect at the toes of the weld is reduced compared with the previous type. This is why this weld is highly desired in case of applications subjected to cyclic loa ds where fatigue phenomena might be a major cause for failure. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Asymmetrical fillet weld: Fillet weld in which the vertical leg length is not eq ual with the horizontal leg length. The relation between the leg length and the design throat thickness written in case of mitre fillet welds is not valid for t his type of weld because the cross section is not an isosceles triangle. Horizontal leg size Vertical leg size Throat size Deep penetration fillet weld: Fillet weld with a deeper than normal penetration. It is produced using high heat input welding processes (ie SAW or MAG with spra y transfer). This type of weld uses the benefits of greater arc penetration to o btain the required throat thickness whilst reducing the amount of deposited meta l needed, thus leading to a reduction in residual stress level. In order to prod uce a consistent and constant penetration, the travel speed must be kept constan t, at a high value. As a consequence, this type of weld is usually produced usin g mechanised or automatic welding processes. Also, the high depth-to-width ratio increases the probability of solidification centreline cracking. In order to di fferentiate this type of welds from the previous types, the throat thickness is symbolised with s instead of a. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.3 Compound of butt and fillet welds A combination of butt and fillet welds used in case of T joints with full or tial penetration or butt joints between two plates with different thickness. let welds added on top of the groove welds improve the blending of weld face ards parent metal surface and reduce the stress concentration at the toes of weld. Bevel weld Fillet weld Double bevel compound weld 7 Welding Position, Weld Slope and Weld Rotation Weld position: The orientation of a weld expressed in terms of working position, weld slope and weld rotation (for further details, please see ISO 6947). Weld s lope: The angle between root line and the positive X axis of the horizontal refe rence plane, measured in mathematically positive direction (ie counterclockwise) . Weld rotation The angle between the centreline of the weld and the positive Z ax is or a line parallel to the Y axis, measured in the mathematically positive dir ection (ie counter-clockwise) in the plane of the transverse cross section of th e weld in question. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010 par Fil tow the

Welding position Flat Sketch Horizontal-vertical Definition A welding position in which the welding is horizontal, with the centr eline of the weld vertical. Symbol according ISO 6947 PA. A welding position in which the welding is horizontal (applicable in case of fillet welds). Symbol acc ording ISO 6947 PB Horizontal A welding position in which the welding is horizontal, with the centreline of th e weld horizontal. Symbol according ISO 6947 PC Vertical up PG Vertical down PF A welding position in which the welding is upwards. Symbol according ISO 6947 PF . A welding position in which the welding is downwards. Symbol according ISO 694 7 PG Overhead Horizontaloverhead A welding position in which the welding is horizontal and overhead, with the cen treline of the weld vertical. Symbol according ISO 6947 PE. A welding position i n which the welding is horizontal and overhead (applicable in case of fillet wel ds). Symbol according ISO 6947 PD. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Tolerances for the welding positions 8 Weaving Transverse oscillation of an electrode or blowpipe nozzle during the deposition of weld metal. This technique is generally used for vertical up welds. Stringer bead: A run of weld metal made with little or no weaving motion. Rev 1 January 2010 Terms and Definitions Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 General The Senior Welding Inspector would almost certainly be involved in planning for inspection at one or more of the following stages of a project; Pre-contract Ide ntification of the job requirements, recruiting and allocating suitably trained and qualified staff, gathering together relevant normative documents, technical data and drawings, producing work/inspection schedules and quality plans as well as general administration. In-contract Application of inspection methodologies to the requirements of the contract specification, production and collection of inspection and test reports/documentation. Post-contract Compilation of inspecti on reports, certification and test data. There are a number of methods of planning for inspection activities, the method selected being dependant on a number of factors, primarily the requirements of t he client and the specific project. The various methods are; In-situ inspection; an inspector(s) placed permanently at the work place. The inspector would be ex pected to work independently, responsible for using the allocated inspection tim e in a useful and expedient manner. Periodic visits to the work place would be m ade by the Senior Inspector. 2 Gantt Charts Gantt charts define stages of production and estimated work time for each stage. A Gantt chart is a popular type of bar chart/graph that illustrates a project s chedule ie list of a projects terminal elements. Terminal elements comprise the work breakdown structure (WBS) of the project and are the lowest activity or de liverable, with intended start and finish dates. Terminal elements are not furth er subdivided, Terminal elements are the items that are estimated in terms of re source requirements, budget and duration linked by dependencies and schedules. A n example of a typical Gantt chart that could be used to plan inspection activit ies for either manufacturing or construction is shown below. The WBS/task elemen ts are listed on the left hand side and the start and completion of each activit y is represented by a bar to the right of the activity. The time period in this example is represented in months, both planned and actual. Some Gantt charts may show time in weeks, which can also be broken down into days. Rev 1 January 2010 Planning. Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Example of a Gantt chart ANY PROJECT PHASE 1 INSPECTION SCHEDULE. Work Breakdown Structure 2010 JANUARY FEBRUARY (WBS) Recruit & allocate inspection staff Review fabrication drawings Review WPSs, WPQ Rs& WATCs Prepare quality plans MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE Witness & test WPSs, WPQRs Witness welder qualification tests Visual inspection of first production welds LEGEND Planned duration Planned milestone Actual duration Actual milestone Rev 1 January 2010 Planning. Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3 Critical Path Analysis (CPA) Critical path analysis (CPA) is a powerful project management tool that helps to schedule and manage complex projects. Developed in the 1950s to control large d efence projects, CPA has been used routinely since then. As with Gantt charts, C PA helps plan all tasks that must be completed as part of a project. They act as the basis both for preparation of a schedule, and of resource planning. During management of a project, they allow monitoring of achievement of project goals. CPA can also show where remedial action needs to be taken in order to get a proj ect back on course. The benefit of using CPA over Gantt charts is that CPA forma lly identifies tasks which must be completed on time in order for the whole proj ect to be completed on time, and also identifies which tasks can be delayed for a while if resources need to be reallocated to catch up on missed tasks. A furth er benefit of CPA is that it helps to identify the minimum length of time needed to complete a project. Where there is a need to run an accelerated project, fas t track, it helps to identify which project steps should be accelerated in order to complete the project within the available time. This helps to minimise cost while still achieving objectives. The disadvantage of CPA is that the relation o f tasks to time is not as immediately obvious as with Gantt charts. This can mak e them more difficult to understand for someone who is not familiar with the tec hnique. CPA is presented using circle and arrow diagrams. The circles show event s within the project, such as the start and finish of tasks. Circles are normall y numbered to allow identification of them. An arrow running between two event c ircles shows the activity needed to complete that task. A description of the tas k is written underneath the arrow. The length of the task is shown above it. By convention, all arrows run left to right. An example of a very simple diagram is shown below: 0 START 1 4 Wks Recruit & allocate inspection staff A 4 2 Simple Circle and Arrow This shows the start event (circle 1), and the completion of the Recruit & alloca te inspection staff task (circle 2). The arrow between the two circles shows the activity of carrying out Recruit & allocate inspection staff. The time allocated f or this activity is 4 weeks. Rev 1 January 2010 Planning. Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

In the example above, the numbers above the circles show the earliest possible t ime that this stage of the project will be reached. Where one activity cannot st art until another has been completed and when other activities need to be schedu led it is useful to tabulate the terminal elements and allocate time against eac h activity. For example the inspection activities for a project could be shown a s: IDENTIFICATIO N TERMINAL ELEMENT / ACTIVITY Recruit & allocate inspection staff Review fabrication drawings, material & consumable certificates Review WPSs, WPQRs & WATCs Prepare quality plans & identify inspection requirements SCHEDULED COMPL ETION TIME ALLOCATED A To be completed first 4 weeks B Start when A is completed 2 weeks C Start when A is completed Start when B is completed 2 weeks D 3 weeks E Witness & test WPSs & WPQRs Start when C is completed 2 weeks F Witness welder qualification tests Visual inspection and testing of production w elds Start when C, D & E are completed Start when F is completed 2 weeks G 9 weeks TOTAL TIME ALLOCATED 24 weeks The above tabulated terminal elements can now be shown as an algorithm, see the following example

Rev 1 January 2010 Planning. Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6 4 C 0 4 2 Wks 6 3 2 Wks 3 Wks 2 Wks E 11 13 22 A START B 2 D 5 F 6 2 Wks G 7 9 Wks FINISH 1 4 Wks Critical path analysis for inspection project. Rev 1 January 2010 Planning. Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

In the example, the activities of B & C cannot be started until A has been com pleted. This diagram also brings out a number of other important points: Within CPA, reference to activities is made by the numbers in the circles at each end. For example, task A would be called activity 1 to 2. Task B would be activity 2 to 3. Activities are not drawn to scale. In the diagram above, activities ar e 8, 4, 3 and 2 weeks long. In the example the numbers above the circles indicat e the earliest possible time that this stage in the project will be reached.

CPA is an effective and powerful method of assessing: What tasks must be carrie out Where parallel activity can be performed The shortest time in which you can complete a project Resources needed to execute a project The sequence of activi ties, scheduling and timings involved Task priorities The most efficient way of shortening time on urgent projects. An effective CPA can make the difference between success and failure on complex projects. It can be very useful for assessing the importance of problems faced d uring the implementation of the plan. 4 Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) PERT is a variation on CPA but takes a slightly more sceptical view of time esti mates made for each project stage. To use it, estimate the shortest possible tim e each activity will take, the most likely length of time, and the longest time that might be taken if the activity takes longer than expected. The formula belo w is used to calculate the time for each project stage: Shortest time + 4 x like ly time + longest time 6 This helps to bias time estimates away from the unreali stically short timescales normally assumed. A variation of both CPA and PERT is a technique known as reverse scheduling, which the completion date for the last terminal element for the project is determined and then all other operations are worked back from this date, each operation having its own target date. Rev 1 January 2010 Planning. Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5 Summary The Senior Welding Inspector doe not need to have an in-depth knowledge of plann ing and would not be responsible for the planning of inspection activities on a large project or contract, this would be the responsibility of the planning team or planning department. I However the SWI does need to have a basic understandi ng of project planning as inspection tasks must link in with other terminal acti vities to ensure that inspection tasks are carried out on a timely and cost effe ctive basis, in accordance with the planning system being used on a particular p roject or contract. Rev 1 January 2010 Planning. Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

General The control of quality in a fabrication and welding situation is achieved by wor king to company procedures and codes of construction or standards. The latter ma y be international, national, companys own or specific to the particular client o r contract. Company procedures are usually covered in Quality Manuals the scope of which may vary widely depending upon the size of company, its range of work, its working practices and many other factors. 1 1.1 Company Manuals Quality assurance manual Quality assurance is defined in IS0 9000 as; part of quality management focused o n providing confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled. Essentially w hat the QA manual sets out is how the company is organised, to lay down the resp onsibilities and authority of the various departments, how these departments int erlink. The manual usually covers all aspects of the company structure, not just those aspects of manufacture. 1.2 Quality control manual Quality control is defined in ISO 9000 as; part of quality management focused on fulfilling quality requirements. The QC manual will be the manual most often refe rred to by the SWI as it will spell out in detail how different departments and operations are organised and controlled. Typical examples would be: production a nd control of drawings, how materials and consumables are purchased, how welding procedures are produced, etc. Essentially all operations to be carried out with in the organisation will have control procedures laid down. In particular it wil l lay down how the Inspection function, whether visual, dimensional or NDT, will be performed. Inspection being defined as the activity of measuring, examining a nd testing characteristics of a product or service and comparing these to a spec ified requirement. Such requirements are laid down in codes of practice and stand ards. Rev 1 January 2010 Codes and Standards Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2 Auditing Auditing is a term originating from accountancy practice which involves an indep endent accountant checking the accounts of a company to see if the accounts are fair and accurate. A similar checking process is now widely practised in manufac turing and construction industries and inspection personnel will be involved in the carrying out of this operation. Different types of audits may be performed: Full audit of a company, usually carried out by a third party such as a Certifyi ng Authority, checking the company for the award of a QA accreditation system su ch as ISO 9000 or ASME Stamp. Major audit by a potential customer prior to place ment of a large contract. This is usually carried out to demonstrate the company has all the necessary facilities, plant, machinery, personnel and quality syste ms in place to enable them to successfully complete the contract. Part audits ca rried out as ongoing demonstration that the quality system is working properly. An example of the latter case would be where a Senior Inspector is responsible f or signing-off the data book or release certificate for a product. After checkin g that all the necessary documents are in the package and that they have been co rrectly completed and approved where necessary, the SWI would look at a part of the job a beam, a piece of pipework etc and crosscheck against the drawings, mil l certificates, inspection reports etc that all comply with the job requirements . 3 Codes and Standards It is not necessary for the Inspector to carry a wide range of codes and standar ds in the performance of his/her duties. Normally the specification or more prec isely the contract specification is the only document required. However the cont ract specification may reference supporting codes and standards and the inspecto r should know where to access these normative documents. The following is a list of definitions relating to codes and standards which the Inspector may come acr oss whilst carrying inspection duties 3.1 Definitions Normative document: A document that provides rules, guidelines or characteristic s for activities or their results. The term normative document is a generic term , which covers documents such as standards, technical specifications, codes of p ractice and regulations.* Rev 1 January 2010 Codes and Standards Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Standard: Document established by consensus and approved by a recognised body. A standard provides, for common and repeated use, guidelines, rules, and characte ristics for activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context. * Harmonised standards: Standards on the sa me subject approved by different standardising bodies, that establish interchang eability of products, processes and services, or mutual understanding of test re sults or information provided according to these standards* Code of practice: Do cument that recommends practices or procedures for the design, manufacture, inst allation, maintenance, utilisation of equipment, structures or products. A code of practice may be a standard, a part of a standard or independent of a standard * Regulation: Document providing binding legislative rules that is adopted by an authority.* Authority: Body (responsible for standards and regulations legal or administrative entity that has specific tasks and composition) that has legal p owers and rights.* Regulatory authority: Authority responsible for preparing or adopting regulations* Enforcement authority: Authority responsible for enforcing regulations* Specification: Document stating requirements. Meaning full data an d its supporting medium stating needs or expectations that is stated, generally implied or obligatory.** Procedure: Specified way to carry out an activity or a process*. Usually it is a written description of all essential parameters and pr ecautions to be observed when applying a technique to a specific application fol lowing an established standard, code or specification Rev 1 January 2010 Codes and Standards Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Instruction: A written description of the precise steps to be followed based on an established procedure, standard, code or specification. Quality plan: A docum ent specifying which procedures and associated resources shall be applied by who m and when to a specific project, product, process or contract* * ISO IEC Guide 2 Standardisation and related activities General vocabulary ** E N ISO 9000 2000 Quality management systems Fundamentals and vocabulary 4 Summary Application of the requirements of the quality manuals, the standards and codes of practice ensure that a structure or component will have an acceptable level o f quality and be fit for the intended purpose. Applying the requirements of a st andard, code of practice or specification can be a problem for the inexperienced Inspector. Confidence in applying the requirements of one or all of these docum ents to a specific application only comes with use over a period of time. If in doubt the Inspector must always refer to a higher authority in order to avoid co nfusion and potential problems. Rev 1 January 2010 Codes and Standards Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

BS NUMBER BS 499: BS 709 BS 1113 BS S 2926 BS 2926 BS S 4872 Part 2: BS . TITLE

Part 1453 3019 6323

1 BS 1821 BS 2493 BS 2633 BS 2640 BS 2654 BS 2901 Part 3: B BS 3604 BS 3605 BS 4515 BS 4570 BS 4677 BS 4872 Part 1: B BS 6693 BS 6990 BS 7191 BS 7570 Glossary of Welding Terms

Methods of destructive testing fusion welded joints and weld metal in steel. Spe cification for design and manufacture of water-tube steam generating plant. Spec ification for filler materials for gas welding. Specification for class I oxy -a cetylene welding of ferritic steel pipe work for carrying fluids. Low alloy stee l electrodes for MMA welding Specification for class I arc welding of Ferritic s teel pipe work for carrying fluids. Specification for class II oxy - acetylene w elding of carbon steel pipe work for carrying fluids. Specification for manufact ure of vertical steel welded non-refrigerated storage tanks with butt-welded she lls for the petroleum industry. Filler rods and wires for copper and copper allo ys. Specification for chromium & chromium-nickel steel electrodes for MMA Specif ication for chromium & chromium-nickel steel electrodes for MMA TIG welding. Ste el pipes and tubes for pressure purposes; Ferritic alloy steel with specified el evated temperature properties for pressure purposes. Specification for seamless tubes. Specification for welding of steel pipelines on land and offshore. Specif ication for fusion welding of steel castings. Specification for arc welding of a ustenitic stainless steel pipe work for carrying fluids. Approval testing of wel ders when procedure approval is not required. Fusion welding of steel. TIG or MI G welding of aluminium and its alloys. Specification for seamless and welded ste el tubes for automobile, mechanical and general engineering purposes. Method for determination of diffusible hydrogen in weld metal. Code of practice for weldin g on steel pipes containing process fluids or their residues. Specification for weldable structural steels for fixed offshore structures. Code of practice for v alidation of arc welding equipment. Rev 1 January 2010 Codes and Standards Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

BS EN NUMBER BS EN 287 Part 1: BS EN 440 BS EN 499 BS EN 3834Parts 1 to 5 BS EN 756 BS EN 760 BS EN 970 BS EN 910 BS EN 12072 BS EN ISO 18274 TITLE Qualification test of welders - Fusion welding - Steels. Wire electrodes and dep osits for gas shielded metal arc of non-alloy and fine grain steels. Covered ele ctrodes for manual metal arc welding of nonalloy and fine grain steels. Quality r equirements for fusion welding of metallic materials Wire electrodes and flux wi re combinations for submerged arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels. Fl uxes for submerged arc welding. Non-destructive examination of fusion welds - vi sual examination. Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - Bend tests. Filler rods and wires for stainless steels. Aluminium and aluminium alloys & magnesium alloys. Nickel & nickel alloys. Note: The Inspector should have an awareness of standards that are printed in bold. BS EN NUMBER BS EN 1011 Part 1: Part 2: Part 3 Part 4. EN 1320 EN 1435 BS EN 10002 BS EN 1002 0 BS EN 10027 BS EN 10045 BS EN 10204 BS EN 22553 BS EN 24063 TITLE Welding recommendations for welding of metallic materials. General guidance for arc welding. Arc welding of ferritic steels. Arc welding of stainless steels Arc welding of aluminium and aluminium alloys. Destructive tests on welds in metall ic materials. Non-destructive examination of welds - Radiographic examination of welded joints. Tensile testing of metallic materials. Definition and classifica tion of grades of steel. Designation systems for steels. Charpy impact tests on metallic materials. Metallic products - types of inspection documents. Welded, b razed and soldered joints - symbolic representation on drawings. Welding, brazin g, soldering and braze welding of metal. Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers for symbolic representation on drawings. Arc welded joints in steel. Gu idance on quality levels for imperfections. Classification of imperfections in m etallic fusion welds, with explanations. Specification for tungsten electrodes f or inert gas shielded arc welding and for plasma cutting and welding. BS EN 25817 BS EN 26520 BS EN 26848 Rev 1 January 2010 Codes and Standards Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

ISO NUMBER: ISO 857 - 1 ISO 6947 ISO 9606 2 ISO 15607 ISO 15608 ISO 15609 - 1 TITLE: Welding and allied processes - Vocabulary - Part 1 - Metal welding processes. We lds - Working positions - definitions of angles of slope and rotation. Qualifica tion test of welders fusion welding. Part 2 Aluminium & aluminium alloys. Specif ication and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials - General rules. Welding - Guidelines for a metallic material grouping system. Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials - W elding procedure specification - Part 1: Arc welding. ISO 15610 Specification an d qualification of welding procedures for metallic materialsQualification based on tested welding consumables. ISO 15611 Specification and qualification of weld ing procedures for metallic materialsQualification based on previous welding exp erience. ISO 15613 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for met allic materials Qualification based on pre-production-welding test. ISO 15614 Sp ecification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials - Wel ding procedure test. Arc and gas welding of steels and arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys. Part 1: Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys* Part 2: Welding procedure tests for the arc welding of cast irons* Part 3: Finishing welding of aluminium castings* Part 4: Arc welding of titanium, zirconium and their alloys . Part 5: Copper and copper alloys* Part 6: Not used Part 7: Welding of tubes to tube-plate joints. Part 8: Underwater hyperbaric wet welding* Part 9: Hyperbari c dry welding* Part 10 Electron and laser beam welding Part 11 Spot, seam and pr ojection welding* Part 12 Resistance butt and flash welding* Part 13 Note: The I nspector should have an awareness of standards that are printed in bold. *Propos ed . Rev 1 January 2010 Codes and Standards Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 Introduction BS 7570 - Code of practice for validation of arc welding equipment a standard th at gives guidance to: Manufacturers about the accuracy required from output mete rs fitted to welding equipment to show welding current, voltage, etc End users w ho need to ensure that the output meters provide accurate readings The Standard refers to two grades of equipment - standard grade and precision grade. Standard grade equipment is suitable for manual and semi-automatic welding processes. Pr ecision grade equipment is intended for mechanised or automatic welding because there is usually a need for greater precision for all welding variables as well as the prospect of the equipment being used for higher duty cycle welding. 2 Terminology BS 7570 defines the terms it uses - such as: Calibration: Operations for the pur pose of determining the magnitude of errors of a measuring instrument, etc. Vali dation: Operations for the purpose of demonstrating that an item of welding equi pment, or a welding system, conforms to the operating specification for that equ ipment or system. Accuracy: Closeness of an observed quantity to the defined, or true, value. Thus, when considering welding equipment, those that have output m eters for welding parameters (current, voltage, travel speed, etc.) can be calib rated by checking the meter reading with a more accurate measuring device and ad justing the readings appropriately. Equipment that does not have output meters ( some power sources for MMA, MIG/MAG) cannot be calibrated but they can be valida ted, that is to make checks to see that the controls are functioning properly. Rev 1 January 2010 Calibration of Welding Equipment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3 Calibration Frequency BS 7570 recommends re-calibration/validation at: Yearly intervals (following an initial consistency test at 3 monthly intervals) for standard grade equipment Si x monthly intervals for precision grade equipment. However, the Standard also re commends that re-calibration/validation may be necessary more frequently. Factor s that need to be considered are: Equipment manufacturers recommendations Users re quirements If the equipment has been repaired re-calibration should always be ca rried out If there is reason to believe the performance of the equipment has det eriorated 4 Instruments for Calibration Instruments used for calibration should: Be calibrated by a recognised calibrato r - using standards that are traceable to a national standard Be at least twice, and preferably five times, more accurate than the accuracy required for the gra de of equipment For precision grade equipment it will be necessary to use instru ments with much greater precision for checking output meters. 5 Calibration Methods The Standard gives details about the characteristics of power source types, how many readings should be taken for each parameter and guidance on precautions tha t may be necessary. Rev 1 January 2010 Calibration of Welding Equipment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

For the main welding parameters, recommendations from the Standard are as follow s: Current: Details are given about the instrumentation requirements and how to measure pulsed current but there are requirements specified, or recommendations made, about where in the circuit current measurements should be made. The implic ation is that current can be measured at any position in the circuit the value s hould be the same. Voltage: The standard emphasises that for processes where vol tage is pre-set (on constant voltage the power sources) the connection points us ed for the voltmeter incorporated into the power source may differ from the arc voltage, which is the important parameter. To obtain an accurate measure of arc voltage, the voltmeter should be positioned as near as practical to the arc. Thi s is illustrated by the figure at the end of this section, which shows the power source voltage meter connected across points 1 and 7. However, because there wi ll be some voltage drops in sections 1-2, 3-4 and 6-7 due to connection points i ntroducing extra resistance into the circuit, the voltage meter reading on the p ower source will tend to give a higher reading than the true arc voltage. Even i f the power source voltmeter is connected across points 3 and 7 (which it may be ) the meter reading would not take account of any significant voltage drops in t he return cable - section 6-7. The magnitude of any voltage drops in the welding circuit will depend on cable diameter, length and temperature and the Standard emphasises the following: It is desirable to measure the true arc voltage betwee n points 4-5 but for some welding processes it is not practical to measure arc v oltage so close to the arc For MMA, it is possible to take a voltage reading rel atively close to the arc by connecting one terminal of the voltmeter through the cable sheath as close as ~2m from the arc and connect the other terminal to the workpiece (or to earth) For MIG/MAG the nearest practical connection points hav e to be 3-5 but a change from an air-cooled to a water-cooled torch or vice-vers a may have a significant affect on the measured voltage Voltage drops between po ints 5-6 will be insignificant if there is a good connection of the return cable at point 6. Rev 1 January 2010 Calibration of Welding Equipment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The Standard gives guidance about minimising any drop in line voltage by ensurin g that: The current return cable is as short as practical and is heavy, low resi stance, cable The current-return connector is suitably rated and is firmly attac hed and so does not overheat due to high resistance The standard gives data for line voltage drops (DC voltage) according to current, cable cross section and ca ble length (for both copper and aluminium cables). Wire feed speed For constant voltage (self-adjusting arc) processes such as MIG/MAG the standard recognises t hat calibration of the wire feeder is generally not needed because it is linked to current. If calibration is required, it is recommended that the time be measu red (in seconds) for ~1m of wire to be delivered (using a stopwatch or an electr onic timer). The length of wire should then be measured (with a steel rule) to a n accuracy of 1mm and the feed speed calculated. Travel speed Welding manipulato rs, such as rotators and robotic manipulators, as well as the more conventional linear travel carriages, influence heat input and other properties of a weld and should be checked at intervals. Most of the standard devices can be checked usi ng a stopwatch and measuring rule, but more sophisticated equipment, such as a t achogenerator, may be appropriate. Rev 1 January 2010 Calibration of Welding Equipment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Power Source 7 1 2 Wire Feeder 3 4 arc voltage { 5 6 An example of a welding circuit (for MIG/MAG) Rev 1 January 2010 Calibration of Welding Equipment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 Introduction European Welding Standards require test coupons that are made for welding proced ure qualification testing to be subjected to non-destructive testing and then de structive testing. The tests are called destructive tests because the welded joi nt is destroyed when various types of test piece are taken from it. Destructive tests can be divided into 2 groups, those used to: Measure a mechanical property Assess the joint quality quantitative tests qualitative tests Mechanical tests are quantitative because a quantity is measured a mechanical pr operty such as tensile strength, hardness and impact toughness. Qualitative test s are used to verify that the joint is free from defects they are of sound quali ty - and examples of these are bend tests, macroscopic examination and fracture tests (fillet fracture and nick-break). 2 Test Types, Test Pieces and Test Objectives Various types of mechanical test are used by material manufacturers/ suppliers t o verify that plates, pipes, forgings etc have the minimum property values speci fied for particular grades. Design engineers use the minimum property values lis ted for particular grades of material as the basis for design and the most costeffective designs are based on an assumption that welded joints have properties that are no worse than those of the base metal. The quantitative (mechanical) te sts that are carried out for welding procedure qualification are intended to dem onstrate that the joint properties satisfy design requirements. The emphasis in the following sub-sections is on the destructive tests and test methods that are widely used for welded joints. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.1 Transverse tensile tests Test objective Welding procedure qualification tests always require transverse t ensile tests to show that the strength of the joint satisfies the design criteri on. Test specimens A transverse tensile test piece typical of the type specified by European Welding Standards is shown below. Parallel length Standards, such as EN 895, that specify dimensions for transverse tensile test p ieces require all excess weld metal to be removed and the surface to be free fro m scratches. Test pieces may be machined to represent the full thickness of the joint but for very thick joints it may be necessary to take several transverse t ensile test specimens to be able to test the full thickness. Test method Test sp ecimens are accurately measured before testing. Specimens are then fitted into t he jaws of a tensile testing machine and subjected to a continually increasing t ensile force until the specimen fractures. The tensile strength (Rm) is calculat ed by dividing the maximum load by the cross-sectional area of the test specimen - measured before testing. The test is intended to measure the tensile strength of the joint and thereby show that the basis for design, the base metal propert ies, remains the valid criterion. Acceptance criteria If the test piece breaks i n the weld metal, it is acceptable provided the calculated strength is not less than the minimum tensile strength specified, which is usually the minimum specif ied for the base metal material grade. In the ASME IX code, if the test specimen breaks outside the weld or fusion zone at a stress above 95% of the minimum bas e metal strength the test result is acceptable. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.2 All-weld tensile tests Test objective There may be occasions when it is necessary to measure the weld m etal strength as part of welding procedure qualification particularly for elevat ed temperature designs. The test is carried out in order to measure not only ten sile strength but also yield (or proof strength) and tensile ductility. All weld tensile tests are also regularly carried out by welding consumable manufacturer s to verify that electrodes and filler wires satisfy the tensile properties spec ified by the standard to which the consumables are certified. Test specimens As the name indicates, test specimens are machined from welds parallel with their l ongitudinal axis and the specimen gauge length must be 100% weld metal. Round tensile specimen from a welding procedure qualification test piece Round tensile specimen from an electrode classification test piece Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Test method Specimens are subjected to a continually increasing force in the sam e way that transverse tensile specimens are tested. Yield (Re) or proof stress ( Rp) are measured by means of an extensometer that is attached to the parallel le ngth of the specimen and is able to accurately measure the extension of the gaug e length as the load is increased. Typical load extension curves and their princ ipal characteristics are shown below. Load-extension curve for a steel that shows a distinct yield point at the elasti c limit Load-extension curve for a steel (or other metal) that does not show a distinct yield point; proof stress is a measure of the elastic limit Tensile ductility is measured in two ways: % elongation of the gauge length (A%) % reduction of area at the point of fracture (Z%) Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The figures below illustrate these two ductility measurements. 2.3 Impact toughness tests Test objective Charpy V notch test pieces have become the internationally accept ed method for assessing resistance to brittle fracture by measuring the energy t o initiate, and propagate, a crack from a sharp notch in a standard sized specim en subjected to an impact load. Design engineers need to ensure that the toughne ss of the steel that is used for a particular item will be high enough to avoid brittle fracture in service and so impact specimens are tested at a temperature that is related to the design temperature for the fabricated component. C-Mn and low alloy steels undergo a sharp change in their resistance to brittle fracture as their temperature is lowered so that a steel that may have very good toughne ss at ambient temperature may show extreme brittleness at sub-zero temperatures as illustrated in following figure. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Transition range Impact energy Upper shelf Ductile fracture (0% crystallinity) Lower shelf Brittle fracture (100% crystallinity) -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 Test temperature, C The transition temperature is defined as the temperature mid-way between the upp er shelf (maximum toughness) and lower shelf (completely brittle). In the above the transition temperature is 20C. Test specimens The dimensions for test specimen s have been standardised internationally and are shown below for full sized spec imens. There are also standard dimensions for smaller sized specimens, for examp le 10mm x 7.5mm and 10mm x 5mm. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Charpy V notch test piece dimensions for full sized specimens Specimens are machined from welded test plates with the notch position located i n different locations according to the testing requirements but typically in the centre of the weld metal and at positions across the HAZ as shown below. Typical notch positions for Charpy V notch test specimens from double V butt wel ds Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Test method Test specimens are cooled to the specified test temperature by immer sion in an insulated bath containing a liquid that is held at the test temperatu re. After allowing the specimen temperature to stabilise for a few minutes it is quickly transferred to the anvil of the test machine and a pendulum hammer quic kly released so that the specimen experiences an impact load behind the notch. T he main features of an impact test machine are shown below. Impact testing machine Impact specimen on the anvil showing the hammer position at point of impact Charpy V notch test pieces before and after testing Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The energy absorbed by the hammer when it strikes each test specimen is shown by the position of the hammer pointer on the scale of the machine. Energy values a re given in Joules (or ft-lbs in US specifications). Impact test specimens are t aken in triplicate (3 specimens for each notch position) as there is always some degree of scatter in the results particularly for weldments. Acceptance criteri a Each test result is recorded and an average value calculated for each set of t hree tests. These values are compared with the values specified by the applicati on standard or client to establish whether specified requirements have been met. After impact testing, examination of the test specimens provides additional inf ormation about their toughness characteristics and may be added to the test repo rt: % crystallinity the % of the fracture face that has crystalline appearance w hich indicates brittle fracture; 100% indicates completely brittle fracture Late ral expansion the increase in width of the back of the specimen behind the notch as indicated below; the larger the value the tougher the specimen A specimen that exhibits extreme brittleness will show a clean break. Both halve s of the specimen having a completely flat fracture face with little or no later al expansion. A specimen that exhibits very good toughness will show only a smal l degree of crack extension, without fracture and a high value of lateral expans ion. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.4 Hardness testing Test objectives The hardness of a metal is its resistance to plastic deformation determined by measuring the resistance to indentation by a particular type of in denter. A steel weldment with hardness above a certain maximum may be susceptibl e to cracking, either during fabrication or in service, and welding procedure qu alification testing for certain steels and applications that require the test we ld to be hardness surveyed to ensure that are no regions of the weldment that ex ceed the maximum specified hardness. Specimens prepared for macroscopic examinat ion can also be used for taking hardness measurements at various positions of th e weldment referred to as a hardness survey. Test methods There are 3 widely use d methods for hardness testing: Vickers hardness test uses a square-base diamond pyramid indenter Rockwell hardness test uses a diamond cone indenter or steel b all Brinell hardness test uses a ball indenter The hardness value being given by the size of the indentation produced under a standard load, the smaller the ind entation, the harder the metal. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The Vickers method of testing is illustrated below. d= d1 + d2 2 Both Vickers and Brinell methods are suitable for carrying out hardness surveys on specimens prepared for macroscopic examination of weldments. A typical hardne ss survey requires the indenter to measure the hardness in the base metal (on bo th sides of the weld), in the weld metal and across the HAZ (on both sides of th e weld). The Brinell method gives an indentation that is too large to accurately measure the hardness in specific regions of the HAZ and is mainly used to measu re hardness of base metals. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

A typical hardness survey (using Vickers hardness indenter) is shown below: Hardness values are shown on test reports as a number followed by letters indica ting the test method, for example: 240HV10 22HRC 238HBW = hardness 240, Vickers method, 10kg indenter load = hardness 22, Rockwell method, diamond cone indenter (scale C) = 238 hardness, Brinell method, tungsten ball indenter 2.5 Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) testing Test objective Charpy V notch testing enables engineers to make judgements about risks of brittle fracture occurring in steels, but a CTOD test measures a mater ial property - fracture toughness. Fracture toughness data enables engineers to carry out fracture mechanics analyses such as: Calculating the size of a crack t hat would initiate a brittle fracture under certain stress conditions at a parti cular temperature The stress that would cause a certain sized crack to give a br ittle fracture at a particular temperature This data is essential for making an appropriate decision when a crack is discovered during inspection of equipment t hat is in-service. Test specimens A CTOD specimen is prepared as a rectangular ( or square) shaped bar cut transverse to the axis of the butt weld. A V notch is machined at the centre of the bar, which will be coincident with the test positi on - weld metal or HAZ. A shallow saw cut is then put into the bottom of the not ch and the specimen is then put into a machine that induces a cyclic bending loa d until a shallow fatigue crack initiates from the saw cut. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The specimens are relatively large typically having a cross section B x 2B and l ength ~10B (B = full thickness of the weld). The test piece details are shown be low. Test method CTOD specimens are usually tested at a temperature below ambient and the temperature of the specimen is controlled by immersion in a bath of liquid that has been cooled to the required test temperature. A load is applied to the specimen to cause bending and induce a concentrated stress at the tip of the cra ck and a clip gauge, attached to the specimen across the mouth of the machined n otch, gives a reading of the increase in width of the mouth of the crack as the load is gradually increased. For each test condition (position of notch and test temperature) it is usual practice to carry out three tests. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Below illustrates the main features of the CTOD test. Fracture toughness is expressed as the distance that the crack tip opens without initiation of a brittle crack. The clip gauge enables a chart to be generated s howing the increase in width of the crack mouth against applied load from which a CTOD value is calculated. Acceptance criteria An application standard or clien t may specify a minimum CTOD value that indicates ductile tearing. Alternatively , the test may be for information so that a value can be used for an engineering critical assessment. A very tough steel weldment will allow the mouth of the cr ack to open widely by ductile tearing at the tip of the crack whereas a very bri ttle weldment will tend to fracture when the applied load is quite low and witho ut any extension at the tip of the crack. CTOD values are expressed in millimetr es - typical values might be <<~0.1mm = brittle behaviour; >~1mm = very tough be haviour. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.6 Bend testing Test objective Bend tests are routinely taken from welding procedure qualificati on test pieces and sometimes have to be taken from welder qualification test pie ces. Subjecting specimens to bending is a simple method of verifying that there are no significant flaws in the joint. Some degree of ductility is also demonstr ated. Ductility is not actually measured but is demonstrated to be satisfactory if test specimens can withstand being bent without fracture or fissures above a certain length. Test specimens There are 4 types of bend specimen: Face bend Spe cimen taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent so that the face of the weld is on the outside of the bend (face in tension). Root bend Test specimen taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickne ss and bent so that the root of the weld is on the outside of the bend (root in tension). Side bend Test specimen taken as a transverse slice (~10mm) from the f ull thickness of butt welds >~12mm and bent so that the full joint thickness is tested (side in tension). Longitudinal bend Test specimen taken with axis parall el to the longitudinal axis of a butt weld; specimen thickness is ~12mm and the face or root of weld may be tested in tension. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Test method Bend tests for welding procedure qualification (and welder qualifica tion) are usually guided bend tests. Guided means that the strain imposed on the specimen is uniformly controlled by being bent around a former with a certain d iameter. The diameter of the former used for a particular test is specified in t he code, having been determined by the type of material that is being tested and the ductility that can be expected from it after welding and any PWHT. The diam eter of the former is usually expressed as a multiple of the specimen thickness and for C-Mn steel it is typically 4t (t is the specimen thickness) but for mate rials that have lower tensile ductility the radius of the former may be greater than 10t. The standard that specifies the test method will specify the minimum b end angle that the specimen must experience and this is typically 120-180. Accept ance criteria Bend test pieces should exhibit satisfactory soundness by not show ing cracks or any signs of significant fissures or cavities on the outside of th e bend. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Small indications less than about 3mm in length may be allowed by some standards . 2.7 2.7.1 Fracture tests Fillet weld fractures Test objective The quality/soundness of a fillet weld can be assessed by fracturing test pieces and examining the fracture surfaces. This method for assessing the quality of fillet welds may be specified by application standards as an alternative to macroscopic examination. It is a test method tha t can be used for welder qualification testing according to European Standards b ut is not used for welding procedure qualification to European Standards. Test s pecimens A test weld is cut into short lengths (typically 50mm) and a longitudina l notch is machined into the specimen as shown below. The notch profile may be s quare, V or U shaped. Test method Specimens are made to fracture through their throat by dynamic strok es (hammering) or by pressing, as shown below. The welding standard or applicati on standard will specify the number of tests (typically 4). Hammer stroke Moving press Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Acceptance criteria The standard for welder qualification, or application standa rd, will specify the acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of penet ration into the root of the joint and solid inclusions and porosity that are vis ible on the fracture surfaces. Test reports should also give a description of th e appearance of the fracture and location of any imperfection 2.7.2 Butt weld fr actures (nick-break tests) Test objective The objective of these fracture tests is the same as for fillet fracture tests. These tests are specified for welder q ualification testing to European Standards as an alternative to radiography. The y are not used for welding procedure qualification testing to European Standards . Test specimens Test specimens are taken from a butt weld and notched so that t he fracture path will be in the central region of the weld. Typical test piece t ypes are shown below. Test method Test pieces are made to fracture by hammering or three-point bending . Acceptance criteria The standard for welder qualification, or application stan dard, will specify the acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of fus ion, solid inclusions and porosity that are visible on the fracture surfaces. Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture an d location of any imperfection. 3 Macroscopic Examination Transverse sections from butt and fillet welds are required by the European Stan dards for welding procedure qualification testing and may be required for some w elder qualification testing for assessing the quality of the welds. This is cons idered in detail in a separate section of these course notes. Macro examination Micro examination Objectives Detecting weld defects. (macro) Measuring grain size. (micro) Detecti ng brittle structures, precipitates. Assessing resistance toward brittle fractur e, cold cracking and corrosion sensitivity Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

European Standards for Destructive Test Methods The following Standards are specified by the European Welding Standards for dest ructive testing of welding procedure qualification test welds and for some welde r qualification test welds. EN 875 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materi als Impact tests Test specimen location, notch orientation and examination Destr uctive tests on Transverse tensile test welds in metallic materials EN 895 EN 910 EN 1321 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials Bend tests Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials Macroscopic and microscopic examination of weld BS EN 10002 Metallic materials - Tensile testing. Part 1: Method of test at ambi ent temperature BS EN 10002 Tensile testing of metallic materials. Part 5: Metho d of test at elevated temperatures Rev 1 January 2010 Destructive Testing Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 Introduction The heat treatment given to a particular grade of steel by the steelmaker/ suppl ier should be shown on the material test certificate and may be referred to as t he supply condition. Welding inspectors may need to refer to material test certi ficates and it is appropriate that they be familiar with the terminology that is used and have some understanding of the principles of some of the most commonly applied heat treatments. Welded joints may need to be subjected to heat treatme nt after welding (PWHT) and the tasks of monitoring the thermal cycle and checki ng the heat treatment records are often delegated to welding inspectors. 2 Heat Treatment of Steel The main supply conditions for weldable steels are: As rolled, hot rolled, hot f inished Plate is hot rolled to finished size and allowed to air cool; the temper ature at which rolling finishes may vary from plate to plate and so strength and toughness properties vary and are not optimised; Applied to Relatively thin, lo wer strength C-steel Thermo-mechanical controlled processing (TMCP), control-rol led, thermo-mechanically rolled Steel plate given precisely controlled thickness reductions during hot rolling within carefully controlled temperature ranges; f inal rolling temperature is also carefully controlled; Applied to Relatively thi n, high strength low alloy steels (HSLA) and for some steels with good toughness at low temperatures, eg, cryogenic steels Normalised After working the steel (r olling or forging) to size, it is heated to ~900C and then allowed to cool in air to ambient temperature; this optimises strength and toughness and gives uniform properties from item to item for a particular grade of steel; Applied to C-Mn s teels and some low alloy steels Rev 1 January 2010 Heat Treatment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Quenched and tempered after working the steel (rolling or forging) to size, it i s heated to ~900C and then cooled as quickly as possible by quenching in water or oil; after quenching, the steel must be tempered (softened) to improve the duct ility of the as-quenched steel; Applied to Some low alloy steels to give higher strength, toughness or wear resistance Solution annealed/heat treated After hot or cold working to size, steel heated to ~1100C and rapidly cooled by quenching i nto water to prevent any carbides or other phases from forming; Applied to Auste nitic stainless steels such as 304 and 316 grades Annealed After working the ste el (pressing or forging etc) to size, it is heated to ~900C and then allowed to c ool in the furnace to ambient temperature; this reduces strength and toughness b ut improves ductility; Applied to C-Mn steels and some low alloy steels Figures 1 to 5 show the thermal cycles for the main supply conditions and subsequent hea t treatment that can be applied to steels 3 Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) Post weld heat treatment has to be applied to some welded steels to ensure that the properties of the weldment will be suitable for their intended applications. The temperature at which PWHT is carried out is usually well below the temperat ure where phase changes can occur (note 1), but high enough to allow residual st resses to be relieved quickly and to soften (temper) any hard regions in the HAZ . There are major benefits of reducing residual stress and ensuring that the HAZ hardness is not too high for particular steels with certain service application s. Examples of these benefits are to: Improve the resistance of the joint to bri ttle fracture Improve the resistance of the joint to stress corrosion cracking E nable welded joints to be machined to accurate dimensional tolerances Rev 1 January 2010 Heat Treatment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Because the main reason for (and benefit of) PWHT is to reduce residual stresses , PWHT is often called stress relief. Note 1: There are circumstances when a wel ded joint may need to be normalised to restore HAZ toughness. However, these are relatively rare circumstances and it is necessary to ensure that welding consum ables are carefully selected because normalising will significantly reduce weld metal strength 4 PWHT Thermal Cycle The application standard/code, will specify when PWHT is required to give benefi ts #1 or #2 above and also give guidance about the thermal cycle that must be us ed. In order to ensure that a PWHT cycle is carried it in accordance with a part icular code, it is essential that a PWHT procedure is prepared and that the foll owing parameters are specified: Maximum heating rate Soak temperature range Mini mum time at the soak temperature (soak time) Maximum cooling rate 4.1 Heating rate This must be controlled to avoid large temperature differences within the fabric ated item. Large differences in temperature (large thermal gradients) will produ ce large stresses and these may be high enough to cause distortion (or even crac king). Application standards usually require control of the maximum heating rate when the temperature of the item is above ~300C. This is because steels start to show significant loss of strength above this temperature and are more susceptib le to distortion if there are large thermal gradients. The temperature of the fa bricated item must be monitored during the thermal cycle and this is done by mea ns of thermocouples attached to the surface at a number of locations representin g the thickness range of the item. By monitoring furnace and item temperatures t he rate of heating can be controlled to ensure compliance with code requirements at all positions within the item. Maximum heating rates specified for C-Mn stee l depend on thickness of the item but tend to be in the range ~60 to ~200C/h. Rev 1 January 2010 Heat Treatment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4.2 Soak temperature The soak temperature specified by the code depends on the type of steel and thus the temperature range required to reduce residual stresses to a low level. C an d C-Mn steels require a soak temperature of ~600C whereas some low alloy steels ( such as Cr-Mo steels used for elevated temperature service) require higher tempe ratures typically in the range ~700 to ~760C. Note: Soak temperature is an essent ial variable for a WPQR. Thus, it is very important that the it is controlled wi thin the specified limits otherwise it may be necessary to carry out a new WPQ t est to validate the properties of the item and at worst it may not be fit-for-pu rpose. 4.3 Soak time It is necessary to allow time for all the welded joints to experience the specif ied temperature throughout the full joint thickness. The temperature is monitore d by surface-contact thermocouples and it is the thickest joint of the fabricati on that governs the minimum time for temperature equalisation. Typical specified soak times are 1h per 25mm thickness. 4.4 Cooling rate It is necessary to control the rate of cooling from the PWHT temperature for the same reason that heating rate needs to be controlled to avoid distortion (or cr acking) due to high stresses from thermal gradients. Codes usually specify contr olled cooling to ~300C. Below this temperature the item can be withdrawn from a f urnace and allowed to cool in air because steel is relatively strong and is unli kely to suffer plastic strain by any temperature gradients that may develop. Fig ure 6 is a typical PWHT thermal cycle. 5 Heat Treatment Furnaces It is important that oil and gas-fired furnaces used for PWHT do not allow flame contact with the fabrication as this may induce large thermal gradients. It is also important to ensure that the fuel (particularly for oil-fired furnaces) doe s not contain high levels of potentially harmful impurities such as sulphur. Rev 1 January 2010 Heat Treatment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6 Local PWHT For a pipeline or pipe spool it is often necessary to apply PWHT to individual w elds by local application of heat. For this, a PWHT procedure must specify the p reviously described parameters for controlling the thermal cycle but it is also necessary to specify the following: Width of the heated band (must be within the soak temperature range) Width of the temperature decay band (soak temperature t o ~300C) Other considerations are: Position of the thermocouples within the heate d band width and the decay band If the item needs to be supported in a particula r way to allow movement/ avoid distortion The commonest method of heating for lo cal PWHT is by means of insulated electrical elements (electrical mats) that are a ttached to the weld. Gas-fired, radiant heating elements can also be used. Figur e 7 shows typical control zones for localised PWHT of a pipe butt weld. Normalis ing Rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite) Short soak time at temper ature Cool in air to ambient temperature Temperature,C ~900C Time Figure 1 Typical normalising heat treatment applied to C-Mn and some low alloy s teels Rev 1 January 2010 Heat Treatment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Quenching and tempering Rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite) Short soak time at temperature Rapid cooling by quenching in water or oil Reheat to t empering temperature, soak and air cool TemperatureC ~ 900C >~ 650C Quenching cycle Tempering cycle Time Figure 2 Typical quenching and tempering heat treatment applied to some low allo y steels Slab heating temperature > ~1050C Austenite () Temperature,C ~900C Austenite + ferrite (+) ~700C Ferrite + pearlite ( ) + iron carbide) As-rolled or hot rolled Time Figure 3 Comparison of the control-rolled (TMCP) and as-rolled conditions (= hot rol ling) Rev 1 January 2010 Heat Treatment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010 Control-rolled or TMCP

Solution heat treatment Rapid heating to soak temp. (100% austenite) Short soak ti me at temperature Rapid cool cooling by quenching into water or oil Temperature,C > ~1050C Quenching Time Figure 4 Typical solution heat treatment (solution annealing) applied to austeni tic stainless steels Annealing Rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite) Short soak time at te mperature Slow cool in furnace to ambient temperature Temperature,C ~900C Time Figure 5 Typical annealing heat treatment applied to C-Mn and some low alloy ste els Rev 1 January 2010 Heat Treatment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

PWHT (C-Mn steels) Controlled heating rate from 300C to soak temperature Minimum soak time at temperature Controlled cooling to ~300C Temperature C ~600C Controlled heating & cooling rates ~300C Soak time Time Figure 6 Typical PWHT applied to C-Mn steels Air cool Weld seam temp. decay band heated band temp. decay band Figure 7 Local PWHT of a pipe girth seam Rev 1 January 2010 Heat Treatment Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

General When structures and pressurised items are fabricated by welding, it is e ssential that all the welded joints are sound and have suitable properties for t heir application. Control of welding is achieved by means of welding procedure s pecifications (WPS) that give detailed written instructions about the welding co nditions that must be used to ensure that welded joints have the required proper ties. Although WPS are shop floor documents to instruct welders, they are docume nts that welding inspectors also need to be familiar with. This is because they will need to refer to WPS when they are checking that welders are working in acc ordance with the specified requirements. Welders need to be able to understand W PS and to have the skill to make welds that are not defective and demonstrate th ese abilities before being allowed to make production welds. 1 Qualified Welding Procedure Specifications It is industry practice to use qualified WPS for most applications. A welding pr ocedure is usually qualified by making a test weld to demonstrate that the prope rties of the joint satisfy the requirements specified by the application standar d (and the client/end user). Demonstrating the mechanical properties of the join t is the principal purpose of qualification tests but showing that a defect-free weld can be produced is also very important. Production welds that are made in accordance with welding conditions similar to those used for a test weld should have similar properties and therefore be fit for their intended purpose. Figure 1 is an example of a typical WPS written in accordance with the European Welding Standard format giving details of all the welding conditions that need to be sp ecified. 1.1 Welding standards for procedure qualification European and American Standards have been developed to give comprehensive detail s about: How a welded test piece must be made to demonstrate joint properties Ho w the test piece must be tested What welding details need to be included in a WP S The range of production welding allowed by a particular qualification test wel d Rev 1 January 2010 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The principal European Standards that specify these requirements are: EN ISO 156 14 Specification & qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials We lding procedure test Part 1: Arc & gas welding of steels & arc welding of nickel & nickel alloys Part 2: Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys The principal A merican Standards for procedure qualification are: ASME Section IX for pressuris ed systems (vessels & pipework) AWS D1.1 AWS D1.2 Structural welding of steels S tructural welding of aluminium 1.2 The qualification process for welding procedures Although qualified WPS are usually based on test welds that have been made to de monstrate weld joint properties; welding standards also allow qualified WPS to b e written based on other data (for some applications). Some alternative ways tha t can be used for writing qualified WPS for some applications are: Qualification by adoption of a standard welding procedure - test welds previously qualified a nd documented by other manufacturers Qualification based on previous welding exp erience - weld joints that have been repeatedly made and proved to have suitable properties by their service record Procedure qualification to European Standards by means of a test weld (and simil ar in ASME Section IX and AWS) requires a sequence of actions that is typified b y those shown by Table 1. A successful procedure qualification test is completed by the production of a welding procedure qualification record (WPQR), an exampl e of which is shown by Figure 2. Rev 1 January 2010 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1.3 Relationship between a WPQR and a WPS Once a WPQR has been produced, the welding engineer is able to write qualified W PSs for the various production weld joints that need to be made. The welding con ditions that are allowed to be written on a qualified WPS are referred to as the qualification range and this range depends on the welding conditions that were used for the test piece (the as-run details) and form part of the WPQR. Welding conditions are referred to as welding variables by European and American Welding Standards and are classified as either essential variables or non-essential var iables. These variables can be defined as follows: Essential variable a variable that has an effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment (and if changed beyond the limits specified by the standard will require the WPS to be re-quali fied) Non-essential variable a variable that must be specified on a WPS but does not have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment (and can be changed without need for re-qualification but will require a new WPS to be written) It is because essential variables can have a significant effect on m echanical properties that they are the controlling variables that govern the qua lification range and determine what can be written into a WPS. If a welder makes a production weld using conditions outside the qualification range given on a p articular WPS, there is danger that the welded joint will not have the required properties and there are then two options: Make another test weld using similar welding conditions to those used for the affected weld and subject this to the s ame tests used for the relevant WPQR to demonstrate that the properties still sa tisfy specified requirements Remove the affected weld and re-weld the joint stri ctly in accordance with the designated WPS Most of the welding variables that ar e classed as essential are the same in both the European and American Welding St andards but their qualification ranges may differ. Some Application Standards sp ecify their own essential variables and it is necessary to ensure that these are taken into consideration when procedures are qualified and WPSs are written. Rev 1 January 2010 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Examples of essential variables (according to European Welding Standards) are gi ven in Table 2. 2 Welder Qualification The use of qualified WPSs is the accepted method for controlling production weld ing but this will only be successful if the welders have the ability to understa nd and work in accordance with them. Welders also need to have the skill to cons istently produce sound welds (free from defects). Welding Standards have been de veloped to give guidance on what particular test welds are required in order to show that welders have the required skills to make particular types of productio n welds in particular materials. 2.1 Welding standards for welder qualification The principal European Standards that specify requirements are: EN 287-1 Qualifi cation test of welders Fusion welding Part 1: Steels Qualification test of welde rs Fusion welding Part 2: Aluminium and aluminium alloys Welding personnel Appro val testing of welding operators for fusion welding and resistance weld setters for fully mechanised and automatic welding of metallic materials EN ISO 9606-2 EN 1418 The principal American Standards that specify requirements for welder qualificat ion are: ASME Section IX Pressurised systems (vessels & pipework) AWS D1.1 AWS D 1.2 Structural welding of steels Structural welding of aluminium 2.2 The qualification process for welders Qualification testing of welders to European Standards requires test welds to be made and subjected to specified tests to demonstrate that the welder understand s the WPS and can produce a sound weld. For manual and semi-automatic welding th e emphasis of the tests is to demonstrate ability to manipulate the electrode or welding torch. Rev 1 January 2010 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

For mechanised and automatic welding the emphasis is on demonstrating that weldi ng operators have ability to control particular types of welding equipment. Amer ican Standards allow welders to demonstrate that they can produce sound welds by subjecting their first production weld to non-destructive testing. Table 3 show s the steps required for qualifying welders in accordance with European Standard s. Figure 3 shows a typical Welder Qualification Certificate in accordance with European Standards. 2.3 Welder qualification and production welding allowed The welder is allowed to make production welds within the range of qualification recorded on his welder qualification certificate. The range of qualification is based on the limits specified by the Welding Standard for welder qualification essential variables - defined as: a s variable that if changed beyond the limits specified by the Welding Standard may require greater skill than has been demon strated by the test weld. Some welding variables that are classed as essential f or welder qualification are the same types as those classified as essential for welding procedure qualification, but the range of qualification may be significa ntly wider. Some essential variables are specific to welder qualification. Examp les of welder qualification essential variables are given in Table 4. 2.4 Period of validity for a welder qualification certificate A welders qualification begins from the date of welding of the test piece. The Eu ropean Standard allows a qualification certificate to remain valid for a period of two years provided that: The welding co-ordinator, or other responsible perso n, can confirm that the welder has been working within the initial range of qual ification Working within the initial qualification range is confirmed every six months 2.5 Prolongation of welder qualification A welders qualification certificate can be prolonged every two years by an examin er/examining body but before prolongation is allowed certain conditions need to be satisfied: Rev 1 January 2010 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

 Records/evidence are available that can be traced to the welder and the WPS that have been used for production welding The supporting evidence must relate to vo lumetric examination of the welders production welds (RT or UT) on two welds made during the 6 months prior to the prolongation date The supporting evidence weld s must satisfy the acceptance levels for imperfections specified by the European welding standard and have been made under the same conditions as the original t est weld. Rev 1 January 2010 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure Specification (pWPS) for each test coupon to be welded A welder makes the test coupon in accordance with the pWPS A welding inspector r ecords all the welding conditions used to make the test coupon (called the as-ru n conditions) An Independent Examiner/ Examining Body/Third Party Inspector may be requested t o monitor the procedure qualification The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods specified by the Standard visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT The test coupon is destructively tested (tensile, bend, macro tests) The code/ap plication standard/client may require additional tests such as hardness tests, i mpact tests or corrosion tests depending on material and application A Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) is prepared by the welding engin eer giving details of: The as-run welding conditions Results of the NDT Results of the destructive test s The welding conditions allowed for production welding If a Third Party Inspector is involved he will be requested to sign the WPQR as a true record of the test Table 1 Typical sequence for welding procedure qualification by means of a test weld Rev 1 July 2008 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2008

VARIABLE Welding process RANGE for PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION No range process qualified is process that mus t be used in production Joints tested after PWHT only qualify as PWHT production joints Joints tested as-welded only qualify as-welded production joints Parent mate rials of similar composition and mechanical properties are allocated the same Ma terial Group No.; qualification only allows production welding of materials with the same Group No. Consumables for production welding must have the same Europe an designation as a general rule A thickness range is allowed below and above th e test coupon thickness AC only qualifies for AC; DC polarity (+VE or -VE) canno t be changed; pulsed current only qualifies for pulsed current production weldin g The preheat temperature used for the test is the minimum that must be applied The highest interpass temperature reached in the test is the maximum allowed Whe n impact requirements apply maximum HI allowed is 25% above test HI when hardnes s requirements apply minimum HI allowed is 25% below test HI PWHT Parent material type Welding consumables Material thickness Type of current Preheat temperature Interpass temperature Heat input (HI) Table 2 Typical examples of WPS essential variables according to European Weldin g Standards Rev 1 July 2008 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2008

The welding engineer writes a WPS for welder qualification test piece The welder makes the test weld in accordance with the WPS A welding inspector mo nitors the welding to ensure that the welder is working in accordance the WPS An Independent Examiner/Examining Body/Third Party Inspector may be requested to monitor the test The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods specified by the Standard (visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT) For certain materials, a nd welding processes, some destructive testing may be required (bends or macros) A Welders Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the welding conditions us ed for the test piece and the range of qualification allowed by the Standard for production welding If a Third Party is involved, the Qualification Certificate would be endorsed as a true record of the test Table 3 Stages for qualification of a welder Rev 1 July 2008 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2008

VARIABLE Welding process RANGE for WELDER QUALIFICATION No range process qualified is process that a weld er can use in production Butt welds cover any type of joint except branch welds fillet welds only qualify fillets Parent materials of similar composition and me chanical properties are allocated the same Material Group No.; qualification onl y allows production welding of materials with the same Group No. but the Groups allow much wider composition ranges than the procedure Groups Electrodes and fil ler wires for production welding must be of the same form as the test (solid wir e, flux cored, etc); for MMA coating type is essential A thickness range is allo wed; for test pieces above 12mm allow 5mm Essential and very restricted for smal l diameters; test pieces above 25mm allow 0.5 x diameter used (min. 25mm) Positi on of welding very important; H-L045 allows all positions (except PG) Type of weld Parent material type Filler material Material thickness Pipe diameter Welding positions Table 4 Typical examples of welder qualification essential variables according t o European Welding Standards Rev 1 July 2008 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2008

Rev 1 July 2008 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2008

Rev 1 July 2008 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2008

Rev 1 July 2008 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2008

Rev 1 July 2008 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2008

Rev 1 July 2008 WPS and Welder Qualifications Copyright TWI Ltd 2008

General One of the duties of the Visual/Welding Inspector is to carry out materials insp ection. There are a number of situations where the inspector will be required to carry out materials inspection: At the plate or pipe mill, Of material during f abrication or construction Of material after installation, usually during a plan ned maintenance programme, outage or shutdown. A wide range of materials are ava ilable, that can be used in fabrication and welding. These include, but are not limited to: Steels Stainless steels Aluminium and its alloys Nickel and its all ys Copper and its alloys Titanium and its alloys Cast iron These materials are all widely used in fabrication, welding and construction to meet the requirements of a diverse range of applications and industry sectors. T here are three essential aspects to materials inspection that the Inspector shou ld consider: Material type and weldability Material traceability Material condit ion and dimensions. 2 Material Types and Weldability A Welding Inspector must be able to understand and interpret the material design ation in order to check compliance with relevant normative documents. For exampl e materials standards such as BS EN, API, ASTM, the welding procedure specificat ion (WPS), the purchase order, fabrication drawings, the quality plan/the contra ct specification and client requirements. A commonly used material standard for steel designation is BS EN 10025 Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural ste els. Rev 1 January 2010 Materials Inspection Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

A typical steel designation to this standard, S355J2G3, would be classified as f ollows: S 355 J2 G3 Structural steel Minimum yield strength: N/mm at t 16mm Longi tudinal Charpy, 27Joules 6-20C Normalised or normalised rolled In terms of material type and weldability, commonly used materials and most allo ys of these materials can be fusion welded using various welding processes, in a wide range of thickness, and, where applicable, diameters. Reference to other s tandards such as ISO 15608 Welding - Guidelines for a metallic material grouping system, steel producers and welding consumable data books can also provide the Inspector with guidance on the suitability of a material and consumable type for a given application. 3 Alloying Elements and Their Effects Iron Fe Carbon C For strength Manganese Mn For toughness Silicon Si < 0.3% deoxi diser Aluminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008% deoxidiser + toughness Chromium Cr Cor rosion resistance Molybdenum Mo 1% is for creep resistance Vanadium V Strength N ickel Ni Low temperature applications Copper Cu Used for weathering steels (Cort en) Sulphur S Residual element (can cause hot shortness) Phosphorus P Residual e lement Titanium Ti Grain refiner, used as a micro alloying element (S&T) Niobium Nb Grain refiner, used as a micro alloying element (S&T) (S&T) = strength and t oughness Rev 1 January 2010 Materials Inspection Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4 Material Traceability Traceability is defined as the ability to trace the history, application or locat ion of that which is under consideration. In the case of a welded product, tracea bility may require the Inspector to consider: Origin of the materials both paren t and filler material Processing history for example before or after PWHT Locati on of the product this would usually refer to a specific part or subassembly To trace the history of the material, reference to the inspection documents must be made. BS EN 10204 Metallic products Types of inspection documents is the standa rd, which provides guidance on these types of document. Under BS EN 10204 inspec tion documents fall into two types: a) Non-specific inspection Inspection carrie d out by the manufacturer in accordance with his own procedures to assess whethe r products defined by the same product specification and made by the same manufa cturing process, are in compliance with the requirements of the order or not. Ty pe 2.1 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the products suppli ed are in compliance with the requirements of the order without inclusion of tes t results. Type 2.2 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the pr oducts supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order and in whic h test results based on non-specific inspection are supplied. b) Specific inspec tion Inspection carried out, before delivery, according to the product specifica tion, on the products to be supplied or on test units of which the products supp lied are part, in order to verify that these products are in compliance with the requirements of the order. Type 3.1 are documents in which the manufacturer dec lares that the products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order and in which test results are supplied. Type 3.2 are documents prepared by both the manufacturers authorised inspection representative independent of the m anufacturing department, and either the purchasers authorised representative or t he inspector designated by the official regulations, and in which they declare t hat the products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order a nd in which test results are supplied. Rev 1 January 2010 Materials Inspection Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Application or location of a particular material can be carried out through a re view of the welding procedure specification (WPS), the fabrication drawings, the quality plan or by physical inspection of the material at the point of use. In certain circumstances the Inspector may have to witness the transfer of cast num bers from the original plate to pieces to be used in production. On pipeline wor k it is a requirement that the inspector records all the relevant information fo r each piece of line pipe. On large diameter pipes this information is usually s tencilled on the inside of the pipe. On smaller diameter pipes the information m ay be stencilled along the outside of the pipe. Rev 1 January 2010 Materials Inspection Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

BS EN 10204: Metallic materials Types of inspection documents summary a) NONSPECIFIC INSPECTION * Inspection document type 2.1 Declaration of compliance with the order Statement of compliance with the order. Validated by the manufacturer. Inspection document type 2.2 Test report Statement of compliance with the order, with indication of results o f non-specific inspection. Validated by the manufacturer a) Non-specific inspection may be replaced by specific inspection if specified in t he material standard or the order. b) SPECIFIC INSPECTION * Inspection certificate type 3.1 Statement of compliance with the order, with indication of results of specific i nspection Validated by the manufacturers authorised inspection representative ind ependent of the manufacturing department. Inspection certificate type 3.2 Statement of compliance with the order, with indication of results of specific i nspection. Validated by the manufacturers authorised inspection representative in dependent of the manufacturing department and either the purchasers authorised in spection representative or the inspector designated by the official regulations. b) Quality management system of the material manufacturer certified by a competent body established within the community and having undergone a specific assessment for materials Rev 1 January 2010 Materials Inspection Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5 Material Condition and Dimensions The condition of the material could have an adverse effect on the service life o f the component; it is therefore an important inspection point. The points for i nspection must include: General inspection, visible imperfections, dimensions an d surface condition. General inspection This type of inspection takes account of storage conditions, methods of handling, the number of plates or pipes and dist ortion tolerances. Visible imperfections Typical visible imperfections are usual ly attributable to the manufacturing process and would include cold laps, which break the surface or laminations if they appear at the edge of the plate. For la minations, which may be present in the body of the material, ultrasonic testing using a compression probe may be required. Cold lap Plate lamination Dimensions For plates this would include length, width and thickness. For pipes, this would not only include length and wall thickness, but also inspection of d iameter and ovality. At this stage of the inspection the material cast or heat n umber may also be recorded for validation against the material certificate. Surf ace condition The surface condition of the material is important, it must not sh ow excessive mill scale and rust, must not be badly pitted, or have unacceptable mechanical damage. Rev 1 January 2010 Materials Inspection Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

There are four grades of rusting which the inspector may have to consider: Rust Grade A Steel surface largely covered with adherent mill scale with little or no rust Rust Grade B Steel surface, which has begun to rust, and from which mill scale h as begun to flake. Rust Grade C Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from which it can be scraped. Slight pitting visible under normal vision. Rust Grade D Steel surface on which mill scale has rusted away. General pitting visible under normal vision. Rev 1 January 2010 Materials Inspection Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6 Summary Material inspection is an important part of the Inspectors duties and an understa nding of the documentation involved is the key to success. Material inspection m ust be approached in a logical and precise manner if material verification and t raceability are to be achieved. This can be difficult if the material is not rea dily accessible, access may have to be provided, safety precautions observed and authorisation obtained before material inspection can be carried out. Reference to the quality plan should identify the level of inspection required and the po int at which inspection takes place. Reference to a fabrication drawing should p rovide information on the type and location of the material. If material type ca nnot be determined from the inspection documents available, or if the inspection document is missing, other methods of identifying the material may need to be u sed. These methods may include but are not limited to: spark test, spectroscopic analysis, chemical analysis, scleroscope hardness test etc. These types of test s are normally conducted by an approved test house, but sometimes on site, and t he Inspector may be required to witness these tests in order to verify complianc e with the purchase order or appropriate standard(s). *EN ISO 9000 Quality manag ement systems Fundamentals and vocabulary Rev 1 January 2010 Materials Inspection Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 What Causes Distortion? Because welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the mat erial, non-uniform stresses are set up in the component because of expansion and contraction of the heated material. Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal when the weld pool is formed due to the th ermal expansion of the hot metal (heat affected zone (HAZ)) adjacent to the weld pool. However, tensile stresses occur on cooling when the contraction of the we ld metal and immediate HAZ is resisted by the bulk of the cold parent metal. The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by the volu me change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling to room temp erature. For example, when welding C-Mn steel, the molten weld metal volume will be reduced by approximately 3% on solidification and the volume of the solidifi ed weld metal/HAZ will be reduced by a further 7% as its temperature falls from the melting point of steel to room temperature. If the stresses generated from t hermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent metal, loca lised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation causes a perm anent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the structure. 2 What Are the Main Types of Distortion? Distortion occurs in several ways: Longitudinal shrinkage Transverse shrinkage A ngular distortion Bowing and dishing Buckling Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and longitudi nal shrinkage. Non-uniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular dist ortion as well as longitudinal and transverse shrinking. For example, in a singl e V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal and transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the first weld d eposit as a fulcrum. Therefore balanced welding in a double side V butt joint ca n be used to produce uniform contraction and prevent angular distortion. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Similarly, in a single-sided fillet weld, non-uniform contraction will produce a ngular distortion of the upstanding leg. Double-sided fillet welds can therefore be used to control distortion in the upstanding fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will now be pro duced in the plate. Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld c entre is not coincident with the neutral axis of the section so that longitudina l shrinkage in the welds bends the section into a curved shape. Clad plate tends to bow in two directions due to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the cl adding. This produces a dished shape. Dishing is also produced in stiffened plat ing. Plates usually dish inwards between the stiffeners, because of angular dist ortion at the stiffener attachment welds. In plating, long range compressive str esses can cause elastic buckling in thin plates, resulting in dishing, bowing or rippling, see below. Examples of distortion Examples of distortion. Increasing the leg length of fillet welds, in particular, increases shrinkage. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3 What Are the Factors Affecting Distortion? If a metal is uniformly heated and cooled there would be almost no distortion. H owever, because the material is locally heated and restrained by the surrounding cold metal, stresses are generated higher than the material yield stress causin g permanent distortion. The principal factors affecting the type and degree of d istortion are: Parent material properties Amount of restraint Joint design Part fit-up Welding procedure 3.1 Parent material properties Parent material properties, which influence distortion, are coefficient of therm al expansion, thermal conductivity, and to a lesser extent, yield stress and You ngs modulus. As distortion is determined by expansion and contraction of the mate rial, the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material plays a significant r ole in determining the stresses generated during welding and, hence, the degree of distortion. For example, as stainless steel has a higher coefficient of expan sion and lesser thermal conductivity than plain carbon steel, it generally has s ignificantly more distortion. 3.2 Restraint If a component is welded without any external restraint, it distorts to relieve the welding stresses. So, methods of restraint, such as strongbacks in butt weld s, can prevent movement and reduce distortion. As restraint produces higher leve ls of residual stress in the material, there is a greater risk of cracking in we ld metal and HAZ especially in crack-sensitive materials. 3.3 Joint design Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion, but it can be minimised in butt joints by adopting a joint type, which balances the thermal stresses throug h the plate thickness. For example, double- in preference to a singlesided weld. Double-sided fillet welds should eliminate angular distortion of the upstanding member, especially if the two welds are deposited at the same time. 3.4 Part fit-up Fit-up should be uniform to produce predictable and consistent shrinkage. Excess ive joint gap can also increase the degree of distortion by increasing the amoun t of weld metal needed to fill the joint. The joints should be adequately tacked to prevent relative movement between the parts during welding. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3.5 Welding procedure This influences the degree of distortion mainly through its effect on the heat i nput. As welding procedures are usually selected for reasons of quality and prod uctivity, the welder has limited scope for reducing distortion. As a general rul e, weld volume should be kept to a minimum. Also, the welding sequence and techn ique should aim to balance the thermally induced stresses around the neutral axi s of the component. 4 Distortion - Prevention By Pre-Setting, Pre-Bending or Use of Restraint Distortion can often be prevented at the design stage, for example, by placing t he welds about the neutral axis, reducing the amount of welding and depositing t he weld metal using a balanced welding technique. In designs where this is not p ossible, distortion may be prevented by one of the following methods: Pre-settin g of parts Pre-bending of parts Use of restraint The technique chosen will be in fluenced by the size and complexity of the component or assembly, the cost of an y restraining equipment and the need to limit residual stresses. Pre-setting of parts to produce correct alignment after welding a) Pre-setting of fillet joint to prevent angular distortion b) Pre-setting of b utt joint to prevent angular distortion 4.1 Pre-setting of parts The parts are pre-set and left free to move during welding (see above). In pract ice, the parts are pre-set by a pre-determined amount so that distortion occurri ng during welding is used to achieve overall alignment and dimensional control. The main advantages compared with the use of restraint are that there is no expe nsive equipment needed and there will be lower residual stress in the structure. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Unfortunately, as it is difficult to predict the amount of pre-setting needed to accommodate shrinkage, a number of trial welds will be required. For example, w hen MMA or MIG/MAG welding butt joints, the joint gap will normally close ahead of welding; when submerged arc welding; the joint may open up during welding. Wh en carrying out trial welds, it is also essential that the test structure is rea sonably representative of the full size structure in order to generate the level of distortion likely to occur in practice. For these reasons, pre-setting is a technique more suitable for simple components or assemblies. Pre-bending, using strongbacks and wedges, to accommodate angular distortion in thin plates. 4.2 Pre-bending of parts Pre-bending, or pre-springing the parts before welding is used to pre-stress the assembly to counteract shrinkage during welding. As shown above, prebending by means of strongbacks and wedges can be used to pre-set a seam before welding to compensate for angular distortion. Releasing the wedges after welding will allow the parts to move back into alignment. The figure shows the diagonal bracings a nd centre jack used to pre-bend the fixture, not the component. This counteracts the distortion introduced though out-of-balance welding. 4.3 Use of restraint Because of the difficulty in applying pre-setting and pre-bending, restraint is the more widely practised technique. The basic principle is that the parts are p laced in position and held under restraint to minimise any movement during weldi ng. When removing the component from the restraining equipment, a relatively sma ll amount of movement will occur due to locked-in stresses. This can be cured by either applying a small amount of pre-set or stressrelieving before removing th e restraint. When welding assemblies, all the component parts should be held in the correct position until completion of welding and a suitably balanced fabrica tion sequence used to minimise distortion. Welding with restraint will generate additional residual stresses in the weld, which may cause cracking. When welding susceptible materials, a suitable welding sequence and the use of preheating wi ll reduce this risk. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Restraint is relatively simple to apply using clamps, jigs and fixtures to hold the parts during welding. 4.3.1 Welding jigs and fixtures Jigs and fixtures are used to locate the parts and ensure that dimensional accuracy is maintained whil st welding. They can be of a relatively simple construction, as shown in a) belo w but the welding engineer will need to ensure that the finished fabrication can be removed easily after welding. 4.3.2 Flexible clamps A flexible clamp (b) bel ow) can be effective in applying restraint and also setting-up and maintaining t he joint gap (it can also be used to close a gap that is too wide). A disadvanta ge is that as the restraining forces in the clamp will be transferred into the j oint when the clamps are removed, the level of residual stress across the joint can be quite high. a) Welding jig b) Flexible clamps c) Strongbacks with wedges d) Fully welded strongbacks Restraint techniques to prevent distortion. 4.3.3 Strongbacks (and wedges) Strongbacks are a popular means of applying restraint e specially for site work. Wedged strongbacks (c)) above), will prevent angular di stortion in plate and help prevent peaking in welding cylindrical shells. As the se types of strongback will allow transverse shrinkage, the risk of cracking wil l be greatly reduced compared with fully welded strongbacks. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Fully welded strongbacks (welded on both sides of the joint) (d) above) will min imise both angular distortion and transverse shrinkage. As significant stresses can be generated across the weld, which will increase any tendency for cracking, care should be taken in the use of this type of strongback. 4.4 Best practice Adopting the following assembly techniques will help to control distortion: Preset parts so that welding distortion will achieve overall alignment and dimensio nal control with the minimum of residual stress. Pre-bend joint edges to counter act distortion and achieve alignment and dimensional control with minimum residu al stress. Apply restraint during welding by using jigs and fixtures, flexible c lamps, strongbacks and tack welding but consider the risk of cracking which can be quite significant, especially for fully welded strongbacks. Use an approved p rocedure for welding and removal of welds for restraint techniques, which may ne ed preheat to avoid forming imperfections in the component surface. 5 Distortion - Prevention by Design Design principles At the design stage, welding distortion can often be prevented , or at least restricted, by considering: Elimination of welding Weld placement Reducing the volume of weld metal Reducing the number of runs Use of balanced we lding 5.1 Elimination of welding As distortion and shrinkage are an inevitable result of welding, good design req uires that not only the amount of welding is kept to a minimum, but also the sma llest amount of weld metal is deposited. Welding can often be eliminated at the design stage by forming the plate or using a standard rolled section, as shown b elow. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Elimination of welds by: a) Forming the plate; b) Use of rolled or extruded sect ion. If possible, the design should use intermittent welds rather than a continuous r un, to reduce the amount of welding. For example, in attaching stiffening plates , a substantial reduction in the amount of welding can often be achieved whilst maintaining adequate strength. 5.2 Weld placement Placing and balancing of welds are important in designing for minimum distortion . The closer a weld is positioned to the neutral axis of a fabrication, the lowe r the leverage effect of the shrinkage forces and the final distortion. Examples of poor and good designs are shown below. Distortion may be reduced by placing the welds around the neutral axis. As most welds are deposited away from the neutral axis, distortion can be minimi sed by designing the fabrication so the shrinkage forces of an individual weld a re balanced by placing another weld on the opposite side of the neutral axis. Wh en possible, welding should be carried out alternately on opposite sides, instea d of completing one side first. In large structures, if distortion is occurring preferentially on one side, it may be possible to take corrective actions, for e xample, by increasing welding on the other side to control the overall distortio n. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5.3 Reducing the volume of weld metal To minimise distortion, as well as for economic reasons, the volume of weld meta l should be limited to the design requirements. For a single-sided joint, the cr oss-section of the weld should be kept as small as possible to reduce the level of angular distortion, as illustrated below. Reducing the amount of angular distortion and lateral shrinkage. Ways of reducing angular distortion and lateral shrinkage: Reducing the volume o f weld metal; Using single pass weld Ensure fillet welds are not oversize. Joint preparation angle and root gap should be minimised providing the weld can be ma de satisfactorily. To facilitate access, it may be possible to specify a larger root gap and smaller preparation angle. By cutting down the difference in the am ount of weld metal at the root and face of the weld, the degree of angular disto rtion will be correspondingly reduced. Butt joints made in a single pass using d eep penetration have little angular distortion, especially if a closed butt join t can be welded (see above). For example, thin section material can be welded us ing plasma and laser welding processes and thick section can be welded, in the v ertical position, using electrogas and electroslag processes. Although angular d istortion can be eliminated, there will still be longitudinal and transverse shr inkage. In thick section material, as the cross-sectional area of a double V joi nt preparation is often only half that of a single V preparation, the volume of weld metal to be deposited can be substantially reduced. The double V joint prep aration also permits balanced welding about the middle of the joint to eliminate angular distortion. As weld shrinkage is proportional to the amount of weld met al both poor joint fit-up and over-welding will increase the amount of distortio n. Angular distortion in fillet welds is particularly affected by over-welding. As design strength is based on throat thickness, over-welding to produce a conve x weld bead does not increase the allowable design strength but will increase th e shrinkage and distortion. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5.4 Reducing the number of runs There are conflicting opinions on whether it is better to deposit a given volume of weld metal using a small number of large weld passes or a large number of sm all passes. Experience shows that for a single-sided butt joint, or fillet weld, a large single weld deposit gives less angular distortion than if the weld is m ade with a number of small runs. Generally, in an unrestrained joint, the degree of angular distortion is approximately proportional to the number of passes. Co mpleting the joint with a small number of large weld deposits results in more lo ngitudinal and transverse shrinkage than a weld completed in a larger number of small passes. In a multi-pass weld, previously deposited weld metal provides res traint, so the angular distortion per pass decreases as the weld is built up. La rge deposits also increase the risk of elastic buckling particularly in thin sec tion plate. 5.5 Use of balanced welding Balanced welding is an effective means of controlling angular distortion in a mu lti-pass butt weld by arranging the welding sequence to ensure that angular dist ortion is continually being corrected and not allowed to accumulate during weldi ng. Comparative amounts of angular distortion from balanced welding and welding one side of the joint first are shown below. The balanced welding technique can also be applied to fillet joints. Balanced welding to reduce the amount of angular distortion. If welding alternately on either side of the joint is not possible, or if one si de has to be completed first, an asymmetrical joint preparation may be used with more weld metal being deposited on the second side. The greater contraction res ulting from depositing the weld metal on the second side will help counteract th e distortion on the first side. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5.6 Best practice The following design principles can control distortion: Eliminate welding by for ming the plate and using rolled or extruded sections Minimise the amount of weld metal Do not over-weld Use intermittent welding in preference to a continuous w eld pass Place welds about the neutral axis Balance the welding about the middle of the joint by using a double V joint in preference to a single Adopting best practice principles can have surprising cost benefits. For example, for a design fillet leg length of 6mm, depositing an 8mm leg length will result in the depos ition of 57% additional weld metal. Besides the extra cost of depositing weld me tal and the increase risk of distortion, it is costly to remove this extra weld metal later. However, designing for distortion control may incur additional fabr ication costs. For example, the use of a double V joint preparation is an excell ent way to reduce weld volume and control distortion, but extra costs may be inc urred in production through manipulation of the workpiece for the welder to acce ss the reverse side. 6 6.1 Distortion - Prevention by Fabrication Techniques Assembly techniques In general, the welder has little influence on the choice of welding procedure b ut assembly techniques can often be crucial in minimising distortion. The princi pal assembly techniques are: Tack welding Back-to-back assembly Stiffening 6.1.1 Tack welding Tack welds are ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also be used to resist transverse shrinkage. To be effective, thought should be given to the number of tack welds, their length and the distance between the m. With too few, there is the risk of the joint progressively closing up as weld ing proceeds. In a long seam, using MMA or MIG/MAG, the joint edges may even ove rlap. It should be noted that when using the submerged arc process, the joint mi ght open up if not adequately tacked. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The tack welding sequence is important to maintain a uniform root gap along the length of the joint. Three alternative tack-welding sequences are shown below: T ack weld straight through to the end of the joint a). It is necessary to clamp t he plates or to use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tacking. Tack weld o ne end and then use a back stepping technique for tacking the rest of the joint b). Tack weld the centre and complete the tack welding by back stepping c). Alternative procedures used for tack welding to prevent transverse shrinkage. Directional tacking is a useful technique for controlling the joint gap, for exa mple closing a joint gap which is (or has become) too wide. When tack welding, i t is important that tacks which are to be fused into the main weld, are produced to an approved procedure using appropriately qualified welders. The procedure m ay require preheat and an approved consumable as specified for the main weld. Re moval of the tacks also needs careful control to avoid causing defects in the co mponent surface. 6.1.2 Back-to-back assembly By tack welding or clamping two ide ntical components back-to-back, welding of both components can be balanced aroun d the neutral axis of the combined assembly (see a) on next page). It is recomme nded that the assembly is stress-relieved before separating the components. If s tressrelieving is not done, it may be necessary to insert wedges between the com ponents (b) on next page) so when the wedges are removed, the parts will move ba ck to the correct shape or alignment. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Back-to-back assembly to control distortion when welding two identical component s: a) Assemblies tacked together before welding; b) Use of wedges for components that distort on separation after welding. 6.1.3 Stiffening Longitudinal stiffeners prevent bowing in butt welded thin plate joints. Longitudinal shrinkage in butt welded seams often results in bowing, especially when fabricating thin plate structures. Longitudinal stiffeners in the form of f lats or angles, welded along each side of the seam (see above) are effective in preventing longitudinal bowing. Stiffener location is important: they must be at a sufficient distance from the joint so they do not interfere with welding, unl ess located on the reverse side of a joint welded from one side. 6.2 Welding procedure A suitable welding procedure is usually determined by productivity and quality r equirements rather than the need to control distortion. Nevertheless, the weldin g process, technique and sequence do influence the distortion level. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Welding process General rules for selecting a welding process to prevent angular distortion are: Deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible Use the least num ber of runs to fill the joint Unfortunately, selecting a suitable welding proces s based on these rules may increase longitudinal shrinkage resulting in bowing a nd buckling. In manual welding, MIG/MAG, a high deposition rate process, is pref erred to MMA. Weld metal should be deposited using the largest diameter electrod e (MMA), or the highest current level (MIG/MAG), without causing lack-offusion i mperfections. As heating is much slower and more diffuse, gas welding normally p roduces more angular distortion than the arc processes. Mechanised techniques co mbining high deposition rates and welding speeds have the greatest potential for preventing distortion. As the distortion is more consistent, simple techniques such as pre-setting are more effective in controlling angular distortion. Weldin g technique General rules for preventing distortion are: Keep the weld (fillet) to the minimum specified size Use balanced welding about the neutral axis Keep t he time between runs to a minimum Angular distortion of the joint as determined by the number of runs in the fille t weld. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

In the absence of restraint, angular distortion in both fillet and butt joints w ill be a function of the joint geometry, weld size and the number of runs for a given cross-section. Angular distortion (measured in degrees) as a function of t he number of runs for a 10mm leg length fillet weld is shown above. If possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be done, for example on doublesided fillet joints, by two people welding simultaneously. In butt joints, the r un order may be crucial in that balanced welding can be used to correct angular distortion as it develops. Use of welding direction to control distortion: a) Back-step welding; b) Skip welding. Welding sequence The welding sequence, or direction, of welding is important and should be towards the free end of the jo int. For long welds, the whole of the weld is not completed in one direction. Sh ort runs, for example using the back-step or skip welding technique, are very ef fective in distortion control (see above) Back-step welding involves depositing short adjacent weld lengths in the opposite direction to the general progression (see above). Skip welding is laying short weld lengths in a pre-determined, eve nly spaced, sequence along the seam (b) in above figure). Weld lengths and the s paces between them are generally equal to the natural run-out length of one elec trode. The direction of deposit for each electrode is the same, but it is not ne cessary for the welding direction to be opposite to the direction of general pro gression. 6.3 Best practice The following fabrication techniques are used to control distortion: Using tack welds to set-up and maintain the joint gap Identical components welded back-to-b ack so welding can be balanced about the neutral axis Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

 Attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt wel ds of thin plate structures Where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG/M AG in preference to MMA or gas welding and mechanised rather than manual welding In long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction; back-ste p or skip welding techniques should be used. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

7 Distortion - Corrective Techniques Every effort should be made to avoid distortion at the design stage and by using suitable fabrication procedures. As it is not always possible to avoid distorti on during fabrication, several well-established corrective techniques can be emp loyed. Reworking to correct distortion should not be undertaken lightly as it is costly and needs considerable skill to avoid damaging the component. General gu idelines are provided on best practice for correcting distortion using mechanica l or thermal techniques. 7.1 Mechanical techniques The principal mechanical techniques are hammering and pressing. Hammering may ca use surface damage and work hardening. In cases of bowing or angular distortion, the complete component can often be straightened on a press without the disadva ntages of hammering. Packing pieces are inserted between the component and the p latens of the press. It is important to impose sufficient deformation to give ov er-correction so that the normal elastic spring-back will allow the component to assume its correct shape. Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint. Pressing to correct bowing in a flanged plate is shown above. In long components , distortion is removed progressively in a series of incremental pressings; each one acting over a short length. In the case of the flanged plate, the load shou ld act on the flange to prevent local damage to the web at the load points. As i ncremental point loading will only produce an approximately straight component, it is better to use a former to achieve a straight component or to produce a smo oth curvature. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

7.1.1 Best practice for mechanical straightening The following should be adopted when using pressing techniques to remove distortion: Use packing pieces which will ov er correct the distortion so that springback will return the component to the co rrect shape. Check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to prevent buckling. Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or produce a curvature. As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the following safe practice must be adopted: - Bolt the packing pieces to the plate n - Place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the missile - Clear p ersonnel from the hazard area 7.2 Thermal techniques The basic principle behind thermal techniques is to create sufficiently high loc al stresses so that, on cooling, the component is pulled back into shape. Localised heating to correct distortion. This is achieved by locally heating the material to a temperature where plastic deformation will occur as the hot, low yield strength material tries to expand a gainst the surrounding cold, higher yield strength metal. On cooling to room tem perature the heated area will attempt to shrink to a smaller size than before he ating. The stresses generated thereby will pull the component into the required shape (see above). Local heating is, therefore, a relatively simple but effectiv e means of correcting welding distortion. Shrinkage level is determined by size, number, location and temperature of the heated zones. Thickness and plate size determines the area of the heated zone. Number and placement of heating zones ar e largely a question of experience. For new jobs, tests will often be needed to quantify the level of shrinkage. Spot, line, or wedge-shaped heating techniques can all be used in thermal correction of distortion. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

7.2.1 Spot heating Spot heating for correcting buckling. Spot heating is used to remove buckling, for example when a relatively thin shee t has been welded to a stiff frame. Distortion is corrected by spot heating on t he convex side. If the buckling is regular, the spots can be arranged symmetrica lly, starting at the centre of the buckle and working outwards. 7.2.2 Line heati ng Line heating to correct angular distortion in a fillet weld. Heating in straight lines is often used to correct angular distortion, for examp le, in fillet welds. The component is heated along the line of the welded joint but on the opposite side to the weld so the induced stresses will pull the flang e flat. 7.2.3 Wedge-shaped heating To correct distortion in larger complex fabri cations it may be necessary to heat whole areas in addition to employing line he ating. The pattern aims at shrinking one part of the fabrication to pull the mat erial back into shape. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Use of wedge shaped heating to straighten plate. Apart from spot heating of thin panels, a wedge-shaped heating zone should be us ed from base to apex and the temperature profile should be uniform through the p late thickness. For thicker section material, it may be necessary to use two tor ches, one on each side of the plate. As a general guideline, to straighten a cur ved plate wedge dimensions should be: Length of wedge - two-thirds of the plate width. Width of wedge (base) - one sixth of its length (base to apex). The degre e of straightening will typically be 5mm in a 3m length of plate. Wedge-shaped h eating can be used to correct distortion in a variety of situations, (see below) : Standard rolled section, which needs correction in two planes a) Buckle at edg e of plate as an alternative to rolling b) Box section fabrication, which is dis torted out of plane c) a) Standard rolled steel section b) Buckled edge of plate c) Box fabrication Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

7.2.4 General precautions The dangers of using thermal straightening techniques are th e risk of overshrinking too large an area or causing metallurgical changes by he ating to too high a temperature. As a general rule, when correcting distortion i n steels the temperature of the area should be restricted to approximately to 60 0-650C - dull red heat. If the heating is interrupted, or the heat lost, the oper ator must allow the metal to cool and then begin again. 7.2.5 Best practice for distortion correction by thermal heating The following should be adopted when using thermal techniques to remove distortion: Use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures. Other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped heating technique. Use line heating to correct angula r distortion in plate. Restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component. Limit the temperature to 600-650C (dull red heat) in steels to prevent metallurgical damage. In wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the w edge, penetrate evenly through the plate thickness and maintain an even temperat ure. Rev 1 January 2010 Residual Stress and Distortion Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 Introduction The term weldability simply means the ability to be welded and many types of ste el that are weldable have been developed for a wide range of applications. Howev er, it is the ease or difficulty of making a weld with suitable properties and f ree from defects which determines whether steels are considered as having good we ldability or said to have poor weldability. A steel is usually said to have poor weldability if it is necessary take special precautions to avoid a particular ty pe of imperfection. Another reason may be the need to weld within a very narrow range of parameters to achieve properties required for the joint. 2 Factors That Affect Weldability A number of inter-related factors determine whether a steel is said to have good or poor weldability. These are: Actual chemical composition Weld joint configur ation Welding process to be used Properties required from the weldment For steels with poor weldability it is particularly necessary to ensure that: We lding procedure specifications give welding conditions that do not cause crackin g but achieve the specified properties Welders work strictly in accordance with the specified welding conditions Welding inspectors regularly monitor welders to ensure they are working strictly in accordance the WPSs Having a good understan ding of the characteristics, causes, and ways of avoiding imperfections in steel weldments should enable welding inspectors to focus attention on the most influ ential welding parameters when steels with poor weldability are being used. 3 Hydrogen Cracking During fabrication by welding, cracks can occur in some types of steel, due to t he presence of hydrogen. The technical name for this type of cracking is hydroge n induced cold cracking (HICC) but it is often referred to by other names that d escribe various characteristics of hydrogen cracks: Cold cracking - cracks occur when the weld has cooled down HAZ cracking - cracks tend to occur mainly in the HAZ Delayed cracking - cracks may occur some time after welding has finished (p ossibly up to ~48h) Underbead cracking - cracks occur in the HAZ beneath a weld bead Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Although most hydrogen cracks occur in the HAZ, there are circumstances when the y may form in weld metal. Figure 1 shows typical locations of HAZ hydrogen crack s. Figure 2 shows hydrogen crack in the HAZ of a fillet weld. 3.1 Factors influencing susceptibility to hydrogen cracking Hydrogen cracking in the HAZ of a steel occurs when 4 conditions exist at the sa me time: Hydrogen level > 15ml/100g of weld metal deposited Stress > 0.5 of the yield stress Temperature < 3000C Susceptible microstructure > 400HV hardness These four conditions (four factors) are mutually interdependent so that the inf luence of one condition (its active level) depends on how active the others three factors are. 3.2 Cracking mechanism Hydrogen (H) can enter the molten weld metal when hydrogen containing molecules are broken down into H atoms in the welding arc. Because H atoms are very small they can move about (diffuse) in solid steel and while weld metal is hot they ca n diffuse to the weld surface and escape into the atmosphere. However, at lower temperatures H cannot diffuse as quickly and if the weldment cools down quickly to ambient temperature H will become trapped - usually the HAZ. If the HAZ has a susceptible microstructure indicated by being relatively hard and brittle, ther e are also relatively high tensile stresses in the weldment then H cracking can occur. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The precise mechanism that causes cracks to form is complex but H is believed to cause embrittlement of regions of the HAZ so that high-localised stresses cause cracking rather than plastic straining. 3.3 Avoiding HAZ hydrogen cracking Because the factors that cause cracking are interdependent, and each need to be at an active level at the same time, cracking can be avoided by ensuring that at least one of the four factors is not active during welding. Methods that can be used to minimise the influence of each of the four factors are considered in th e following sub-sections. Hydrogen The principal source of hydrogen is moisture (H2O) and the principal source of moisture is welding flux. Some fluxes contain cellulose and this can be a very active source of hydrogen. Welding processes th at do not require flux can be regarded as low hydrogen processes. Other sources of hydrogen are moisture present in rust or scale, and oils and greases (hydroca rbons). Reducing the influence of hydrogen is possible by: Ensuring that (coated electrodes, flux-cored wires and SAW fluxes) are low in H when welding c ommences Low H electrodes must be either baked & then stored in a hot holding ov en or supplied in vacuum-sealed packages; Basic agglomerated SAW fluxes should b e kept in a heated silo before issue to maintain their as-supplied, low moisture , condition Check the diffusible hydrogen content of the weld metal (sometimes i t is specified on the test certificate) Ensuring that a low H condition is maint ained throughout welding by not allowing fluxes to pick-up moisture from the atm osphere Low hydrogen electrodes must be issued in small quantities and the expos ure time limited; heated quivers facilitate this control; Flux-cored wire spools t hat are not seamless should be covered or returned to a suitable storage conditi on when not in use; Basic agglomerated SAW fluxes should be returned to the heat ed silo when welding is not continuous Check the amount of moisture present in t he shielding gas by checking the dew point (must be bellow -60C) Ensuring that th e weld zone is dry and free from rust/scale and oil/grease Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Tensile stress There are always tensile stresses acting on a weld because there are always residual stresses from welding. The magnitude of the tensile stresses is mainly dependent on the thickness of the steel at the joint, heat input, joi nt type, and size and weight of the components being welded. Tensile stresses in highly restrained joints may be as high as the yield strength of the steel and this is usually the case in large components with thick joints and it is not a f actor that can easily be controlled. The only practical ways of reducing the inf luence of residual stresses may be by: Avoiding stress concentrations due to poo r fit-up Avoiding poor weld profile (sharp weld toes) Applying a stress-relief h eat treatment after welding Increasing the travel speed as practicable in order to reduce the heat input Keeping weld metal volume to an as low level as possibl e These measures are particularly important when welding some low alloy steels t hat have particularly sensitivity to hydrogen cracking. Susceptible HAZ microstr ucture A susceptible HAZ microstructure is one that contains a relatively high p roportion of hard brittle phases of steel - particularly martensite. The HAZ har dness is a good indicator of susceptibility and when it exceeds a certain value a particular steel is considered to be susceptible. For C and C-Mn steels this h ardness value is ~ 350HV and susceptibility to H cracking increases as hardness increases above this value. The maximum hardness of an HAZ is influenced by: Che mical composition of the steel Cooling rate of the HAZ after each weld run is ma de. For C and C-Mn steels a formula has been developed to assess how the chemica l composition will influence the tendency for significant HAZ hardening - the ca rbon equivalent value (CEV) formula. The CEV formula most widely used (and adopt ed by IIW) is: CEViiw = % C + %Mn + %Cr + %Mo + %V 6 5 + %Ni + %Cu 15 Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The CEV of a steel is calculated by inserting the material test certificate valu es shown for chemical composition into the formula. The higher the CEV of a stee l the greater its susceptibility to HAZ hardening and therefore the greater the susceptibility to H cracking. The element with most influence on HAZ hardness is carbon. The faster the rate of HAZ cooling after each weld run, the greater the tendency for hardening. Cooling rate tends to increase as: Heat input decreases (lower energy input) Joint thickness increases (bigger heat sink) Avoiding a su sceptible HAZ microstructure (for C and C-Mn steels) requires: Procuring steel w ith a CEV that is at the low-end of the range for the steel grade(limited scope of effectiveness) Using moderate welding heat input so that the weld does not co ol quickly (and give HAZ hardening) Applying pre-heat so that the HAZ cools more slowly (and does not show significant HAZ hardening); in multi-run welds, maint ain a specific interpass temperature For low alloy steels, with additions of ele ments such as Cr, Mo and V, the CEV formula is not applicable and so must not be used to judge the susceptibility to hardening. The HAZ of these steels will alw ays tend to be relatively hard regardless of heat input and pre-heat and so this is a factor that cannot be effectively controlled to reduce the risk of H crackin g. This is the reason why some of the low alloy steels have greater tendency to show hydrogen cracking than in weldable C and C-Mn steels, which enable HAZ hard ness to be controlled. Weldment at low temperature Weldment temperature has a ma jor influence on susceptibility to cracking mainly by influencing the rate at wh ich H can move (diffuse) through the weld and HAZ. While a weld is relatively wa rm (>~300C) H will diffuse quite rapidly and escape into the atmosphere rather th an be trapped and cause embrittlement. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Reducing the influence of low weldment temperature (and the risk of trapping H i n the weldment) can be effected by: Applying a suitable pre-heat temperature (ty pically 50 to ~250C) Preventing the weld from cooling down quickly after each pas s by maintaining the preheat and the specific interpass temperature during weldi ng Maintaining the pre-heat temperature (or raising it to ~250C) when welding has finished and holding the joint at this temperature for a number of hours (minim um 2) to facilitate the escape of H (called postheat *) *Post-heat must not be c onfused with PWHT at a temperature ~600C 3.4 Hydrogen cracking in weld metal Hydrogen cracks can form in steel weld metal under certain circumstances. The me chanism of cracking, and identification of all the influencing factors, is less clearly understood than for HAZ cracking but it can occur when welding condition s cause H to become trapped in weld metal rather than in HAZ. However it is reco gnised that welds in higher strength materials, thicker sections and using large beads are the most common areas where problems arise. Hydrogen cracks in weld m etal usually lie at 45 to the direction of principal tensile stress in the weld m etal and this is usually the longitudinal axis of the weld (Figure 3). In some c ases the cracks are of a V formation, hence an alternative name chevron cracking . There are not any well-defined rules for avoiding weld metal hydrogen cracks a part from: Ensure a low hydrogen welding process is used Apply preheat and maint ain a specific interpass temperature BS EN 1011-2 entitled Welding Recommendation s for welding of metallic materials Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels gives in Annex C practical guidelines about how to avoid H cracking. Practical control s are based principally on the application of pre-heat and control of potential H associated with the welding process. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4 Solidification Cracking The technically correct name for cracks that form during weld metal solidificati on is solidification cracks but other names are sometimes used when referring to this type of cracking Hot cracking - they occur at high temperatures while the weld is hot Centreline cracking - cracks may appear down the centreline of the w eld bead Crater cracking - small cracks in weld craters are solidification crack s Because a weld metal may be particularly susceptible to solidification crackin g it may be said to show hot shortness because it is short of ductility when hot and so tends to crack. Figure 4 shows a transverse section of a weld with a typ ical centreline solidification crack. 4.1 Factors influencing susceptibility to solidification cracking Solidification cracking occurs when three conditions exist at the same time: Wel d metal has a susceptible chemical composition Welding conditions used give an u nfavourable bead shape High level of restraint or tensile stresses present in th e weld area 4.2 Cracking mechanism All weld metals solidify over a temperature range and since solidification start s at the fusion line towards the centreline of the weld pool, during the last st ages of weld bead solidification there may be enough liquid present to form a we ak zone in the centre of the bead. This liquid film is the result of low melting point constituents being pushed ahead of the solidification front. During solid ification, tensile stresses start to build-up due to contraction of the solid pa rts of the weld bead, and it is these stresses that can cause the weld bead to r upture. These circumstances result in a weld bead showing a centreline crack tha t is present as soon as the bead has been deposited. Centreline solidification c racks tend to be surface breaking at some point in their length and can be easil y seen during visual inspection because they tend to be relatively wide cracks. 4.3 Avoiding solidification cracking Avoiding solidification cracking requires the influence of one of the factors re sponsible, to be reduced to an inactive level. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Weld metal composition Most C and C-Mn steel weld metals made by modern steelmak ing methods do not have chemical compositions that are particularly sensitive to solidification cracking. However, these weld metals can become sensitive to thi s type of cracking if they are contaminated with elements, or compounds, that pr oduce relatively low melting point films in weld metal. Sulphur and copper are e lements that can make steel weld metal sensitive to solidification cracking if t hey are present in the weld at relatively high levels. Sulphur contamination may lead to the formation of iron sulphides that remain liquid when the bead has co oled down as low as ~980C, whereas bead solidification starts at above 1400C. The source of sulphur may be contamination by oil or grease or it could be picked up from the less refined parent steel being welded by dilution into the weld. Copp er contamination in weld metal can be similarly harmful because it has low solub ility in steel and can form films that are still molten at ~1100C. Avoiding solid ification cracking (of an otherwise non-sensitive weld metal) requires the avoid ance of contamination with potentially harmful materials by ensuring: Weld joint s are thoroughly cleaned immediately before welding Any copper containing weldin g accessories are suitable/in suitable condition - such as backing-bars and cont act tips used for GMAW, FCAW and SAW Unfavourable welding conditions Unfavourabl e welding conditions are those that encourage weld beads to solidify so that low melting point films become trapped at the centre of a solidifying weld bead and become the weak zones for easy crack formation. Figure 5 shows a weld bead that has solidified using unfavourable welding conditions associated with centreline solidification cracking. The weld bead has a cross-section that is quite deep a nd narrow a widthto-depth ratio <~2 and the solidifying dendrites have pushed th e lower melting point liquid to the centre of the bead where it has become trapp ed. Since the surrounding material is shrinking as a result of cooling, this fil m would be subjected to tensile stress, which leads to cracking. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

In contrast, Figure 6 shows a bead that has a width-to-depth ratio that is >>2. This bead shape shows lower melting point liquid pushed ahead of the solidifying dendrites but it does not become trapped at the bead centre. Thus, even under t ensile stresses resulting from cooling, this film is selfhealing and cracking is avoided SAW and spray-transfer GMAW are more likely to give weld beads with an unfavourable width-to-depth ratio than the other arc welding processes. Also, el ectron beam and laser welding processes are extremely sensitive to this kind of cracking as a result of the deep, narrow beads produced. Avoiding unfavourable w elding conditions that lead to centreline solidification cracking (of weld metal s with sensitive compositions) may require significant changes to welding parame ters, such as reducing the: Welding current (to give a shallower bead) and Weldi ng speed (to give a wider weld bead) Avoiding unfavourable welding conditions th at lead to crater cracking of a sensitive weld metal requires changes to the tec hnique used at the end of a weld when the arc is extinguished, such as: For TIG welding, use a current slope-out device so that the current, and weld pool depth gradually reduce before the arc is extinguished (gives more favourable weld bea d width-to-depth ratio). It is also a common practice to backtrack the bead slig htly before breaking the arc or lengthen the arc gradually to avoid crater crack s. For TIG welding, modify weld pool solidification mode by feeding the filler w ire into the pool until solidification is almost complete and avoiding a concave crater For MMA, modify the weld pool solidification mode by reversing the direc tion of travel at the end of the weld run so that crater is filled Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5 Lamellar Tearing Lamellar tearing is a type of cracking that occurs only in steel plate or other rolled products underneath a weld. Characteristics of lamellar tearing are: Crac ks only occur in the rolled products eg plate and sections. Most common in C-Mn steels Cracks usually form close to, but just outside, the HAZ Cracks tend to li e parallel to surface of the material (and the fusion boundary of the weld), hav ing a stepped aspect The above characteristics can be seen in Figure 7a. 5.1 Factors influencing susceptibility to lamellar tearing Lamellar tearing occurs when two conditions exist at the same time: A susceptibl e rolled plate is used to make a weld joint High stresses act in the through-thi ckness direction of the susceptible material (known as the short-transverse dire ction) Susceptible rolled plate A material that is susceptible to lamellar teari ng has very low ductility in the through-thickness direction (short-transverse d irection) and is only able to accommodate the residual stresses from welding by tearing rather than by plastic straining. Low through-thickness ductility in rol led products is caused by the presence of numerous non-metallic inclusions in th e form of elongated stringers. The inclusions form in the ingot but are flattene d and elongated during hot rolling of the material. Non-metallic inclusions asso ciated with lamellar tearing are principally manganese sulphides and manganese s ilicates. High through-thickness stress Weld joints that are T, K and Y configur ations end up with a tensile residual stress component in the through-thickness direction. The magnitude of the through-thickness stress increases as the restra int (rigidity) of the joint increases. Section thickness and size of weld are th e main influencing factors and it is in thick section, full penetration T, K and Y joints that lamellar tearing is more likely to occur. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5.2 Cracking mechanism High stresses in the through-thickness direction, that are present as welding re sidual stresses, cause the inclusion stringers to open-up (de-cohese) and the th in ligaments between individual de-cohesed inclusions then tear and produce a st epped crack. Figure 7b shows a typical step-like lamellar tear. 5.3 Avoiding lamellar tearing Lamellar tearing can be avoided by reducing the influence of one, or both, of th e factors. Susceptible rolled plate EN 10164 (Steel products with improved defor mation properties perpendicular to the surface of the product Technical delivery conditions) gives guidance on the procurement of plate to resist lamellar teari ng. Resistance to lamellar tearing can be evaluated by means of tensile test pie ces taken with their axes perpendicular to the plate surface (the throughthickne ss direction). Through-thickness ductility is measured as the % reduction of are a (%R of A) at the point of fracture of the tensile test piece (Figure 8). The g reater the measured %R of A, the greater the resistance to lamellar tearing. Val ues in excess of ~20% indicate good resistance even in very highly constrained j oints. Reducing the susceptibility of rolled plate to lamellar tearing can be ac hieved by ensuring that it has good through-thickness ductility by: Using clean steel that has low sulphur content (<~0.015%) and consequently has relatively fe w inclusions Procuring steel plate that has been subjected to through-thickness tensile testing to demonstrate good through-thickness ductility (as EN 10164) Th rough-thickness stress Through thickness stress in T, K and Y joints is principa lly the residual stress from welding, although the additional service stress may have some influence. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Reducing the magnitude of through-thickness stresses for a particular weld joint would require modification to the joint, in some way, and so may not always be practical because of the need to satisfy design requirements. However, methods t hat could be considered are: Reducing the size of the weld by: Using a partial p enetration butt weld instead of full-penetration Using fillet welds instead of a full, or a partial pen. butt weld (Figure 9) By applying a buttering layer of w eld metal to the surface of a susceptible plate so that the highest through-thic kness strain is located in the weld metal and not the susceptible plate (Figure 10) Changing the joint design such as using a forged or extruded intermediate pi ece so that the susceptible plate does not experience through-thickness stress ( Figure 11) Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

FIGURES: Figure 1 Typical locations of hydrogen induced cold cracks. Figure 2 Hydrogen induced cold crack that initiated the HAZ at the toe of a fill et weld. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

X a) tTransverse cracks Y b) Weld layers with cracks lying at 45 to X-Y axis Figure 3 a) Plan view of a plate butt weld showing subsurface transverse cracks; b Longitudinal section X-Y of the above weld showing how the transverse cracks actually lie at 45 to the surface. They tend to remain within an individual weld run and may be in weld several layers. Their appearance in this orientation has given rise to the name chevron cracks (arrow shaped cracks). Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

a b Figure 4 a) Solidification crack at the weld bean centre where columnar dendrite s have trapped some lower melting point liquid b) The weld bead does not have an ideal shape but it has solidified without the dendrites meeting end-on and trappi ng lower melting point liquid thereby resisting solidification cracking. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

W D W/D < 2 Direction of travel Figure 5 A weld bead with an unfavourable width-to-depth ratio. This is responsi ble for liquid metal being pushed into the centre of the bead by the advancing c olumnar dendrites and becoming the weak zone that is ruptured. W D W/D > ~2 Direction of travel Figure 6 Weld bead with a favourable width-to-depth ratio. The dendrites push th e lowest melting point metal towards the surface at the centre of the bead centr e and so it does not form a weak central zone. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Fusion boundary HAZ a) Through-thickness residual stresses from welding De-cohesion of inclusion i Crack propagation by tearing of ligaments between de-cohesed inclusion stringers Inclusion stringer b) Figure 7: a) Typical lamellar tear located just outside the visible HAZ b) Steplike crack characteristic of a lamellar tear. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Plate surface Through-thickness tensile test piece Reduction of diameter at point of fracture Plate surface Figure 8 Round tensile test piece taken with its axis in the short-transverse di rection (through thickness of plate) to measure the % R. of A. and assess the pl ates resistance to lamellar tearing. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Susceptible plate Susceptible plate Figure 9 Reducing the effective size of a weld will reduce the through-thickness stress on the susceptible plate and may be sufficient to reduce the risk of lam ellar tearing. Susceptible plate Extruded section Figure 10 Lamellar tearing can be avoided by changing the joint design. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Weld metal buttering Susceptible plate Figure 11 Two layers of weld metal (usually by MMA) applied to susceptible plate before the T-butt weld is made. Rev 1 January 2010 Weldability of Steels Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Welds may suffer three different fracture mechanisms: Ductile Brittle Fatigue Of ten a complete fracture of a weldment will be a combination of fracture types eg initially fatigue followed by final ductile fracture. 1 Ductile Fractures Occur in instances where the strength and the cross-sectional area of the materi al are insufficient to carry the applied load. Such fractures are commonly seen on material and welding procedure tensile test specimens where failure is accomp anied by yielding, stretching and thinning as shown below. The fracture edges are at 45 to the applied load and are known as shear lips. Brittle fracture Is a fast, unstable type of fracture which can lead to catastrophic failure. The phenomenon was first identified during World War 2 when many Liberty Ships brok e in two for no apparent reason. Since that time many brittle failures have occu rred in bridges, boilers, pressure vessels etc sometimes with loss of life and a lways with expensive damage. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Fractures Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The risk of brittle fracture increases; As the temperature (ambient or operation al) decreases With the type and increasing thickness of the material Where high levels of residual stresses are present In the presence of notches. Increased st rain rate ie speed of loading Courtesy of Douglas E. Williams, P.E., Welding Handbook, Vol.1, Ninth Edition, r eprinted by permission of the American Welding Society Eeffect of notch on a tensile specimen. Distinguishing features of a brittle fracture are: Surface is flat and at 90 to t he applied load. Will show little or no plastic deformation The surface will be rough and may be crystalline in appearance. May show chevrons which will point b ack to the initiation source. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Fractures Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Brittle fracture surface on a CTOD test piece. Fatigue fracture Fatigue fractures occur in situations where loading is of a cyclic nature and at stress levels well below the yield stress of the material. Typically fatigue cr acks will be found on bridges, cranes, aircraft and items affected by out of bal ance or vibrating forces. Initiation takes place from stress concentrations such as changes of section, arc- strikes, toes of welds. Even the best designed and made welds have some degree of stress concentration. As fatigue cracks take time firstly to initiate then to grow, this slow progression allows such cracks to b e found by regular inspection schedules on those items known to be fatigue sensi tive. The growth rate of fatigue cracks is dependant on the loading and the numb er of cycles. It is not time dependant Fatigue failures are not restricted to an y one type of material or temperature range. Stress-relief has little effect upo n fatigue life. Structures known to be at risk of fatigue failure are usually de signed to codes that acknowledge the risk and lays down the rules and calculatio ns to predict its design life. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Fractures Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Typical fatigue fracture in a T joint. Identifying features of fatigue fracture are: Very smooth fracture surface, alth ough may have steps due to multiple initiation points. Bounded by curved crack f ront Bands may be visible indicating crack progression. Initiation point opposit e curve crack front Surface at 90 to applied loading Fatigue cracks sometimes stop of their own accord if the crack runs into an area of low stress. On the other hand they may grow until the remaining cross-sectio n in insufficient to support the applied loads. At this point final failure will take place by a secondary mechanism ie ductile or brittle. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Fractures Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Assessment of fracture surfaces The Senior Welding Inspectors examination requires fracture surfaces to be assess ed. This should be done in the following manner: Make a sketch of the fracture s pecimen. Indicate on the sketch the salient features ie initiation point (Note: There may be more than one ignition point), the first mode of failure and the se cond mode of failure, if there is one. For each of these indicated features desc ribe what it is and how you recognised it. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Fractures Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

A weld joint can be represented on an engineering drawing by means of a detailed sketch showing every detail and dimension of the joint preparation - as shown b elow. 8-12 R6 1-3mm 1-4mm Single U preparation While this method of representation gives comprehensive information, it can be t ime-consuming and can also overburden the drawing. An alternative method is to u se a symbolic representation to specify the required information - as shown belo w for the same joint detail. Symbolic representation has following advantages: Simple and quick to put on the drawing Does not over-burden the drawing No need for an additional view - all w elding symbols can be put on the main assembly drawing Symbolic representation h as following disadvantages: Can only be used for standard joints (eg BS EN ISO 9 692) There is not a way of giving precise dimensions for joint details Some trai ning is necessary in order to interpret the symbols correctly Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 Standards for Symbolic Representation of Welded Joints on Drawings There are two principal standards that are used for welding symbols: European St andard EN22553 Welded, brazed & soldered joints Symbolic representation on drawi ngs American Standard AWS A2.4 Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, & Non-dest ructive Examination These standards are very similar in many respects, but there are also some major differences that need to be understood to avoid misinterpre tation. Details of the European Standard are given in the following sub-sections with only brief information about how the American Standard differs from the Eu ropean Standard. Elementary Welding Symbols Various types of weld joint are repr esented by a symbol that is intended to help interpretation by being similar to the shape of the weld to be made. Examples of symbols used by EN 22553 are shown on following pages. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2 Elementary Welding Symbols Designation Square butt weld Illustration of joint preparation Symbol Single V butt weld Single bevel butt weld Single V butt weld with broad root face Single bevel butt weld with broad root face Single U butt weld Single J butt weld Fillet weld Surfacing (cladding) Backing run (back or backing weld) Backing bar Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3 Combination of Elementary Symbols For symmetrical welds made from both sides, the applicable elementary symbols ar e combined as shown below. Designation Double V butt weld (X weld) Illustration of joint preparation Symbol Double bevel butt weld (K weld) Double U butt weld Double J butt weld Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4 Supplementary Symbols Weld symbols may be complemented by a symbol to indicate the required shape of t he weld. Examples of supplementary symbols and how they are applied are given be low. Designation Flat (flush) single V butt weld Illustration of joint preparati on Symbol Convex double V butt weld Concave fillet weld Flat (flush) single V butt weld with flat (flush) backing run Single V butt weld with broad root face and backing run Fillet weld with both toes blended smoothl y Note: If the weld symbol does not have a supplementary symbol then the shape of the weld surface does not need to be indicated precisely. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5 Position of Symbols on Drawings In order to be able to provide comprehensive details for weld joints, it is nece ssary to distinguish the two sides of the weld joint. The way this is done, acco rding to EN 22553, is by means of: An arrow line A dual reference line consistin g of a continuous line and a dashed line Below illustrates the method of represe ntation. 3 2a 1 1 = Arrow line 2a = Reference line (continuous line) 2b = Identification line (dashed line) 3 = Welding symbol (single V joint) 2b Joint line 6 Relationship between the Arrow Line and the Joint Line One end of the joint line is called the arrow side and the opposite end is calle d other side. The arrow side is always the end of the joint line that the arrow line points to (and touches). It can be at either end of the joint line and it i s the draughtsman who decides which end to make the arrow side. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Below illustrates these principles. arrow side arrow line other side other side arrow side arrow line other side arrow side arrow side other side arrow line arrow line There are some conventions about the arrow line: It must touch one end of the jo int line It joins one end of the continuous reference line. In case of a non-sym metrical joint, such as a single bevel joint, the arrow line must point towards the joint member that will have the weld preparation put on to it (as shown belo w) An example of how a single-bevel butt joint should be represented is shown be low. 7 Position of the Reference Line and Position of the Weld Symbol The reference line should, wherever possible, be drawn parallel to the bottom ed ge of the drawing (or perpendicular to it). For a non-symmetrical weld it is ess ential that the arrow side and other side of the weld be distinguished. The conv ention for doing this is: Symbols for the weld details required on the arrow sid e must be placed on the continuous line Symbols for the weld details on other si de must be placed on the dashed line Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

8 Positions of the Continuous Line and the Dashed Line EN 22553 allows the dashed line to be either above or below the continuous line as shown below. or If the weld is a symmetrical weld then it is not necessary to distinguish betwee n the two sides and EN 22553 states that the dashed line should be omitted. Thus , a single V butt weld with a backing run can be shown by either of the four sym bolic representations shown below. Single V weld with a backing run Arrow side Other side Other side Arrow side Arrow side Other side Other side Arrow side Note: This flexibility with the position of the continuous and dashed lines is a n interim measure that EN 22553 allows so that old drawings (to the obsolete BS 499 Part 2, for example) can be conveniently converted to show the EN method of representation. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

9 Dimensioning of Welds General rules Dimensions may need to be specified for some types of weld and EN 22553 specifies a convention for this. Dimensions for the cross-section of the w eld are written on the left-hand side of the symbol Length dimensions for the we ld are written on the righthand side of the symbol In the absence of any indicat ion to the contrary, all butt welds are full penetration welds 9.1 Symbols for cross-section The following letters are thickness Fillet weld leg ation butt welds and deep dimensions used to indicate dimensions: a Z s Fillet weld throat length Penetration depth (Applicable to partial penetr penetration fillets.)

Some examples of how these symbols are used are shown below. Partial penetration single V butt weld s10 Z8 Fillet weld with 8mm leg 8mm Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

a6 Fillet weld with 6mm throat 6mm 9.2 Symbols for length dimensions To specify weld length dimensions and, for intermittent welds the number of indi vidual weld lengths (weld elements), the following letters are used: l Length of weld (e) Distance between adjacent weld elements n Number of weld elements The use of these letters is illustrated for the intermittent double-sided fillet weld shown below. 100mm 150mm Plan view End view z z n l (e) z z n l (e) n l (e) Z8 Z8 z z n l (e) n l (e) 3 150 (100) 3 150 (100) n l (e) Note: dashed line not required because it is a symmetrical weld Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

If an intermittent double-sided fillet weld is to be staggered, the convention f or indicating this is shown below. l (e) z Plan view End view z z n l (e) n l (e) 9.3 Complementary indications Complementary indications may be needed to specify other characteristics of weld s. Examples are: Field or site welds is indicated by a flag A peripheral weld, to be made all around a part, is indicated by a circle Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

10 Indication of the Welding Process If required, the welding process is to be symbolised by a number written between the two branches of a fork at the end of the reference line as shown below. Some welding process designations 111 111 = MMA 121 = SAW 131 = MIG 135 = MAG 141 = TIG 11 Other Information in the Tail of the Reference Line In addition to specifying the welding process, other information can be added to an open tail (shown above) such as the NDT acceptance level the working positio n and the filler metal type and EN 22553 defines the sequence that must be used for this information. A closed tail can also be used into which reference to a s pecific instruction can be added as shown below. WPS 014 12 Weld Symbols in Accordance with AWS 2.4 Many of the symbols and conventions that are specified by EN 22553 are the same as those used by AWS. The major differences are: Only one reference line is used (a continuous line) Symbols for weld details on the arrow side go underneath th e reference line Symbols for weld details on the other side go on top of the ref erence line Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

These differences are illustrated by the following example. Arrow Other side 13 Drawing Review Drawings are often made by personnel not familiar with the relevant symbol rules which results in drawings that are difficult to interpret or ambiguous in their intent. As part of the CSWIP 3.2 examination candidates will need to demonstrat e their competence at interpreting such an engineering drawing in respect of its welding symbols. To do this: The candidate first needs to establish the symbol system being used. Next study the views and part sections of the object so that it can be visualised in its manufactured form. For each of the designated symbol s, draw a sketch of what the joint will look like according to the symbol. Next describe the joint in words, together with any supplementary information, eg fie ld weld, ground flush, welding process, other places, etc. which has been given. If any thing is wrong with the symbol such as the dashed line is missing, the s ymbol is the wrong way around, the described joint cannot be put on the material in the manner shown, write down the problem but do not suggest how it should be made. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Symbols Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Introduction Radiographic, ultrasonic, dye-penetrant and magnetic particle metho ds are briefly described below. The relative advantages and limitations of the m ethods are discussed in terms of their applicability to the examination of welds . 1 Radiographic Methods In all cases radiographic methods as applied to welds involve passing a beam of penetrating radiation through the test object. The transmitted radiation is coll ected by some form of sensor, which is capable of measuring the relative intensi ties of penetrating radiations impinging upon it. In most cases this sensor will be a radiographic film; however the use of various electronic devices is on the increase. These devices facilitate so-called real time radiography and examples may be seen in the security check area at most airports. Digital technology has enabled the storing of radiographs using computers. The present discussion is c onfined to film radiography since this is still by far the most common method ap plied to welds. 1.1 Sources of penetrating radiation Penetrating radiations may be generated from high-energy electron beams, in whic h case they are termed X rays, or from nuclear disintegrations (atomic fission), in which case they are termed -rays. Other forms of penetrating radiation exist but they are of limited interest in weld radiography. 1.2 X rays X rays used in the industrial radiography of welds generally have photon energie s in the range 30keV up to 20MeV. Up to 400keV they are generated by conventiona l X ray tubes which dependant upon output may be suitable for portable or fixed installations. Portability falls off rapidly with increasing kilovoltage and rad iation output. Above 400keV X rays are produced using devices such as betatrons and linear accelerators. These devices are not generally suitable for use outsid e of fixed installations. All sources of X rays produce a continuous spectrum of radiation, reflecting the spread of kinetic energies of electrons within the el ectron beam. Low energy radiations are more easily absorbed and the presence of low energy radiations, within the X ray beam, gives rise to better radiographic contrast and therefore better radiographic sensitivity than is the case with -ray s which are discussed below. Conventional X ray units are capable of performing high quality radiography on steel of up to 60mm thickness, betatrons and linear accelerators are capable of penetrating in excess of 300mm of steel. Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1.3 -rays The early sources of -rays used in industrial radiography were in general compose d of naturally occurring radium. The activity of these sources was not very high , therefore they were physically rather large by modern standards even for quite modest outputs of radiation and the radiographs produced by them were not of a particularly high standard. Radium sources were also extremely hazardous to the user due to the production of radioactive radon gas as a product of the fission reaction. Since the advent of the nuclear age it has been possible to artificial ly produce isotopes of much higher specific activity than those occurring natura lly and which do not produce hazardous fission products. Unlike the X-ray source s -sources do not produce a continuous distribution of quantum energies. -sources produce a number of specific quantum energies which are unique for any particula r isotope. Four isotopes are in common use for the radiography of welds; they ar e in ascending order of radiation energy: thulium 90, ytterbium 169, iridium 192 and cobalt 60. In terms of steel thulium 90 is useful up to a thickness of 7mm or so, its energy is similar to that of 90keV X rays and due to its high specific activity useful sources can be produced with physical dimensions of less than 0. 5mm. Ytterbium 169 has only fairly recently become available as an isotope for i ndustrial use, its energy is similar to that of 120keV X rays and it is useful fo r the radiography of steel up to approximately 12mm thickness. Iridium 192 is pr obably the most commonly encountered isotopic source of radiation used in the ra diographic examination of welds, it has a relatively high specific activity and high output sources with physical dimensions of 2-3mm are in common usage, its en ergy is approximately equivalent to that of 500 keV X rays and it is useful for the radiography of steel in the thickness range 10-75mm. Cobalt 60 has an energy approximating to that of 1.2MeV X rays, due this relatively high energy suitabl e source containers are large and rather heavy. Cobalt 60 sources are for this r eason not fully portable. They are useful for the radiography of steel in the th ickness range 40-150mm. The major advantages of using isotopic sources over X ra ys are: a) The increased portability; b) The lack of the need for a power source ; c) Lower initial equipment costs. Against this the quality of radiographs prod uced by -ray techniques is inferior to that produced by X ray techniques, the haz ards to personnel may be increased (if the equipment is not properly maintained, or if the operating personnel have insufficient training), and due to their lim ited useful lifespan new isotopes have to be purchased on a regular basis (so th at the operating costs of a -ray source may exceed those of an X ray source). Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1.4 Radiography of welds Radiographic techniques depend upon detecting differences in absorption of the b eam ie: changes in the effective thickness of the test object, in order to revea l defective areas. Volumetric weld defects such as slag inclusions (except in so me special cases where the slag absorbs radiation to a greater extent than does the weld metal) and various forms of gas porosity are easily detected by radiogr aphic techniques due to the large negative absorption difference between the par ent metal and the slag or gas. Planar defects such as cracks or lack of side wal l or interun fusion are much less likely to be detected by radiography since suc h defects may cause little or no change in the penetrated thickness. Where defec ts of this type are likely to occur other NDE techniques such as ultrasonic test ing are preferable to radiography. This lack of sensitivity to planar defects ma kes radiography an unsuitable technique where a fitness-for-purpose approach is taken when assessing the acceptability of a weld. However, film radiography prod uces a permanent record of the weld condition, which can be archived for future reference; it also provides an excellent means of assessing the welders performan ce and for these reasons it is often still the preferred method for new construc tion. Figure 1: X ray equipment Figure 2 Gamma-ray equipment Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Figure 3: X ray of a welded seam showing porosity 1.5

Radiographic testing Advantages Limitations Health hazard. Safety (important) Permanent record fied workers, medicals required Good for sizing non planar Sensitive to defect o rientation defects/flaws Can be used on all materials Not good for planar defect detection Direct image of defects/flaws Limited ability to detect fine cracks R eal-time imaging Access to both sides required Can be position inside pipe Skill ed interpretation required (productivity) Relatively slow Very good thickness Hi gh capital outlay and running costs penetration available Isotopes have a half l ife (cost) No power required with gamma Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2 Ultrasonic Methods The velocity of ultrasound in any given material is a constant for that material and ultrasonic beams travel in straight lines in homogeneous materials. When ul trasonic waves pass from a given material with a given sound velocity to a secon d material with different velocity refraction and reflection of the sound beam w ill occur at the boundary between the two materials. The same laws of physics ap ply equally to ultrasonic waves as they do to light waves. Because ultrasonic wa ves are refracted at a boundary between two materials having different acoustic properties, probes may be constructed which can beam sound into a material at (w ithin certain limits) any given angle. Because sound is reflected at a boundary between two materials having different acoustic properties ultrasound is a usefu l tool for the detection of weld defects. Because the velocity is a constant for any given material and because sound travels in a straight line (with the right equipment) ultrasound can also be utilised to give accurate positional informat ion about a given reflector. Careful observation of the echo pattern of a given reflector and its behaviour as the ultrasonic probe is moved together with the p ositional information obtained above and knowledge of the component history enab les the experienced ultrasonic operator to classify the reflector as say slag la ck of fusion or a crack. 2.1

Equipment for ultrasonic testing Equipment for manual ultrasonic testing consists of: A) B) A flaw detector comp ising: Pulse generator, Adjustable time base generator with an adjustable delay control, Cathode ray tube with fully rectified display. Calibrated amplifier wit h a graduated gain control or attenuator) An ultrasonic probe comprising: Piezoelectric crystal element capable of converting electrical vibrations to mechanic al vibrations and vice-versa Probe shoe, normally a perspex block to which the c rystal is firmly attached using a suitable adhesive Electrical and/or mechanical crystal damping facilities to prevent excessive ringing Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Such equipment is lightweight and extremely portable. Automated or semiautomated systems for ultrasonic testing utilise the same basic equipment although since in general this will be multi-channel equipment it is bulkier and less portable. Probes for automated systems are set in arrays and some form of manipulator is necessary in order to feed positional information about the probes to the comput er. Automated systems generate very large amounts of data and make large demands upon the RAM of the computer. Recent advances in automated UT have led to a red uced amount of data being recorded for a given length of weld. Simplified probe arrays have greatly reduced the complexity of setting up the automated system to carry out a particular task. Automated UT systems now provide a serious alterna tive to radiography on such constructions as pipelines where a large number of s imilar inspections allow the unit cost of system development to be reduced to a competitive level. Figure 4: Ultrasonic equipment Figure 5 Compression and shear wave probes Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Figure 6 Scanning technique with a shear wave probe Figure 7 Typical screen display when using a shear wave probe 2.2 Ultrasonic testing Advantages Portable (no mains power) battery Direct location of defect (3 dimens ional) Good for complex geometry Safe operation (can be carried out next to some one) Instant results High penetrating capability Can be done from one side only Good for finding planar defects Limitations No permanent record Only ferritic ma terials (mainly) High level of operator skill required Calibration of equipment required Special calibration blocks required No good for pin pointing porosity C ritical of surface conditions (clean smooth) Will not detect surface defects Mat erial thickness >8mm due to dead zone Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3 Magnetic Particle Testing Surface breaking or very near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials give rise to leakage fields when high levels of magnetic flux are applied. Thes e leakage fields will attract magnetic particles (finely divided magnetite) to t hemselves and this process leads to the formation of an indication. The magnetic particles may be visibly or fluorescently pigmented in order to provide contras t with the substrate or conversely the substrate may be lightly coated with a wh ite background lacquer in order to contrast with the particles. Fluorescent magn etic particles provide the greatest sensitivity. The particles will normally be in a liquid suspension and this will normally be applied by spraying. In certain cases dry particles may be applied by a gentle jet of air. The technique is app licable only to ferromagnetic materials, which are at a temperature below the cu rie point (about 650C). The leakage field will be greatest for linear discontinui ties lying at right angles to the magnetic field. This means that for a comprehe nsive test the magnetic field must normally be applied in two directions, which are mutually perpendicular. The test is economical to carry out both in terms of equipment costs and rapidity of inspection. The level of operator training requ ired is relatively low. Figure 8 Magnetic particle inspection using a yoke Figure 9 Crack found using magnetic particle inspection Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3.1 Magnetic particle testing Advantages Inexpensive equipment Direct location of defect Not critical of surfa ce conditions Could be applied without power Low skill level Sub defects surface 1-2mm Quick instant results Hot testing (using dry powder) Can be used in the d ark (UV light Limitations Only magnetic materials May need to demagnetise compon ents Access may be a problem for the yoke Need power if using a yoke No permanen t record Calibration of equipment Testing in two directions required Need good l ighting 500 Lux minimum Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4 Dye Penetrant Testing Any liquid that has good wetting properties will act as a penetrant. Penetrants are attracted into surface breaking discontinuities by capillary forces. Penetra nt, which has entered a tight discontinuity, will remain even when the excess pe netrant is removed. Application of a suitable developer will encourage the penet rant within such discontinuities to bleed out. If there is a suitable contrast b etween the penetrant and the developer an indication visible to the eye will be formed. This contrast may be provided by either visible or fluorescent dyes. Use of fluorescent dyes considerably increases the sensitivity of the technique. Th e technique is not applicable at extremes of temperature. At low temperatures (b elow 5C) the penetrant vehicle, normally oil will become excessively viscous and this will cause an increase in the penetration time with a consequent decrease i n sensitivity. At high temperatures (above 60C) the penetrant will dry out and th e technique will not work. Figure 10 Methods of applying the red dye during dye-penetrant inspection Figure 11 Crack found using dye-penetrant inspection Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4.1 Dye penetrant Advantages All materials (non-porous) Portable Applicable to small parts with complex geome try Simple Inexpensive Sensitivity Relatively low skill level (easy to interpret ) Limitations Will only detect defects open to the surface Requires careful surface preparatio n Not applicable to porous surfaces Temperature dependant Cannot retest indefini tely Potentially hazardous chemicals No permanent record Time lapse between appl ication and results Messy 5 Surface Crack Detection (Magnetic Particle/Dye Penetrant): General When considering the relative value of NDE techniques it should not be forgotten that most catastrophic failures initiate from the surface of a component, there fore the value of the magnetic particle and dye Penetrant techniques should not be underestimated. Ultrasonic inspection may not detect near surface defects eas ily since the indications may be masked by echoes arising from the component geo metry and should therefore be supplemented by an appropriate surface crack detec tion technique for maximum test confidence. .

Review of NDT documentation In reviewing or carrying out an audit of NDT reports certain aspects apply to all reports whilst others are specific to a particular technique. General requirements: Date/ time/stage of inspection Place of i tion Procedure or Standard to which the test was performed Standard used for acc eptance criteria Material type and thickness Joint configuration All defects ide ntified, located and sized NDT technicians name and qualification Stamped signed and dated Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Ultrasonic specific note not suitable for all weld metal types Surf as-welded or ground Type of equipment Probe types compression and shear wave Pr obe sizes usually 10mm Probe frequency typically 2.55MHz Probe angles typically 4 5, 60 , 70, 90 Type of couplant Calibration block type and hole size Calibration range setting Scanning pattern Sensitivity setting Recording level

Radiographic specific Type of radiation X or gamma Source type, siz h (curies) Tube focal spot size and power (Kva) Technique eg single wall single image Source/focal spot to film distance Type and range of IQI Type and size of film Type and placement of intensifying screens Exposure time Development temps and times Recorded sensitivity better than 2% Recorded density range 2-3.5 Magnetic particle specific note method suitable for ferritic steels only Method wet/dry, fluorescent, contrast etc Method of magnetisation- DC or AC Equipment t ype prod, yoke, perm. magnet, bench, coils Prod spacing (7.5A/mm) Lift test for magnets 4.5kg for AC yoke, 18kg for perm. magnet Contrast paint Ink type Prod/yo ke test scan sequence 2 x at 450 to weld c/l. Lighting conditions 500 Lux min fo r daylight, 20 Lux for UV UV light -1mW/cm2 Flux measurement strips Burmah-Castr ol etc Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Penetrant specific Method colour contrast or fluorescent Surface preparat etrant type Application method and time (5-60min) Method of removal Type and app lication of developer Contrast light 500 Lux min Black light 20 Lux Operating te mperature - 5500C Rev 1 January 2010 NDT Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 Introduction Welding consumables are defined as all those things that are used up in the prod uction of a weld. This list could include many things including electrical energ y; however we normally refer to welding consumables as those things used up by a particular welding process. 1.1 MMA electrodes MMA electrodes can be categorised according to the type of covering they have an d consequently the characteristics that it confers. For C-Mn and low alloy steel s there are 3 generic types of electrodes: Cellulosic Rutile Basic These generic names indicate the type of mineral/compound that is dominant in the covering. 1.2 Covered electrode manufacture Electrode manufacturers produce electrodes by: Straightening and cutting core wi re to standard lengths (typically 300, 350, and 450mm depending on electrode cla ssification and diameter) Making a dry mix of powdered compounds/minerals (preci se levels of additions depend on individual manufacturers formulations) Making a wet mix by adding the dry powders to a liquid binder Extruding the covering (co ncentrically) on to the core wire Hardening the covering by drying the electrode s1 Carrying out batch tests - as required for electrode certification Packing th e electrodes into suitable containers Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

For low hydrogen electrodes this is a high temperature bake - ~450C Vacuum packed electrodes are packed in small quantities into packaging that is immediately vac uum sealed to ensure no moisture pick-up Electrodes that need to be re-baked are packed into standard packets and as this may be some time after baking, and the packaging may not be sealed, they do not reach the end-user in a guaranteed low hydrogen condition, they therefore require re-baking at a typical temperature o f 350C for approximately 2 hours, Note! You should always follow the manufacturers recommendations. For individual batch certification this will require the manuf acture of a test pad for chemical analysis and may require manufacture of a test weld from which a tensile test and Charpy V notch test pieces are tested 1.3 Electrode coverings Core wires used for most C-Mn electrodes, and some low alloy steel electrodes, a re a very low C steel* and it is the formulation of the covering that determines the composition of the deposited weld metal and the operating characteristics o f the electrode. (* typically ~ 0.06%C, ~0.5%Mn) The flux covering on an electro de is formulated to aid the manufacturing process and to provide a number of fun ctions during welding. The major welding functions are: Facilitate arc ignition/ re-ignition and give arc stabilisation Generate gas for shielding the arc and mo lten metal from contamination by air Interact with the molten weld metal to give de-oxidation and flux impurities into the slag to cleanse/refine the molten wel d metal Form a slag for protection of the hot weld metal from air contamination Provide elements to give the weld metal the required mechanical properties Enabl e positional welding by means of slag formers that freeze at temperatures above the solidification temperature range of the weld metal Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1.4 Inspection points for MMA consumables 1. Size: Wire diameter and length 2. Condition: Cracks, chips and concentricity 3. Type (specification): Correct specification/code E 46 3 B Checks should also be made to ensure that basic electrodes have been through the correct pre-use procedure. Having been baked to the correct temperature (typica lly 300-350C) for 1 hour and then held in a holding oven at 150C before being issu ed to the welders in heated quivers. Most electrode flux coatings will deteriora te rapidly when damp and care should be taken to inspect storage facilities to e nsure that they are adequately dry, and that all electrodes are stored in condit ions of controlled temperature and humidity. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2 Cellulosic Electrodes Cellulose is the principal substance in this type of electrode and comprising ty pically ~ 40% of the flux constituents. Cellulose is an organic material (natura lly occurring) such as cotton and wood, but it is wood pulp that is the principa l source of cellulose used in the manufacture of electrode coverings. The main c haracteristics of cellulosic electrodes are: Cellulose breaks down during weldin g and produces carbon monoxide and dioxide and hydrogen Hydrogen provides part o f the gas shielding function and gives a relatively high arc voltage The high ar c voltage gives the electrode a hard and forceful arc with good penetration/fusi on ability The volume of slag formed is relatively small Cellulosic electrodes c annot be baked during manufacture or before welding because this would destroy t he cellulose; the manufacturing procedure is to harden the coating by drying (ty pically at 70-100C) Because of the high hydrogen levels there is always some risk of H cracking which requires control measures such as hot-pass welding to facil itate the rapid escape of hydrogen Because of the risk of H cracking there are l imits on the strength/ composition and thickness of steels on which they can be used (electrode are manufactured in classes E60xx, E70xx, E80xx and E90xx but bo th lower strength grades tend to be the most commonly used) High toughness at lo w temperatures cannot be consistently achieved from this type of electrode (typi cally only down to about -20C) 2.1 Applications of cellulosic electrodes Cellulosic electrodes have characteristics that enable them to be used for verti cal-down welding at fast travel speed but with low risk of lack-of-fusion becaus e of their forceful arc. The niche application for this type of electrode is gir th seam welding of large diameter steel pipes for overland pipelines (Transco (B GAS) P2, BS 4515 and API 1104 applications). No other type of electrode has the ability to allow root pass welding at high speed and still give good root penetr ation when the root gap is less than ideal. Because of their penetration ability these electrodes have also found application on oil storage tanks for vertical and circumferential seam welding of the upper/thinner courses for which preparat ions with large root faces or square edge preparations are used. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3 Rutile Electrodes Rutile is a mineral that consists of about 90% titanium dioxide (TiO2) and is pr esent in C and C-Mn steel rutile electrodes at typically ~50%. Characteristics o f rutile electrodes are: They have a very smooth and stable arc and produce a re latively thin slag covering that is easy to remove They give a smooth weld profi le They are regarded as the most user-friendly of the various electrode types Th ey have relatively high combined moisture content and because they contain typic ally up to ~10% cellulose they cannot be baked and consequently they do not give a low H weld deposit Because of the risk of cracking they are not designed for welding of high strength or thick section steel (although electrodes are manufac tured in classes E60xx, E70xx, E80xx the E60xx grade is by far the most commonly used) They do not give high toughness at low temperatures (typically only down to about -20C) The above listed characteristics mean that this type of electrode is used for general-purpose fabrication of unalloyed, low strength steels in rel atively thin sections (typically ~13mm). 3.1 Rutile electrode variants By adding iron powder to the covering a range of thick-coated electrodes have be en produced in order to enhance productivity. Such electrodes give weld deposits that weigh between ~135 and 190% of their core wire weight and so referred to a s high recovery electrodes, or more specifically for example a 170% recovery ele ctrode. The weld deposit from such electrodes can be relatively large and fluid and this restricts welding to the flat position and for standing fillets for ele ctrodes with the highest recovery rates. In all other respects these electrodes have the characteristics listed for standard rutile electrodes. 4 Basic Electrodes Basic electrodes are so named because the covering is made with a high proportio n of basic minerals/compounds (alkaline compounds), such as calcium carbonate (C aCO3), magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) and calcium fluoride (CaF2). Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

A fully basic electrode covering will be made up with about 60% of these basic m inerals/compounds. Characteristics of basic electrodes are: The basic slag that forms when the covering melts reacts with impurities, such as sulphur and phosph orus, and also reduces the oxygen content of the weld metal by de-oxidation The relatively clean weld metal that is deposited gives a very significant improveme nt in weld metal toughness (C-Mn electrodes with Ni additions can give good toug hness down to -90C) They can be baked at relatively high temperatures without any of the compounds present in the covering being destroyed, thereby giving low mo isture content in the covering and low hydrogen levels in weld metal In order to maintain the electrodes in a low hydrogen condition they need to be protected f rom moisture pick-up By means of baking before use (typically at ~350C), transfer ring to a holding oven (typically at ~120C) and issued in small quantities and/or using heated quivers (portable ovens) at the work station (typically ~70 By use of vacuum packed electrodes that do not need to be rebaked before use Basic slag i s relatively viscous and thick which means that electrode manipulation requires more skill and should be used with a short arc to minimise the risk of porosity The surface profile of weld deposits from basic electrodes tends to be convex an d slag removal requires more effort Metal powder electrodes contain an addition of metal powder to the flux coating to increase the maximum permissible welding current level. Thus, for a given electrode size, the metal deposition rate and e fficiency (percentage of the metal deposited) are increased compared with an ele ctrode containing no iron powder in the coating. The slag is normally easily rem oved. Iron powder electrodes are mainly used in the flat and H/V positions to ta ke advantage of the higher deposition rates. Efficiencies as high as 130 to 140% can be achieved for rutile and basic electrodes without marked deterioration of the arcing characteristics but the arc tends to be less forceful which reduces bead penetration. 4.1 Applications of basic electrodes Basic electrodes have to be used for all applications that require good fracture toughness at temperatures below ~ -20C. To avoid the risk of hydrogen cracking b asic electrodes have to be used for welding hardenable steels (most C-Mn and all low alloy steels) and for most steels when the joint thickness is greater than about 15mm. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5 Classification of Electrodes National standards for electrodes that are used for welding are: EN 499 - Covere d electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels AWS A5.1 - Specification for carbon steel electrodes for shielded metal arc welding AWS A5.5 - Specification for low-alloy steel electrodes for shielded metal arc welding Electrode classification is based on tests specified by the standard on weld deposits made with each type of covered electrode. The standards require ch emical analysis and mechanical tests and electrode manufacturers tend to dual ce rtify electrodes, wherever possible, to both the European and American standards 5.1 EN 499 EN 499 - Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine g rain steels (see Figure 1) This is the designation that manufacturers print on t o each electrode so that it can be easily identified. The classification is spli t into two sections: Compulsory section - this includes the symbols for: Type of product Strength Impact properties Chemical composition Type of electrode cover ing Optional section - this includes the symbols for: Weld metal recovery The type o f current The welding positions The hydrogen content The designation, compulsory (strength, toughness and coating including any light alloying elements) must be identified on the electrode, however the optional (p osition, hydrogen levels etc are not mandatory and may not be shown on all elect rodes. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Figure 1 The electrode classification system of EN 499. 5.2 AWS A5.1/5.1M: 2003 AWS A5.1/5.1M: 2003 - Specification for carbon steel electrodes for shielded met al arc welding (see Figure 3) Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

This specification establishes the requirements for classification of covered el ectrodes with carbon steel cores for MMA welding. Requirements include mechanica l properties of weld metal; weld metal soundness; and usability of electrodes. R equirements for chemical composition of the weld metal, moisture content of low hydrogen electrodes, standard sizes and lengths, marking, manufacturing and pack aging are also included. A guide to the use of the standard is given in an appen dix. Optional supplementary requirements include improved toughness and ductilit y, lower moisture contents and diffusible hydrogen limits. The AWS classificatio n system has mandatory and optional designators and requires that both the manda tory classification designators and any optional designators be printed on each electrode. The last two digits of the mandatory part of the classification are u sed to designate the type of electrode coating/covering and examples of some of the more widely used electrodes are shown below. AWS A5.1 classification E6010 E 6011 E6012 E6013 E7014 E7015 E7016 E7018 E7024 Tensile strength, N/mm2 414 Type of coating Cellulosic Cellulosic Rutile Rutile Rutile, iron powder Basic Basic B asic, iron powder Rutile high recovery 482 Figure 2 Examples of some of the commonly used AWS A5.1 electrodes. Typical electrode to AWS A5.1 Designates: an electrode Designates: the tensile strength (min.) in PSI of the weld metal Designates: The welding position the type of covering the kind of current Figure 3 Mandatory classification designators Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

General description Cellulosic electrodes (For vertical-down welding Stovepipe we lding of pipeline girth welds) EN 499 E 38 3 C 21 E 42 3 Z C 21 E 46 3 Z C 21 E 42 3 C 25 E 46 4 1Ni C 25 AWS A5.1 / 5.5 E6010 E7010-G E8010-G E7010-P 1 * E8010-P 1 * Rutile electrodes (For general purpose fabrication of low strength steels can be used for all positions except vertical-down) Heavy coated rutile electrodes (Ir on-powder electrodes) (For higher productivity welding for general fabrication o f low strength steels can generally only be used for downhand or standing fillet welding) Basic electrodes (For higher strength steels, thicker section steels w here there is risk of H cracking; for all applications requiring good fracture t oughness) * P = specially designated piping electrodes E6013 E 38 2 R 12 E 42 0 R 12 E6013 E 42 0 RR 13 E 42 0 RR 74 E6013 E7024 E 42 2 B 12 H10 E 42 4 B 32 H5 E 46 6 Mn1Ni B 12 H5 E 55 6 Mn1Ni B 32 H5 E 46 5 1Ni B 45 H5* E7016 E7018 E 7016-G E8018-C1 E8018-G E9018-G E10018-G * Vertical-down low H electrodes Table 1 Common electrodes that are classified to BS EN 499 & AWS A5.1 / 5.5 Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6 TIG Filler Wires Filler wires manufactured for TIG welding have compositions very similar to thos e of base materials. However, they may contain very small additions of elements that will combine with oxygen and nitrogen as a means of scavenging any contamin ants from the surface of the base material or from the atmosphere. For manual TI G, the wires are manufactured to the BS EN 440 and are provided in 1m lengths (t ypically 1.2, 1.6, and 2.4mm diameter) and for identification have flattened end s on which is stamped the wire designation (in accordance with a particular stan dard) and, for some grades, a batch number. TIG consumable identification is stamped at the end of the wire For making precision root runs for pipe butt welds (particularly for automated T IG welding) consumable inserts can be used that are made from material the same as the base material, or are compatible with it. For small diameter pipe, the in sert may be a ring but for larger diameter pipe an insert of the appropriate dia meter is made from shaped strip/wire, examples of which are shown below. 6.1 TIG shielding gases Pure argon is the shielding gas that is used for most applications and is the pr eferred gas for TIG welding of steel and gas flow rates are typically ~8 to 12 l itres/min for shielding. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The shielding gas not only protects the arc and weld pool but also is the medium required to establish a stable arc by being easy to ionise. A stable arc cannot be established in air and hence the welder would not be able to weld if the shi elding gas were not switched on. Argon with a helium addition typically ~30% may be used when a hotter arc is needed such as when welding metals with high therm al conductivity, such as copper/copper alloys or thicker section aluminium/alumi nium alloys. There are some circumstances when special shielding gases are benef icial, for example: Ar + 3 to 5%H for austenitic stainless steels and Cu-Ni allo ys Ar + ~3%N for duplex stainless steels 6.2 TIG back-purging For most materials, the underside of a weld root bead needs to be protected by a n inert gas (a back-purge) typically ~6-8 litres/min during welding. For C steel s and low alloy steels with total alloying additions 2.5% it may not always be ne cessary to use a back-purge but for higher alloyed steels and most other materia ls there may be excessive oxidation and risk of lack of fusion if it is not used . 7 MIG/MAG Filler Wires Solid filler wires manufactured for MIG/MAG generally have chemical compositions that have been formulated for particular base materials and the wires have comp ositions similar to these base materials. Solid wires for welding steels with ac tive shielding gases are deoxidised with manganese and silicon to avoid porosity . There may also be titanium and aluminium additions. Mild steel filler wires ar e available with different levels of deoxidants, known as double or triple de-ox idised wires. More highly deoxidised wires are more expensive but are more toler ant of the plate surface condition, eg mill scale, surface rust, oil, paint and dust. There may, therefore, be a reduction in the amount of cleaning of the stee l before welding. These deoxidiser additions yield a small amount of glassy slag on the surface of the weld deposit, commonly referred to as silica deposits. Th ese small pockets of slag are easily removed with light brushing; but when galva nising or painting after welding, it is necessary to use shot blasting. During w elding, it is common practice to weld over these small islands since they do not represent a thick slag, and they usually spall off during the contraction of th e weld bead. However, when multipass welding, the slag level may build up to an unacceptable level causing weld defects and unreliable arc starting. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Steel wires usually have a flash coating of copper to improve current pick-up an d to extend the shelf life of the wire. However, the copper coating can sometime s flake off and be drawn into the liner and wire feed mechanism, particularly if there is misalignment in the wire feed system. This may cause clogging and erra tic wire feed. Uncoated wires are available as an alternative, although electric al contact may not be as good as with coppercoated wires, and contact tip operat ing temperatures may be higher. Some typical Standards for specification of stee l wire consumables are: EN 440: Welding consumables - Wire electrodes and deposi ts for gas shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels - Class ification. EN 12534: Welding consumables - Wire electrodes, wires, rods and depo sits for gas shielded metal arc welding of high strength steels Classification. Wire sizes are typically in the range 0.6-2.4mm diameter but the most commonly u sed sizes are 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.6mm and provided on layer wound spools for con sistent feeding. Spools should be labelled to show the classification of the wir e and its diameter. Flux-cored and metal-cored wires are also used extensively al though the process is then referred to as FCAW (flux-cored arc welding) and MCAW (metal cored arc welding) 7.1 MIG/MAG gas shielding For non-ferrous metals and their alloys (such as Al, Ni and Cu) an inert shieldi ng gas must be used. This is usually either pure argon or an argon rich gas with a helium addition. The use of a fully inert gas is the reason why the process i s also called MIG welding (metal inert gas) and for precise use of terminology t his name should only be used when referring to the welding of non-ferrous metals The addition of some helium to argon gives a more uniform heat concentration wi thin the arc plasma and this affects the shape of the weld bead profile Argon-he lium mixtures effectively give a hotter arc and so they are beneficial for weldi ng thicker base materials those with higher thermal conductivity eg copper or al uminium. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

For welding of steels all grades, including stainless steels there needs to be a controlled addition of oxygen or carbon dioxide in order to generate a stable a rc and give good droplet wetting. Because these additions react with the molten metal they are referred to as active gases and hence the name MAG welding (metal active gas) is the technical term that is use when referring to the welding of steels. The percentage of carbon dioxide (CO2) or oxygen depends on the type of steel being welded and the mode of metal transfer being used as indicated below: 100%CO2 For low carbon steel to give deeper penetration (Figure 4) and faster w elding this gas promotes globular droplet transfer and gives high levels of spat ter and welding fume Argon + 15 to 25%CO2 Widely used for carbon and some low al loy steels (and FCAW of stainless steels) Argon + 1 to 5%O2 Widely used for stai nless steels and some low alloy steels Figure 4 Effects of shielding gas composition on weld penetration and profile. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Figure 5 Active shielding gas mixtures for MAG welding of carbon, carbon-mangane se and low alloy steels. Blue is a cooler gas mixture; red is a hotter mixture. Gas mixtures - helium in place of argon gives a hotter arc, more fluid weld pool and better weld profile. These quaternary mixtures permit higher welding speeds, but may not be suitable for thin sections. 7.1.1 Stainless steels Austenitic stainless steels are typic ally welded with argon-CO2/O2 mixtures for spray transfer, or argon-helium-CO2 m ixtures for all modes of transfer. The oxidising potential of the mixtures are k ept to a minimum (2-2.5% maximum CO2 content) in order to stabilise the arc, but with the minimum effect on corrosion performance. Because austenitic steels hav e a high thermal conductivity, the addition of helium helps to avoid lack of fus ion defects and overcome the high heat dissipation into the material. Helium add itions are up to 85%, compared with ~25% for mixtures used for carbon and low al loy steels. CO2 -containing mixtures are sometimes avoided to eliminate potentia l carbon pick-up. Figure 6 Active shielding gas mixtures for MAG welding of stainless steels. Blue is a cooler gas mixture; red is a hotter mixture. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

For martensitic and duplex stainless steels, specialist advice should be sought. Some Ar-He mixtures containing up to 2.5%N2 are available for welding duplex st ainless steels. 7.1.2 Light alloys, eg aluminium and magnesium, and copper and n ickel and their alloys Inert gases are used for light alloys and alloys that are sensitive to oxidation. Welding grade inert gases should be purchased rather th an commercial purity to ensure good weld quality. Argon: Argon can be used for a luminium because there is sufficient surface oxide available to stabilise the ar c. For materials that are sensitive to oxygen, such as titanium and nickel alloy s, arc stability may be difficult to achieve with inert gases in some applicatio ns. The density of argon is approximately 1.4 times that of air. Therefore, in t he downhand position, the relatively heavy argon is very effective at displacing air. A disadvantage is that when working in confined spaces, there is a risk of argon building up to dangerous levels and asphyxiating the welder. Argon-helium mixtures: Argon is most commonly used for MIG welding of light alloys, but some advantage can be gained by the use of helium and argon/helium mixtures. Helium possesses a higher thermal conductivity than argon. The hotter weld pool produce s improved penetration and/or an increase in welding speed. High helium contents give a deep broad penetration profile, but produce high spatter levels. With le ss than 80% argon, a true spray transfer is not possible. With globular-type tra nsfer, the welder should use a buried arc to minimise spatter. Arc stability c an be problematic in helium and argonhelium mixtures, since helium raises the ar c voltage, and therefore there is a larger change in arc voltage with respect to arc length. Helium mixtures require higher flow rates than argon shielding in o rder to provide the same gas protection. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

There is a reduced risk of lack of fusion defects when using argon-helium mixtur es, particularly on thick section aluminium. Ar-He gas mixtures will offset the high heat dissipation in material over about 3mm thickness. Figure 7 Inert shielding gas mixtures for MIG welding of aluminium, magnesium, t itanium, nickel and copper alloys. Blue is a cooler gas mixture; red is a hotter mixture. A summary table of shield ing gases and mixtures used for different base materials is given in Table 2. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

7.1.3 Metal Carbon steel SUMMARY Shielding gas ArgonCO2 Reaction behaviour Slightly oxidising Characteris tics Increasing CO2 content gives hotter arc, improved arc stability, deeper pen etration, transition from finger-type to bowl-shaped penetration profile, more fluid weld pool giving flatter weld bead with good wetting, increased spatter l evels, better toughness than CO2. Min 80% argon for axial spray transfer. Genera l-purpose mixture: argon-10-15% CO2. Stiffer arc than Ar- CO2 mixtures, minimise s undercutting, suited to spray transfer mode, lower penetration than Ar-CO2 mix tures, finger-type weld bead penetration at high current levels. General-purpo se mixture: argon-3% CO2. Substitution of helium for argon gives hotter arc, hig her arc voltage, more fluid weld pool, flatter bead profile, more bowl-shaped an d deeper penetration profile and higher welding speeds, compared with Ar- CO2 mi xtures. High cost. Arc voltages 2-3V higher than Ar-CO2 mixtures, best penetrati on, higher welding speeds, dip transfer or buried arc technique only, narrow wor king range, high spatter levels, low cost. Good arc stability with minimum effec t on corrosion resistance (carbon pickup), higher helium contents designed for d ip transfer, lower helium contents designed for pulse and spray transfer. Genera l-purpose gas: Ar-4060%He-2%CO2. Spray transfer only, minimises undercutting on heavier sections, good bead profile. Good arc stability, low spatter, and genera lpurpose gas. Titanium alloys require inert gas backing and trailing shields to prevent air contamination. Higher heat input offsets high heat dissipation on th ick sections, lower risk of lack of fusion defects, higher spatter, higher cost than argon. ArgonO2 Slightly oxidising ArgonheliumCO2 Slightly oxidising CO2 Oxidising Stainless steels He-ArCO2 Slightly oxidising Argon- O2 Aluminium, copper, nickel, titanium alloys Argon Slightly oxidising Inert Argonhelium Inert Table 2 Shielding gas mixtures for MIG/MAG welding - summary Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

8 SAW Filler Wires Filler wires for SAW are made to AWS and EN standards and the most commonly used sizes are 2.4, 3.2, 4.0 and 5.0mm diameter and are available for welding a wide range of steels and some non-ferrous applications, they have compositions simil ar to the base material but for certification standards require flux/wire weld m etal deposits to be made for analysis and testing as required 8.1 SAW flux types Fluxes can be categorised into two types, namely fused and agglomerated (agglome rated fluxes are sometimes called bonded fluxes particularly in the USA). 8.1.1 Fused flux These types are manufactured by mixing certain suitable minerals/ com pounds, fusing them together, crushing the solid mass and then sieving the crush ed mass to recover granules within a particular size range. Fused fluxes have th e following characteristics/properties: Contain a high proportion of silica (up to ~60%) and so the flux granules have similar in appearance to crushed glass ir regular shaped and hard - and have a smooth, and slightly shiny, surface During re-circulation they have good resistance to breaking down into fine particles re ferred to as fines Have very low moisture content as manufactured and do not abs orb moisture during exposure and so they should always give low hydrogen weld me tal Give welds beads with good surface finish and profile and de-slag easily Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

The main disadvantage of fused fluxes is that the compounds that give deoxidatio n cannot be added so that welds have high oxygen content and so steel weld metal does not have good toughness at sub-zero temperatures. 8.1.2 Agglomerated flux This is manufactured by mixing fine powdered minerals/compound s, adding a wet binder and further mixing to form flux granules of the required size. These are dried/baked to remove moisture, sieved and packaged in sealed co ntainers to ensure they are in low hydrogen condition when supplied to the user. Some of the minerals/compounds used in these fluxes cannot be subjected to the high temperatures required to make fused fluxes because they would break down an d lose the properties that are needed during welding. Agglomerated fluxes have t he following characteristics: Granules tend to be more spherical and have a dull /matt finish Granules are consist of fine powders, weakly held together, and so are quite soft and easily be broken down into fine powders during handling/ re-c irculation Some of the compounds, and the binder itself, will tend to absorb moi sture from the atmosphere if left exposed and a controlled handling procedure* i s essential The slag is less fluid than those generated by fused fluxes and the weld bead profile tends to be more convex and more effort is required to remove the slag *Agglomerated fluxes are similar to fluxes used for basic covered elect rodes and susceptible to moisture pick-up when they are cold and left exposed. A typical controlled handling practice is to transfer flux from the manufacturers drum/bag to a heated silo (~120-150C). This acts like the holding oven for basic electrodes. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Warm flux is transferred to the flux hopper on the machine (usually unheated) an d at the end of a shift or when there is to be an interruption in welding, the h opper flux should be transferred to the silo. The particular advantage of agglom erated fluxes is there ability to give weld metals with low oxygen content and t his enables steel weld metal to be produced with good sub-zero toughness. 8.2 SAW flux basicity index Fluxes are often referred to as having a certain basicity or basicity index (BI) . The BI indicates the flux formulation according to the ratio of basic compound s to acid compounds and is used to give an indication of flux/weld reaction and can be interpreted as follows: A flux with a BI = 1 has an equal ratio of basic and acid compounds and thus is neither basic nor acid but said to be neutral* A flux with BI >1 has basic characteristics; fully basic fluxes have BI of ~3 to ~ 3.5 A flux with BI <1 has acid characteristics Fused and agglomerated fluxes are mixed to produce fluxes referred to as semi-basic * In the USA it is customary to use the terms neutral to indicate that the flux has no significant influence on the composition by transfer of elements from flux to weld pool and active to indicate that the flux does transfer some elements Fused fluxes have acid charac teristics and agglomerated fluxes have basic characteristics. Although there are EN and AWS standards for flux classification, it is common UK practice to order fluxes by manufacturer name and use this name on WPSs. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding Consumables Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 The Process Known in the USA as gas metal arc welding (GMAW). The MIG/MAG welding process is a versatile technique suitable for both thin sheet and thick section components in most metallic materials. In the process, an arc is struck between the end of a wire electrode and the workpiece, melting both to form a weld pool. The wire serves as the source of heat (via the arc at the wire tip) and filler metal for the joint. The wire is fed through a copper contact tube (also called a contact tip) which conducts welding current into the wire. The weld pool is protected fr om the surrounding atmosphere by a shielding gas fed through a nozzle surroundin g the wire. Shielding gas selection depends on the material being welded and the application. The wire is fed from a reel by a motor drive, and the welder or ma chine moves the welding gun or torch along the joint line. The process offers hi gh productivity and is economical because the consumable wire is continuously fe d. A diagram of the process is shown in Figure 1. The MIG/MAG process uses semia utomatic, mechanised, or automatic equipment. In semiautomatic welding, the wire feed rate and arc length are controlled automatically, but the travel speed and wire position are under manual control. In mechanised welding, all parameters a re under automatic control, but they can be varied manually during welding, eg s teering of the welding head and adjustment of wire feed speed and arc voltage. W ith automatic equipment, there is no manual intervention during welding. Figure 1.1 shows equipment required for the MIG/MAG process. Figure 1 MIG/MAG welding. Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Figure 1.1 MIG/MAG welding equipment. Advantages of the MIG/MAG process: 1.1.1 Continuous wire feed Automatic self-regulation of the arc length High deposition rate and minimal number of stop/start locations High consumable efficiency Heat inputs in the range 0.1-2.0kJ/mm Low hydrogen potential process Welder has good visibility of weld pool and joint line Little or no post weld cleaning Can be u sed in all positions (dip transfer) Good process control possibilities Wide rang e of application

Disadvantages No independent control of filler addition Difficult to set up opt mum parameters to minimise spatter levels Risk of lack of fusion when using dip transfer on thicker weldments High level of equipment maintenance Lower heat inp ut can lead to high hardness values Higher equipment cost than MMA (manual metal arc) welding Site welding requires special precautions to exclude draughts whic h may disturb the gas shield Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

 Joint and part access is not as good as MMA or TIG welding Cleanliness of base m etal slag processes can tolerate greater contamination. 2

Process Variables The primary variables in MIG/MAG welding are: Welding current/wire feed spe ltage Gases Travel speed and electrode orientation Inductance Contact tip to wor k distance Nozzle to work distance Shielding gas nozzle Type of metal transfer 2.1 Welding current / wire feed speed On MIG/MAG welding sets there is no control to set the welding current. The elec trical characteristics of the welding set (flat or constant voltage type) automa tically alters the welding current with changes to the set wire feed speed to ac hieve a constant arc length. Increasing the wire feed, and therefore current, in creases wire burn-off, deposition rate and penetration. Current type is almost a lways DC+ve, although some cored wires require DC-ve for best results. 2.2 Voltage This is set to achieve steady smooth welding conditions and is generally increas ed as the wire feed speed is increased. Increase in voltage increases the width of the weld and reduces penetration. 2.3 Travel speed and electrode orientation The faster the travel speed the less penetration, narrower bead width and the hi gher risk of undercut Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

 Increasing travel speed Reduced penetration and width, undercut Figure 2 The effect of travel speed. Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum Und ercut Severe Moderate Minimum Figure 3 The effect of torch angle. 2.4 Effect of contact tip to workpiece distance (CTWD) The CTWD has an influence over the welding current because of resistive heating in the electrode extension (see Figure 4). The welding current required to melt the electrode at the required rate (to match the wire feed speed) reduces as the CTWD is increased. Long electrode extensions can cause lack of penetration, for example, in narrow gap joints, or with poor manipulation of the welding gun. Co nversely, the welding current increases when the CTWD is reduced. Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Contact tip Gas nozzle Contact setback tip Electrode extension Arc length Nozzle-to-work (stand-off) distance Contact tipto-work distance Workpiece Figure 4 Contact tip to workpiece distance; electrode extension; and nozzle to w orkpiece distance. Increased extension Figure 5 The effect of increasing electrode extension. The electrode extension s hould be checked when setting-up welding conditions or when fitting a new contac t tube. Normally measured from the contact tube to the work piece (Figure 5) sug gested CTWDs for the principal metal transfer modes are: Metal transfer mode Dip Spray Pulse CTWD, mm 10-15 20-25 15-20 Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.5 Effect of nozzle to work distance Nozzle to work distance (see Figure 4) has a considerable effect on gas shieldin g efficiency; a decrease having the effect of stiffening the column. The nozzle to work distance is typically 12-15mm. If the CTWD is simultaneously reduced, ho wever, the deposition rate at a given current is decreased and visibility and ac cessibility are affected; so, in practice, a compromise is necessary. The follow ing gives suggested settings for the mode of metal transfer being used Metal tra nsfer mode Dip Spray Spray (aluminium) Contact tip position relative to nozzle 2 mm inside to 2mm protruding 4-8mm inside 6-10mm inside 2.6 Shielding gas nozzle The purpose of the shielding gas nozzle is to produce a laminar gas flow in orde r to protect the weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Nozzle sizes range fr om 13mm to 22mm diameter. The nozzle diameter should be increased in relation to the size of the weld pool. 2.7 Types of metal transfer Figure 6 Arc characteristic curve. Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1) Dip transfer: Key characteristics: Metal transfer by wire dipping or short ci rcuiting into the weld pool Relatively low heat input process Low weld pool flui dity Used for thin sheet metal above 0.8 and typically less than 3.2mm, position al welding of thicker section and root runs in open butt joints Process stabilit y and spatter can be a problem if poorly tuned Lack of fusion risk if poorly set up and applied Not used for non-ferrous metals and alloys In dip transfer the w ire short-circuits the arc between 50200 times/sec. This type of transfer is norm ally achieved with CO2 or mixtures of CO2 and argon gas + low amps and welding v olts < 24V. Figure 7 Dip transfer. 2) Spray transfer: Key characteristics: Free-flight metal transfer High heat inp ut High deposition rate Smooth, stable arc Used on steels above 6mm thickness an d aluminium alloys above 3mm thickness Spray transfer occurs at high currents an d high voltages. Above the transition current, metal transfer is in the form of a fine spray of small droplets, which are projected across the arc with low spat ter levels. The high welding current produces strong electromagnetic forces (kno wn as the pinch effect that cause the molten filament supporting the droplet to neck down. The droplets detach from the tip of the wire and accelerate across t he arc gap. With steels it can be used only in down-hand butts and H/V fillet we lds, but gives significantly higher deposition rate, penetration and fusion than the dip transfer mode. With aluminum alloys it can be used in all positions. Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Figure 8 Spray transfer. 3) Pulsed transfer: Key characteristics: Free-flight droplet transfer without sh ort-circuiting over the entire working range Very low spatter Lower heat input t han spray transfer Reduced risk of lack of fusion compared with dip transfer Con trol of weld bead profile for dynamically loaded parts Process control/flexibili ty Enables use of larger diameter, less expensive wires with thinner plates more Easily fed (a particular advantage for aluminium welding) Pulsing the welding c urrent extends the range of spray transfer operation well below the natural tran sition from dip to spray transfer. This allows smooth, spatter-free spray transf er to be obtained at mean currents below the transition level, eg 50-150A and at lower heat inputs. A typical pulse waveform and the main pulse welding variable s are shown in Figure 9. Pulse transfer uses pulses of current to fire a single globule of metal across the arc gap at a frequency between 50300 pulses/sec. Puls e transfer is a development of spray transfer that gives positional welding capa bility for steels, combined with controlled heat input, good fusion, and high pr oductivity. It may be used for all sheet steel thickness >1mm, but is mainly use d for positional welding of steels >6mm. Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Figure 9 Pulsed welding waveform and parameters. 4) Globular transfer: Key characteristics: Irregular metal transfer Medium heat input Medium deposition rate Risk of spatter Not widely used in the UK; can be u sed for mechanised welding of medium Thickness steels (typically 3-6mm) in the f lat (PA) position The globular transfer range occupies the transitional range of arc voltage between free flight and fully short-circuiting transfer. Irregular droplet transfer and arc instability are inherent, particularly when operating n ear the transition threshold. In globular transfer, a molten droplet of several times the electrode diameter forms on the wire tip. Gravity eventually detaches the globule when its weight overcomes surface tension forces, and transfer takes place often with excessive spatter To minimise spatter levels, it is common to operate with a very short arc length, and in some cases a buried arc technique i s adopted. Globular transfer can only be used in the flat position and is often associated with lack of penetration, fusion defects and uneven weld beads, becau se of the irregular transfer and tendency for arc wander. Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.8 Inductance What does inductance do? When MIG welding in the dip transfer mode, the welding electrode touches the weld pool, causing a short circuit. During the short circu it, the arc voltage is nearly zero. If the constant voltage power supply respond ed instantly, very high current would immediately begin to flow through the weld ing circuit. The rapid rise in current to a high value would melt the short-circ uited electrode free with explosive force, dispelling the weld metal and causing considerable spatter. Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit that slows down the rate of current rise (Figure 10). The current travelling through an inductance coil creates a magnetic field. This magnetic field creates a curre nt in the welding circuit that is in opposition to the welding current. Increasi ng the inductance will also increase the arc time and decrease the frequency of shortcircuiting. For each electrode feed rate, there is an optimum value of indu ctance. Too little inductance results in excessive spatter. If too much inductan ce is used, the current will not rise fast enough and the molten tip of the elec trode is not heated sufficiently causing the electrode to stub into the base met al. Modern electronic power sources automatically set the inductance to give a s mooth arc and metal transfer. Figure 10 Relationship between inductance and current rise. Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3 3.1 Welding Consumables Solid wires Usually made in sizes from 0.6 to 1,6mm diameter they are produced with an analy sis which essentially matches the materials being joined. Additional elements ar e often added especially extra de-oxidants in steel wires. C-Mn and low alloy st eel wires are usually copper coated to reduce the risk of rusting and promote be tter electrical contact. 3.2 Flux cored wires A cored wire consists of a metal sheath containing a granular flux. This flux ca n contain elements that would normally be used in MMA electrodes and so the proc ess has a very wide range of applications. In addition we can also add gas produ cing elements and compounds to the flux and so the process can become independen t of a separate gas shield, which restricted the use of conventional MIG/MAG wel ding in many field applications. Most wires are sealed mechanically and hermetic ally with various forms of joint. The effectiveness of the joint of the wire is an inspection point of cored wire welding as moisture can easily be absorbed int o a damaged or poor seam. Wire types commonly used are: Rutile which give good p ositional capabilities. Basic also positional but good on dirty material Metal cor ed higher productivity and some having excellent root run capabilities. Self-shi elded no external gas needed. Baking of cored wires is ineffective and will do nothing to restore the conditio n of a contaminated flux within a wire. Note that unlike MMA electrodes the pote ntial hydrogen levels and mechanical properties of welds with rutile wires can e qual those of the basic types. Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4 Important Inspection Points/Checks When MIG/MAG Welding 1 The welding equipment A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equi pment is in good condition. 2 The eectrode wire The diameter, specification and the quality of the wire are the main inspection headings. The level of de-oxidat ion of the wire is an important factor with single, double and triple de-oxidise d wires being available. The higher the level of de-oxidants in the wire, then t he lower the chance of porosity in the weld. The quality of the wire winding, co pper coating, and temper are also important factors in minimising wire feed prob lems. Quality of wire windings and increasing costs (a) Random wound. (b) Layer wound. (c) Precision layer wound. 3 The drive rolls and liner. Check the drive r olls are of the correct size for the wire and that the pressure is only hand tig ht, or just sufficient to drive the wire. Any excess pressure will deform the wi re to an ovular shape. This will make the wire very difficult to drive through t he liner and result in arcing in the contact tip and excessive wear of the conta ct tip and liner. Check that the liner is the correct type and size for the wire . A size of liner will generally fit 2 sizes of wire ie (0.6 and 0.8) (1.0 and 1 .2) (1.4 and 1.6) mm diameter. Steel liners are used for steel wires and Teflon liners for aluminium wires. 4 The contact tip Check that the contact tip is the correct size for the wire being driven, and check the amount of wear frequently. Any loss of contact between the wire and contact tip will reduce the efficiency of current pick. Most steel wires are copper-coated to maximise the transfer of current by contact between 2 copper surfaces at the contact tip, this also inhi bits corrosion. The contact tip should be replaced regularly. 5 The connections The length of the electric arc in MIG/MAG welding is controlled by the voltage s ettings. This is achieved by using a constant voltage volt/amp characteristic in side the equipment. Any poor connection in the welding circuit will affect the n ature and stability of the electric arc, and is thus is a major inspection point . Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6 Gas and gas flow rate The type of gas used is extremely important to MIG/MAG w elding, as is the flow rate from the cylinder, which must be adequate to give go od coverage over the solidifying and molten metal to avoid oxidation and porosit y. 7 Other variable welding parameters Checks should be made for correct wire fe ed speed, voltage, speed of travel, and all other essential variables of the pro cess given on the approved welding procedure. 8 Safety checks Checks should be m ade on the current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of equipment and electrical insulation. Correct extraction systems should be in use to avoid exposure to ozo ne and fumes. A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualifi ed to weld the procedure being employed. Typical welding imperfections: 1 Silica inclusions, (on ferritic steels only) caused by poor inter-run cleaning. 2 Lack of sidewall fusion during dip transfer welding thick section vertically down. 3 Porosity caused from loss of gas shield and low tolerance to contaminants 4 Bur n-through from using the incorrect metal transfer mode on sheet metal Rev 1 January 2010 MAG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 Manual Metal-Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW) The most versatile of the welding processes, manual metal arc (MMA) welding is s uitable for welding most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, over a wide range of th icknesses. The MMA welding process can be used in all positions, with reasonable ease of use and relatively economically. The final weld quality is primarily de pendent on the skill of the welder. When an arc is struck between the coated ele ctrode and the workpiece, both the electrode and workpiece surface melt to form a weld pool. The average temperature of the arc is approximately 6000C, which is sufficient to simultaneously melt the parent metal, consumable core wire and the flux coating. The flux forms gas and slag, which protects the weld pool from ox ygen and nitrogen in the surrounding atmosphere. The molten slag solidifies and cools and must be chipped off the weld bead once the weld run is complete (or be fore the next weld pass is deposited). The process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new electrode needs to be inserted in the holder. The manual metal arc welding process. Rev 1 January 2010 MMA Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2 MMA Welding Basic Equipment Requirements 10 1 9 2 8 3 4 7 6 5 1 Power source transformer/rectifier (constant current type) 2 Holding oven (hol ds at temperatures up to 150C) 3 Inverter power source (more compact and portable ) 4 Electrode holder (of a suitable amperage rating) 5 Power cable (of a suitabl e amperage rating) 6 Welding visor (with correct rating for the amperage/process ) 7 Power return cable (of a suitable amperage rating) 8 Electrodes (of a suitab le type and amperage rating) 9 Electrode oven (bakes electrodes at up to 350C) 10 Control panel (on\off/amperage/polarity/OCV) Rev 1 January 2010 MMA Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3 Power Requirements Manual metal arc welding can be carried out using either direct (DC) or alternat ing (AC) current. With DC welding current either positive (+ve) or negative (-ve ) polarity can be used, so current is flowing in one direction. AC welding curre nt flows from negative to positive, and is two directional. Power sources for MM A welding are transformers (which transforms mains AC to AC suitable for welding ), transformer-rectifiers (which rectifies AC to DC), diesel or petrol driven ge nerators (preferred for site work) or inverters (a more recent addition to weldi ng power sources). For MMA welding a power source with a constant current (droop ing) output characteristic must be used. The power source must provide: An open circuit voltage (OCV) to initiate the arc, between 50 and 90V Welding voltage to maintain the arc during welding, between 20 and 30V. A suitable current range, typically 30-350A. A stable arc. Rapid arc recovery or arc re-ignition without c urrent surge. A constant welding current. The arc length may change during weldi ng, but consistent electrode burn-off rate and weld penetration characteristics must be maintained during welding. 4 Welding Variables Other factors, or welding variables, which affect the final quality of the MMA w eld, are: Current (amperage) Voltage Travel speed Polarity Type of electrode aff ects heat Input 4.1 Current (amperage) Amperage controls burn-off rate and depth of penetration. Welding current level is determined by the size of electrode and the welding position manufacturers re commend the normal operating range and current Incorrect amperage settings when using MMA can contribute to the following: Amperage too low: Poor fusion or pene tration, irregular weld bead shape, slag inclusion unstable arc, porosity, poten tial arc strikes, difficult starting. Rev 1 January 2010 MMA Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Amperage too high: Excessive penetration, burn-through, undercut, spatter, porosity, deep craters, electrode damage due to overheating, high deposition making positional welding d ifficult. 4.2 Voltage Open circuit voltage (OCV) is the voltage measured between the output terminals of the power source when no current is flowing through the welding circuit. For safety reasons this should not exceed 100V, and is usually between 50-90V. Arc v oltage is the voltage required to maintain the arc during welding and is usually between 2030V. As arc voltage is a function of arc length the welder controls th e arc length and therefore the arc voltage. Arc voltage controls weld pool fluid ity. The effects of having the wrong arc voltage can be: Arc Voltage too low: Po or penetration, electrode stubbing, lack of fusion defects, potential for arc st rikes, slag inclusion, unstable arc condition, irregular weld bead shape. Excess ive spatter, porosity, arc wander, irregular weld bead shape, slag inclusions, f luid weld pool making positional welding difficult. Arc voltage too high: 4.3 Travel speed Travel speed is related to whether the welding is progressed by stringer beads o r by weaving. Often the run out length (ROL) ie the length of deposit from one s tandard electrode is quoted on procedures rather than speed as it is easier for the welder to visualise. Travel speed too fast: Narrow thin weld bead, fast cool ing, inclusions, undercut, poor fusion/penetration slag Travel speed too slow: Cold lap, excess weld deposition, irregular bead shape, undercut. Rev 1 January 2010 MMA Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4.4 Type of current and polarity Polarity will determine the distribution of heat energy at the welding arc. The preferred polarity of the MMA system depends primarily upon the electrode being used and the desired properties of the weld. Direct current. electrode positive (DCEP / DC+). Usually produces the greatest penetration but with lesser depositi on rate. Known in some standards as reverse polarity Direct current. electrode n egative (DCEN / DC-) Usually produces less penetration with greater deposition r ate. Known in some standards as straight polarity When using direct current the arc the arc from its normal path due he distribution of heat energy at ercentage (%) of arc on time in a can be affected by arc blow. The deflection of to magnetic forces. Alternating current (AC) T the arc is equal. Operating factor (O/F) The p given time span.

When compared with semi automatic welding processes the MMA welding process has a low O/F of approximately 30% Manual semi-automatic MIG/MAG O/F is in the regio n 60% with fully automated MIG/MAG in the region of 90% O/F. A welding process O /F can be directly linked to productivity. Operating Factor should not to be con fused with the term duty cycle, which is a safety value given as the % of time a conductor can carry a current and is given as a specific current at 60 and 100% of 10 minutes ie 350A 60% and 300A 100%. 5 Type of Consumable Electrode For MMA welding there are three generic types of flux covering: Rutile, basic, c ellulosic. The details of these types are covered elsewhere in these notes. Rev 1 January 2010 MMA Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6 Typical Welding Defects 1 Slag inclusions caused by poor welding technique or insufficient interrun clea ning. 2 Porosity from using damp or damaged electrodes or when welding contamina ted or unclean material. 3 Lack of root fusion or penetration caused by in-corre ct settings of the amps, root gap or face width. 4 Undercut caused by too high a mperage for the position or by a poor welding technique eg travel speed too fast or too slow, arc length (therefore voltage) variations particularly during exce ssive weaving. 5 Arc strikes caused by incorrect arc striking procedure, or lack of skill. These may be also caused by incorrectly fitted/secured power return l ead clamps. 6 Hydrogen cracks caused by the use of incorrect electrode type or i ncorrect baking procedure and/or control of basic coated electrodes. Rev 1 January 2010 MMA Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 The Process Abbreviated as SAW, this is a welding process where an arc is struck between a c ontinuous bare wire and the parent plate. The arc, electrode end and the molten pool are submerged in an agglomerated or fused powdered flux, which turns, into a gas and slag in its lower layers when subjected to the heat of the arc, thus p rotecting the weld from contamination. The wire electrode is fed continuously by a feed unit of motor-driven rollers, which usually are voltage-controlled to en sure an arc of constant length. The flux is fed from a hopper fixed to the weldi ng head, and a tube from the hopper spreads the flux in a continuous elongated m ound in front of the arc along the line of the intended weld and of sufficient d epth to submerge the arc completely so that there is no spatter, the weld is shi elded from the atmosphere, and there are no ultraviolet or infra-red radiation e ffects (see below). Unmelted flux is reclaimed for use. The use of powdered flux restricts the process to the flat and horizontal-vertical welding positions. Submerged arc welding is noted for its ability to employ high weld currents owin g to the properties and functions of the flux. Such currents give deep penetrati on and high deposition rates. Generally a DC electrode positive polarity is empl oyed up to about 1000A because it produces a deep penetration. On some applicati ons (ie cladding operations) DC electrode negative is needed to reduce penetrati on and dilution. At higher currents or in case of multiple electrode systems, AC is often preferred to avoid the problem of arc blow (when used with multiple el ectrode systems, DC electrode positive is used for the lead arc and AC is used f or the trail arc). Rev 1 January 2010 Submerged Arc Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Power sources can be of the constant current or constant voltage type either may have outputs exceeding 1000A. Difficulties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of the weld with a predeterm ined line owing to the obscuring effect of the flux. Where possible, a guide whe el to run in the joint preparation is positioned in front of the welding head an d flux hoppers. Submerged arc welding is widely used in the fabrication of ships , pressure vessels, linepipe, railway carriages and anywhere where long welds ar e required. It can be used to weld thicknesses from 1.5mm upwards. Materials joi ned Welding of carbon steels. Welding low alloy steels (eg fine grained and cree p resisting). Welding stainless steels. Welding nickel alloys. Cladding to base metals to improve wear and corrosion resistance. 2 Process variables There are several variables which when changed can have an effect on the weld ap pearance and mechanical properties: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Welding current Type of flux and particle distribution Arc voltage Travel speed Electrode size Elect rode extension Type of electrode Width and depth of the layer of flux Electrode angle, (leading, trailing) Polarity Single-, double- or multi-wire system Rev 1 January 2010 Submerged Arc Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.1 Welding current Welding current effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 35V arc voltag e and 61cm/min travel speed) Excessively high current produces a deep penetratin g arc with a tendency to burn-through, undercut or a high, narrow bead prone to solidification cracking Excessively low current produces an unstable arc, lack o f penetration and possibly lack of fusion 350A 500A 650A 2.2 Arc voltage Arc voltage adjustment varies the length of the arc between the electrode and th e molten weld metal. If the arc voltage increases, the arc length increases and vice versa. The voltage principally determines the shape of the weld bead cross section and its external appearance. 25V 35V 45V Arc voltage effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 500A welding curre nt and 61cm/min travel speed) Increasing the arc voltage will: Produce a flatter and wider bead Increase flux consumption Tend to reduce porosity caused by rust or scale on steel Help to bridge excessive root opening when fit-up is poor Inc rease pick-up of alloying elements from the flux when they are present Rev 1 January 2010 Submerged Arc Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Excessively high arc voltage will: Produce a wide bead shape that is subject to solidification cracking Make slag removal difficult in groove welds Produce a co ncave shaped fillet weld that may be subject to cracking Increase undercut along the edge(s) of fillet welds Over-alloy the weld metal, via the flux Reducing the arc voltage with constant current and travel speed will: Produce a stiffer arc which improves penetration in a deep weld groove and resists arc blo w. Excessively low arc voltage will: Produce a high, narrow bead Causes difficult s lag removal along the weld toes 2.3 Travel speed If the travel speed is increased: Heat input per unit length of weld is decrease d Less filler metal is applied per unit length of weld, and consequently less ex cess weld metal Penetration decreases and thus the weld bead becomes smaller 30cm/min 61cm/min 122cm/min Travel speed effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 500A welding curr ent and 35V arc voltage) Rev 1 January 2010 Submerged Arc Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.4 Electrode size Electrode size affects: The weld bead shape and the depth of penetration at a gi ven current: a high current density results in a stiff arc that penetrates into the base metal. Conversely, a lower current density in the same size electrode r esults in a soft arc that is less penetrating. The deposition rate: at any given amperage setting, a small diameter electrode will have a higher current density and a higher deposition rate of molten metal than a larger diameter electrode. However, a larger diameter electrode can carry more current than a smaller elect rode, so the larger electrode can ultimately produce a higher deposition rate at higher amperage. 3.2 mm 4.0 mm 5.0 mm Electrode size effect on weld profile (600A welding current, 30V arc voltage and 76cm/min travel speed). 2.5 Electrode extension The electrode extension is the distance the continuous electrode protrudes beyon d the contact tip. At high current densities, resistance heating of the electrod e between the contact tip and the arc can be utilised to increase the electrode melting rate (as much as 25-50%). The longer the extension, the greater the amou nt of heating and the higher the melting rate (see below). Rev 1 January 2010 Submerged Arc Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.6 Type of electrode An electrode with a low electrical conductivity, such as stainless steel, can wi th a normal electrode extension experience greater resistance heating. Thus for the same size electrode and current, the melting rate of a stainless steel elect rode will be higher than that of a carbon steel electrode. 2.7 Width and depth of flux The width and depth of the layer of granular flux influence the appearance and s oundness of the finished weld as well as the welding action. If the granular lay er is too deep, the arc is too confined and a rough weld with a rope-like appear ance is likely to result, it may also produce local flat areas on the surface of ten referred to as gas flats. The gases generated during welding cannot readily escape, and the surface of the molten weld metal is irregularly distorted. If th e granular layer is too shallow, the arc will not be entirely submerged in flux. Flashing and spattering will occur. The weld will have a poor appearance, and i t may show porosity. 3 Storage and Care of Consumables Care must be given to fluxes supplied for SAW which, although they may be dry wh en packaged, may be exposed to high humidity during storage. In such cases they should be stored in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations before us e, or porosity or cracking may result. It rarely practical or economical to re-d ry fluxes which may have picked up moisture. Ferrous wire coils supplied as cont inuous feeding electrodes are usually copper-coated. This provides some corrosio n resistance, ensures good electrical contacts and helps in smooth feeding. Rust and mechanical damage should be avoided in such products, as they will both int errupt smooth feeding of the electrode. Rust will be detrimental to weld quality generally since rust is a hygroscopic material (may contain or absorb moisture) and thus it can lead to hydrogen induced cracking. Contamination by carbon cont aining materials such as oil, grease, paint and drawing lubricants is especially harmful with ferrous metals. Carbon pick-up in the weld metal can cause a marke d and usually undesirable change in properties. Such contaminants may also resul t in hydrogen being absorbed in the weld pool. Welders should always follow the manufacturers recommendations for consumables storage and handling Rev 1 January 2010 Submerged Arc Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 Process Characteristics In the USA the TIG process is also called gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). TIG w elding is a process where melting is produced by heating with an arc struck betw een a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece. An inert gas is used to shield the electrode and weld zone to prevent oxidation of the tungsten elect rode and atmospheric contamination of the weld and hot filler wire (as shown bel ow). Manual TIG welding. Tungsten is used because it has a melting point of 3370C, which is well above any other common metal. The power source is of the constant current type. Rev 1 January 2010 TIG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2 Process Variables The main variables in TIG welding are: Welding current Current type and polarity Travel speed Shape of tungsten electrode tip and vertex angle Shielding gas flo w rate Each of these variables is considered in more detail in the following subsection s. 2.1 Welding current Weld penetration is directly related to welding current. If the welding current is too low, the electrode tip will not be properly heated and an unstable arc ma y result. If the welding current is set too high, the electrode tip might overhe at and melt, leading to tungsten inclusions. 2.2 Current type and polarity With steels DC electrode negative is used. Materials which have refractory oxide s such as those of aluminium or magnesium are welded using AC or DC electrode po sitive which break up the oxide layer. With a DC positively connected electrode, heat is concentrated at the electrode tip and therefore for DC positive welding the electrode needs to be of greater diameter than when using DC negative if ov erheating of the tungsten is to be avoided. A water-cooled torch is recommended if DC positive is used. The current carrying capacity of a DC positive electrode is about one tenth that of a negative one and it is therefore limited to weldin g thin sections. 2.3 Travel speed Travel speed affects both weld width and penetration but the effect on width is more pronounced than on penetration. Increasing the travel speed reduces the pen etration and width Reducing the travel speed increases the penetration and width Rev 1 January 2010 TIG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.4 Tungsten electrode types Different types of tungsten electrodes can be used to suit different application s: Pure tungsten electrodes are rarely used. Thoriated electrodes are alloyed wi th thorium oxide, typically 2%, to improve arc initiation. They have higher curr ent carrying capacity than pure tungsten electrodes and maintain a sharp tip for longer. Unfortunately, thoria is slightly radioactive (emitting radiation) and the dust generated during tip grinding should not be inhaled. Electrode grinding machines used for thoriated tungsten grinding should be fitted with a dust extr action system. Ceriated and lanthaniated electrodes are alloyed with cerium and lanthanum oxides, for the same reason as thoriated electrodes. They operate succ essfully with DC or AC but since cerium and lanthanum are not radioactive, these types have been used as replacements for thoriated electrodes Zirconiated elect rodes are alloyed with zirconium oxide. Operating characteristics of these elect rodes fall between the thoriated types and pure tungsten. However, since they ar e able to retain a balled end during welding, they are recommended for AC weldin g. Also, they have a high resistance to contamination and so they are used for h igh integrity welds where tungsten inclusions must be avoided. Rev 1 January 2010 TIG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.5

Shape of tungsten electrode tip With DC electrode negative, thoriated, ceriated or lanthanated tungsten elect es are used with the end is ground to a specific angle (the electrode tip angle or vertex angle shown below). As a general rule, the length of the ground portio n of the tip of the electrode should have a length equal to approximately 2 to 2 .5 times the electrode diameter. The tip of the electrode is ground flat to mini mise the risk of the tip breaking off when the arc is initiated or during weldin g (shown below). If the vertex angle is increased, the penetration increases. If the vertex angle is decreased, bead width increases. For AC welding, pure or zi rconiated tungsten electrodes are used. These are used with a hemispherical (ball ed) end (as shown below). In order to produce a balled end the electrode is groun ded, an arc initiated and the current increased until it melts the tip of the el ectrode. Electrode tip angle (or vertex angle) Electrode tip with with flat end Electrode tip with a balled end 3 Filler Wires and Shielding Gases These are selected on the basis of the materials being welded. See the relevant chapter in these notes. Rev 1 January 2010 TIG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4 Tungsten Inclusions Small fragments of tungsten that enter a weld will always show up on radiographs (because of the relatively high density of this metal) and for most application s will not be acceptable. Thermal shock to the tungsten causing small fragments to enter the weld pool is a common cause of tungsten inclusions and is the reaso n why modern power sources have a current slope-up device to minimise this risk. This device allows the current to rise to the set value over a short period and so the tungsten is heated more slowly and gently. 5 Crater Cracking Crater cracking is one form of solidification cracking and some filler metals ca n be sensitive to it. Modern power sources have a current slope-out device so th at at the end of a weld when the welder switches off the current it reduces grad ually and the weld pool gets smaller and shallower. This means that the weld poo l has a more favourable shape when it finally solidifies and crater cracking can be avoided. 6 Common Applications of the TIG Process These include autogenous welding of longitudinal seams, in thin walled pipes and tubes, in stainless steel and other alloys, on continuous forming mills. Using filler wires, TIG is used for making high quality joints in heavier gauge pipe a nd tubing for the chemical, petroleum and power generating industries. It is als o in the aerospace industry for such items as airframes and rocket motor cases. Rev 1 January 2010 TIG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

7 Advantages of the TIG Process It produces superior quality welds, with very low levels of diffusible hydrogen and so there is less danger of cold cracking. It does not give weld spatter nor slag inclusions which makes it particularly suitable for applications that requi re a high degree of cleanliness (eg pipework for the food and drinks industry, s emiconductors manufacturing, etc). It can be used with filler metal and on thin sections without filler; it can produce welds at relatively high speed. It enabl es welding variables to be accurately controlled and is particularly good for co ntrolling weld root penetration in all positions of welding. It can be used to w eld almost all weldable metals, including dissimilar joints, but is not generall y used for those with low melting points such as lead and tin. The method is esp ecially useful in welding the reactive metals with very stable oxides such as al uminium, magnesium, titanium and zirconium. The heat source and filler metal add itions are controlled independently and thus it is very good for joining thin ba se metals. 8 Disadvantages of the TIG Process It gives low deposition rates compared with other arc welding processes. There i s a need for higher dexterity and welder co-ordination than with MIG/MAG or MMA welding. It is less economical than MMA or MIG/MAG for sections thicker than ~10 mm. It is difficult to fully shield the weld zone in draughty conditions and so may not be suitable for site/field welding Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode is allowed to contact the weld pool. The process does not have any cle aning action and so has low tolerance for contaminants on filler or base metals. Rev 1 January 2010 TIG Welding Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 Definitions (see BS EN ISO 6520-1) Imperfection: Any deviation from the ideal weld. Defect: An unacceptable imperfe ction. Classification of imperfections according to BS EN ISO 6520-1: This stand ard classifies the geometric imperfections in the case of fusion welding, dividi ng them into six groups: 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cracks Cavities Solid inclusions Lack of fu sion and penetration Imperfect shape and dimension Miscellaneous imperfections It is important that an imperfection is correctly identified thus allowing for t he cause to be identified and actions taken to prevent further occurrence. 2 Cracks Definition: An imperfection produced by a local rupture in the solid state, whic h may arise from the effect of cooling or stresses. Cracks are more significant than other types of imperfection, as their geometry produces a very large stress concentration at the crack tip, making them more likely to cause fracture. Type s of crack: Longitudinal Transverse Radiating (cracks radiating from a common po int) Crater Branching (a group of connected cracks originating from a common cra ck) These cracks can be situated in the: Weld metal HAZ Parent metal Exception: Crater cracks are found only in the weld metal. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Depending on their nature, these cracks can be: Hot cracks (ie solidification cr acks liquation cracks) Precipitation induced cracks (ie reheat cracks, present i n creep resisting steels) Cold cracks (ie hydrogen induced cracks) Lamellar tear ing 2.1 Hot cracks Depending on their location and mode of occurrence, hot cracks can be: Solidific ation cracks: occur in the weld metal (usually along the centreline of the weld) as a result of the solidification process Liquation cracks: occur in the coarse grain HAZ, in the near vicinity of the fusion line as a result of heating the m aterial to an elevated temperature, high enough to produce liquation of the low melting point constituents placed on grain boundaries. 2.2 Solidification cracks Generally, solidification cracking can occur when: Weld metal has a high carbon or impurity (sulphur etc) element content Depth-to-width ratio of the solidifyin g weld bead is large (deep and narrow) Disruption of the heat flow condition occ urs, eg stop/start condition The cracks can be wide and open to the surface like shrinkage voids or sub-surfa ce and possibly narrow. Solidification cracking is most likely to occur in compo sitions, which result in a wide freezing temperature range. In steels this is co mmonly created by a higher than normal content of carbon and impurity elements s uch as sulphur Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

and phosphorus. These elements segregate during solidification, so that intergra nular liquid films remain after the bulk of the weld has solidified. The thermal shrinkage of the cooling weld bead can cause these to rupture and form a crack. It is important that the welding fabricator does not weld on or near metal surfa ces covered with scale or which have been contaminated with oil or grease. Scale can have high sulphur content, and oil and grease can supply both carbon and su lphur. Contamination with low melting point metals such as copper, tin, lead, an d zinc should also be avoided. 2.3 Hydrogen induced cracks Root (underbead) crack. Toe crack. Hydrogen induced cracking occurs primarily in the grain-coarsened region of the HAZ, and is also known as cold cracking, delayed cracking or underbead/toe crack ing. Underbead cracking lies parallel to the fusion boundary, and its path is us ually a combination of intergranular and transgranular cracking. The direction o f the principal residual tensile stress can, for toe cracks, cause the crack pat h to grow progressively away from Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

the fusion boundary towards a region of lower sensitivity to hydrogen cracking, when this happens, the crack growth rate decreases and eventually arrests. A com bination of four factors is necessary to cause HAZ hydrogen cracking: 1 2 3 4 Hy drogen level Stress Temperature Susceptible microstructure > 15ml/100g of weld m etal deposited > 0.5 of the yield stress < 3000C > 400HV hardness If any one factor is not satisfied, cracking is prevented. Therefore, cracking c an be avoided through control of one or more of these factors. Apply slow down the cooling rate and thus avoid the formation of susceptible microstr uctures) Maintain a specific interpass temperature (same effect as preheat) Post heat on completion of welding (to reduce the hydrogen content by allowing hydro gen to effuse from the weld area) Apply PWHT (to reduce residual stress and elim inate susceptible microstructures) Reduce weld metal hydrogen by proper selectio n of welding process/ consumable (eg use TIG welding instead MMA, use basic cove red electrodes instead cellulose ones) Use multi-run instead single-run techniqu e (eliminate susceptible microstructures by means of self tempering effect, redu ce the hydrogen content by allowing hydrogen to effuse from the weld area) Use a temper bead or hot pass technique (same effect as above) Use austenitic or nick el filler (avoid susceptible microstructure formation and allow hydrogen diffusi on out of critical areas) Use dry shielding gases (reduce hydrogen content) Clea n joint from rust (avoid hydrogen contamination from moisture present in the rus t) Reduce residual stress Blend the weld profile (reduce stress concentration at the toes of the weld) Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

2.4 Lamellar tearing Lamellar tearing occurs only in rolled steel products (primarily plates) and its main distinguishing feature is that the cracking has a terraced appearance. Cra cking occurs in joints where: A thermal contraction strain occurs in the through -thickness direction of steel plate Non-metallic inclusions are present as very thin platelets, with their principal planes parallel to the plate surface Contraction strain imposed on the planar non-metallic inclusions results in prog ressive decohesion to form the roughly rectangular holes which are the horizonta l parts of the cracking, parallel to the plate surface. With further strain, the vertical parts of the cracking are produced, generally by ductile shear crackin g. These two stages create the terraced appearance of these cracks. Two main opt ions are available to control the problem in welded joints liable to lamellar te aring: Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

 Use a clean steel with guaranteed through-thickness properties (Z grade) a combi nation of joint design, restraint control and welding sequence to Minimise the r isk of cracking. 3 Cavities Cavity Gas cavity: formed by entrapped gas Shrinkage cavity: caused by shrinkage during solidification Gas pore Uniformly distributed porosity Clustered (localised) porosity Linear po rosity Elongated cavity Worm-hole Surface pore Interdendritic shrinkage Crater pipe Microshrinkage Interdendritic microshrinkage Transgranular microshrinkage Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3.1 Gas pore Description: A gas cavity of essentially spherical shape trapped within the weld metal. This gas cavity can be present in various forms: Isolated Uniformly dist ributed porosity Clustered (localised) porosity Linear porosity Elongated cavity Surface pore Prevention Use dry electrodes in good condition Clean prepared sur face Check hose connections Use electrode with sufficient deoxidation activity R educe voltage and arc length Identify risk of reaction before surface treatment is applied Optimise gas flow rate Causes Damp fluxes/corroded electrode (MMA) Grease/hydrocarbon/water contaminati on of prepared surface Air entrapment in gas shield (MIG/MAG TIG) Incorrect/insu fficient deoxidant in electrode, filler or parent metal Too high an arc voltage or arc length Gas evolution from priming paints/surface treatment Too high a shi elding gas flow rate which results in turbulence (MIG/MAG TIG) Comments: Note that porosity can either be localised or finely dispersed voids t hroughout the weld metal. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3.2 Worm holes Description: Elongated or tubular cavities formed by entrapped gas during the so lidification of the weld metal; they can occur singly or in groups. Causes Gross contamination of preparation surface Laminated work surface Crevices in work su rface due to joint geometry Prevention Introduce preweld cleaning procedures Rep lace parent material with an unlaminated piece Eliminate joint shapes which prod uce crevices Comments: Wormholes are caused by the progressive entrapment of gas between the solidifying metal crystals (dendrites) producing characteristic elongated pores of circular cross-section. These elongated pores can appear as a herring-bone ar ray on a radiograph. Some of them may break the surface of the weld. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3.3 Surface porosity Description: A gas pore that breaks the surface of the weld. Causes Damp or cont aminated surface or electrode Low fluxing activity (MIG/MAG) Excess sulphur (par ticularly freecutting steels) producing sulphur dioxide Loss of shielding gas du e to long arc or high breezes (MIG/MAG) Too high a shielding gas flow rate which results in turbulence (MIG/MAG TIG) Prevention Clean surface and dry electrodes Use a high activity flux Use high manganese electrode to produce MnS, note free -cutting steels (high sulphur) should not normally be welded Improve screening a gainst draughts and reduce arc length Optimise gas flow rate Comments: The origins of surface porosity are similar to those for uniform poros ity. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

3.4 Crater pipe Description: A shrinkage cavity at the end of a weld run. The main cause is shri nkage during solidification. Causes Lack of welder skill due to using processes with too high a current Inoperative crater filler (slope out) (TIG) Prevention R etrain welder Use correct crater filling techniques Comments: Crater filling is a particular problem in TIG welding due to its low h eat input. To fill the crater for this process it is necessary to reduce the wel d current (slope out) in a series of descending steps until the arc is extinguis hed. 4 Solid Inclusions Definition: Solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld metal. Solid inclusion Slag inclusion Flux inclusion Oxide inclusion Metallic inclusion Tungsten Copper Linear Isolated Clustered Other Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4.1 Slag inclusions Description: Slag trapped during welding. The imperfection is of an irregular sh ape and thus differs in appearance from a gas pore. Causes Incomplete slag remov al from underlying surface of multipass weld Slag flooding ahead of arc Preventi on Improve inter-run slag removal Entrapment of slag in work surface Position work to gain control of slag. Welder needs to correct electrode angle D ress work surface smooth Comments: A fine dispersion of inclusions may be present within the weld metal, particularly if the MMA process is used. These only become a problem when large or sharp-edged inclusions are produced. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4.2 Flux inclusions Description: Flux trapped during welding. The imperfection is of an irregular sh ape and thus differs in appearance from a gas pore. Appear only in case of flux associated welding processes (ie MMA, SAW and FCAW). Causes Unfused flux due to damaged coating Flux fails to melt and becomes trapped in the weld (SAW or FCAW) Prevention Use electrodes in good condition Change the flux/wire. Adjust weldin g parameters ie current, voltage etc to produce satisfactory welding conditions 4.3 Oxide inclusions Description: Oxides trapped during welding. The imperfection is of an irregular shape and thus differs in appearance from a gas pore. Causes Heavy mill scale/ru st on work surface Prevention Grind surface prior to welding Comments: A special type of oxide inclusion is puckering. This type of defect oc curs especially in the case of aluminium alloys. Gross oxide film enfoldment can occur due to a combination of unsatisfactory protection from atmospheric contam ination and turbulence in the weld pool. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

4.4 Tungsten inclusions Description: Particles of tungsten can become embedded during TIG welding. This imperfection appears as a light area on radiographs due to the fact that tungste n is denser than the surrounding metal and absorbs larger amounts of X/gamma rad iation. Causes Contact of electrode tip with weld pool Contact of filler metal w ith hot tip of electrode Contamination of the electrode tip by spatter from the weld pool Exceeding the current limit for a given electrode size or type Extensi on of electrode beyond the normal distance from the collet, resulting in overhea ting of the electrode Inadequate tightening of the collet Inadequate shielding g as flow rate or excessive wind draughts resulting in oxidation of the electrode tip Prevention Keep tungsten out of weld pool; use HF start Avoid contact betwee n electrode and filler metal Reduce welding current; adjust shielding gas flow r ate Reduce welding current; replace electrode with a larger diameter one Reduce electrode extension and/or welding current Splits or cracks in the electrode Inadequate shielding gas (eg use of argon-oxygen or argon-carbon dioxide mixture s that are used for MAG welding) Tighten the collet Adjust the shielding gas flow rate; protect the weld area; en sure that the post gas flow after stopping the arc continues for at least 5 seco nds Change the electrode, ensure the correct size tungsten is selected for the g iven welding current used Change to correct gas composition Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5 5.1 Lack of Fusion and Penetration Lack of fusion Definition: Lack of union between the weld metal and the parent metal or between the successive layers of weld metal. Lack of fusion Lack of sidewall fusion Lack of inter-run fusion Lack of root fusion Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5.1.1 Lack of sidewall fusion Description: Lack of union between the weld and parent metal at one or both side s of the weld. Causes Low heat input to weld Prevention Increase arc voltage and /or welding current; decrease travel speed Improve electrode angle and work posi tion; increase travel speed Improve edge preparation procedure Molten metal flooding ahead of arc Oxide or scale on weld preparation Excessive inductance in MAG dip Reduce inductance, even if this transfer welding increases spatter Comments: During welding sufficient heat must be available at the edge of the we ld pool to produce fusion with the parent metal. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5.1.2 Lack of inter-run fusion Description: A lack of union along the fusion line, between the weld beads. Caus es Low arc current resulting in low fluidity of weld pool Too high a travel spee d Inaccurate bead placement Prevention Increase current Reduce travel speed Retr ain welder Comments: Lack of inter-run fusion produce crevices between the weld beads and c ause local entrapment of slag. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5.1.3 Lack of root fusion Description: Lack of fusion between the weld and parent metal at the root of a w eld. Causes Low heat input Excessive inductance in MAG dip transfer welding, MMA electrode too large (low current density) Use of vertical down welding Large ro ot face Small root gap Incorrect angle or incorrect electrode manipulation Exces sive misalignment at root Prevention Increase welding current and/or arc voltage ; decrease travel speed Use correct induction setting for the parent metal thick ness Reduce electrode size Switch to vertical up procedure Reduce root face Ensu re correct root opening Use correct electrode angle. Ensure welder is fully qual ified and competent Ensure correct alignment 5.2 Lack of penetration Lack of penetration Incomplete penetration Incomplete root penetration Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5.2.1 Incomplete penetration Description: The difference between the actual and nominal penetration. Causes E xcessively thick root face, insufficient root gap or failure to cut back to soun d metal in a back gouging operation Low heat input Excessive inductance in MAG d ip transfer welding, pool flooding ahead of arc MMA electrode too large (low cur rent density) Use of vertical down welding Prevention Improve back gouging techn ique and ensure the edge preparation is as per approved WPS Increase welding cur rent and/or arc voltage; decrease travel speed Improve electrical settings and p ossibly switch to spray arc transfer Reduce electrode size Switch to vertical up procedure Comments: If the weld joint is not of a critical nature, ie the required strengt h is low and the area is not prone to fatigue cracking, it is possible to produc e a partial penetration weld. In this case incomplete root penetration is consid ered part of this structure and is not an imperfection (this would normally be d etermined by the design or code requirement). Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

5.2.2 Incomplete root penetration Description: One or both fusion faces of the root are not melted. When examined from the root side, you can clearly see one or both of the root edges unmelted. Causes and prevention: Same as for lack of root fusion. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6 6.1 Imperfect Shape and Dimensions Undercut Description: An irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal or in a previously deposited weld metal due to welding. It is characterised by its dept h, length and sharpness. Undercut Continuous undercut Intermittent undercut Inter run undercut Causes Melting of top edge due to high welding current (especially at free edge) or high travel speed Attempting a fillet weld in horizontal vertical position ( PB) with leg length >9mm Excessive/incorrect weaving Incorrect electrode angle I ncorrect shielding gas selection (MAG) Prevention Reduce power input, especially approaching a free edge where overheat ing can occur Weld in the flat position or use multirun techniques Reduce weavin g width or switch to multiruns Direct arc towards thicker member Ensure correct gas mixture for material type and thickness (MAG) Comments: Care must be taken during weld repairs of undercut to control the heat input. If the bead of a repair weld is too small, the cooling rate following we lding will be excessive and the parent metal may have an increased hardness and the weld may be susceptible to hydrogen cracking. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.2 Excess weld metal Description: Excess weld metal is the extra metal that produces excessive convex ity in fillet welds and a weld thickness greater than the parent metal plate in butt welds. This feature of a weld is regarded as an imperfection only when the height of the excess weld metal is greater than a specified limit. Causes Excess arc energy (MAG, SAW) Shallow edge preparation Faulty electrode manipulation or build-up sequence Incorrect electrode size Too slow a travel speed Incorrect el ectrode angle Wrong polarity used (electrode polarity DC-VE (MMA, SAW ) Preventi on Reduction of heat input Deepen edge preparation Improve welder skill Reduce e lectrode size Ensure correct travel speed is used Ensure correct electrode angle is used Ensure correct polarity ie DC +VE Note DC-VE must be used for TIG Comments: The term reinforcement used to designate this feature of the weld is mis leading since the excess metal does not normally produce a stronger weld in a bu tt joint in ordinary steel. This imperfection can become a problem, as the angle of the weld toe can be sharp, leading to an increased stress concentration at t he toes of the weld and fatigue cracking. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.3 Excess penetration Description: Projection of the root penetration bead beyond a specified limit ca n be local or continuous. Causes Weld heat input too high Incorrect weld prepara tion ie excessive root gap, thin edge preparation, lack of backing Use of electr ode unsuited to welding position Lack of welder skill Prevention Reduce arc volt age and/or welding current; increase welding speed Improve workpiece preparation Use correct electrode for position Retrain welder Comments: Note that the maintenance of a penetration bead having uniform dimensi ons requires a great deal of skill, particularly in pipe butt welding. This can be made more difficult if there is restricted access to the weld or a narrow pre paration. The use of permanent or temporary backing bars can be used to assist i n the control of penetration. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.4 Overlap Description: An imperfection at the toe of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it. Causes Poor electrode mani pulation (MMA) High heat input/low travel speed causing surface flow of fillet w elds Incorrect positioning of weld Wrong electrode coating type resulting in too high a fluidity Prevention Retrain welder Reduce heat input or limit leg size t o 9mm maximum leg size for single pass fillets. Change to flat position Change e lectrode coating type to a more suitable fast freezing type which is less fluid Comments: For a fillet weld overlap is often associated with undercut, as if the weld pool is too fluid the top of the weld will flow away to produce undercut a t the top and overlap at the base. If the volume of the weld pool is too large i n case of a fillet weld in horizontal-vertical position (PB), weld metal will co llapse due to gravity, producing both defects (undercut at the top and overlap a t the base). This defect is called sagging. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.5 Linear misalignment Description: Misalignment between two welded pieces such that while their surfac e planes are parallel, they are not in the required same plane. Causes Inaccurac ies in assembly procedures or distortion from other welds Excessive out of flatn ess in hot rolled plates or sections Prevention Adequate checking of alignment p rior to welding coupled with the use of clamps and wedges Check accuracy of roll ed section prior to welding Comments: Misalignment is not really a weld imperfection, but a structural prepa ration problem. Even a small amount of misalignment can drastically increase the local shear stress at a joint and induce bending stress. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.6 Angular distortion Description: Misalignment between two welded pieces such that their surface plan es are not parallel or at the intended angle. Causes and prevention: Same as for linear misalignment. 6.7 Incompletely filled groove Description: A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld due t o insufficient deposition of weld filler metal. Causes Insufficient weld metal I rregular weld bead surface Prevention Increase the number of weld runs Retrain w elder Comments: This imperfection differs from undercut, as incompletely filled groove reduces the load bearing capacity of a weld, whereas undercut produces a sharp stress-raising notch at the edge of a weld. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.8 Irregular width Description: Excessive variation in width of the weld. Causes Severe arc blow Ir regular weld bead surface Prevention Switch from DC to AC, keep an as short as p ossible arc length Retrain welder Comments: Although this imperfection may not affect the integrity of completed w eld, it can affect the width of HAZ and reduce the load-carrying capacity of the joint (in case of fine-grained structural steels) or impair corrosion resistanc e (in case of duplex stainless steels). Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.9 Root concavity Description: A shallow groove that occurs due to shrinkage at the root of a butt weld. Causes Insufficient arc power to produce positive bead Incorrect prep/fit -up Excessive backing gas pressure (TIG) Lack of welder skill Slag flooding in b acking bar groove Prevention Raise arc energy Work to WPS Reduce gas pressure Re train welder Tilt work to prevent slag flooding Comments: The use of a backing strip can be used to control the extent of the ro ot bead. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6.10 Burn through Description: A collapse of the weld pool resulting in a hole in the weld. Causes Insufficient travel speed Excessive welding current Lack of welder skill Excess ive grinding of root face Excessive root gap Prevention Increase the travel spee d Reduce welding current Retrain welder More care taken, retrain welder Ensure c orrect fit up Comments: This is a gross imperfection, which occurs basically due to lack of we lder skill. It can be repaired by bridging the gap formed into the joint, but re quires a great deal of attention. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

7 7.1 Miscellaneous Imperfections Stray arc Description: Local damage to the surface of the parent metal adjacent to the wel d, resulting from arcing or striking the arc outside the weld groove. The result is in form of random areas of fused metal where the electrode, the holder, or c urrent return clamp has accidentally touched the work. Causes Poor access to the work Missing insulation on electrode holder or torch Failure to provide an insu lated resting place for the electrode holder or torch when not in use Loose curr ent return clamp Prevention Improve access (modify assembly sequence) Institute a regular inspection scheme for electrode holders and torches Provide an insulat ed resting place Regularly maintain current return clamps Adjusting wire feed (MAG welding) Retra in welder without isolating welding current Comments: An arc strike can produce a hard HAZ, which may contain cracks. These can lead to serious cracking in serv ice. It is better to remove an arc strike by grinding than weld repair. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

7.2 Spatter Description: Globules of weld metal or filler metal expelled during welding and adhering to the surface of parent metal or solidified weld metal. Causes High ar c current Long arc length Magnetic arc blow Incorrect settings for GMAW process Damp electrodes Wrong selection of shielding gas (100% CO2) Prevention Reduce ar c current Reduce Arc Length Reduce arc length or switch to AC power Modify elect rical settings (but be careful to maintain full fusion!) Use dry electrodes Incr ease argon content if possible, however too high a % of argon may lead to lack o f penetration Comments: Spatter in itself is a cosmetic imperfection and does not affect the i ntegrity of the weld. However as it is usually caused by an excessive welding cu rrent, it is a sign that the welding conditions are not ideal and so there are u sually other associated problems within the structure ie high heat input. Note t hat some spatter is always produced by open arc consumable electrode welding pro cesses. Anti-spatter compounds can be used on the parent metal to reduce stickin g and the spatter can then be scraped off. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

7.3 Torn surface Description: Surface damage due to the removal by fracture of temporary welded a ttachments. The area should be ground off, then subjected to a dye penetrant or magnetic particle examination and then restored to its original shape by welding using a qualified procedure. NOTE: Some applications do not allow the presence of any overlay weld on the surface of the parent material. 7.4 7.4.1 Additional imperfections Grinding mark Description: Local damage due to grinding. 7.4.2 Chipping mark Description: Local damage due to the use of a chisel or other tool s. 7.4.3 Underflushing Description: Lack of thickness of the workpiece due to excessive g rinding. 7.4.4 Misalignment of opposite runs Description: Difference between the centrelines of two runs made from opposite sides of the joint. 7.4.5 Temper colour (visible oxide film) Description: Lightly oxidised surface in the weld zone. Usually occurs in case of stainless steels. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

8 Acceptance Standards Weld imperfections can seriously reduce the integrity of a welded structure. The refore, prior to service of a welded joint, it is necessary to locate them using NDE techniques, assess their significance, and take action to avoid their re-oc currence. The acceptance of a certain size and type of defect for a given struct ure is normally expressed as the defect acceptance standard. This is usually inc orporated in application standards or specifications. All normal weld imperfecti on acceptance standards totally reject cracks. However, in exceptional circumsta nces, and subject to the agreement of all parties, cracks may be allowed to rema in if it can be demonstrated beyond doubt that they will not lead to failure. Th is can be difficult to establish and usually involves fracture mechanics measure ments and calculations. It is important to note that the levels of acceptability vary between different applications, and in most cases vary between different s tandards for the same application. Consequently, when inspecting different jobs it is important to use the applicable standard or specification quoted in the co ntract. Once unacceptable weld imperfections have been found, they have to be re moved. If the weld imperfection is at the surface, the first consideration is wh ether it is of a type, which is normally shallow enough to be repaired by superf icial dressing. Superficial implies that, after removal of the defect, the remai ning material thickness is sufficient not to require the addition of further wel d metal. If the defect is too deep, it must be removed by some means and new wel d metal added to ensure a minimum design throat thickness. Replacing removed met al or weld repair (as in filling an excavation or remaking a weld joint) has to be done in accordance with an approved procedure. The rigor with which this proc edure is qualified will depend on the application standard for the job. In some cases it will be acceptable to use a procedure qualified for making new joints w hether filling an excavation or making a complete joint. If the level of reassur ance required is higher, the qualification will have to be made using an exact s imulation of a welded joint, which is excavated and then refilled using a specif ied method. In either case, qualification inspection and testing will be require d in accordance with the application standard. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Imperfections Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Weld repairs can be divided into two specific areas: 1 2 Production repairs In s ervice repairs The reasons for making a repair are many and varied. Typically, they range from the removal of weld defects induced during manufacture to a quick and temporary running-repair to an item of production plant. In these terms, the subject of we lding repairs is also wide and varied and often confused with maintenance and re furbishment where the work can be scheduled. With planned maintenance and refurb ishment, sufficient time can be allowed to enable the tasks to be completed with out production pressures being applied. In contrast, repairs are usually unplann ed and may result in shortcuts being taken to allow the production programme to continue. It is, therefore, advisable for a fabricator to have an established po licy on repairs and to have repair methods and procedures in place. The manually controlled welding processes are the easiest to use, particularly if it is a lo cal repair or one to be carried out on-site. Probably the most frequently used o f these processes is manual metal arc (MMA) as this is versatile, portable and r eadily applicable to many alloys because of the wide range of off-the-shelf cons umables. Repairs almost always result in higher residual stresses and increased distortion compared with first time welds. With carbon-manganese and low/medium alloy steels, the application of preheat and post-weld heat treatments may be re quired. There are a number of key factors that need to be considered before unde rtaking any repair. The most important being a judgement as to whether it is fin ancially worthwhile. Before this judgement can be made, the fabricator needs to answer the following questions: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired? Are there any alternatives to welding? What c aused the defect and is it likely to happen again? How is the defect to be remov ed and what welding process is to be used? Which non-destructive testing (NDT) i s required to ensure complete removal of the defect? Will the welding procedures require approval/re-approval? What will be the effect of welding distortion and residual stress? Will heat treatment be required? What NDT is required and how can acceptability of the repair be demonstrated? Will approval of the repair be required - if yes, how and by whom? Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Although a weld repair may be a relatively straightforward activity, in many ins tances it can be quite complex and various engineering disciplines may need to b e involved to ensure a successful outcome. It is recommended that there be an on going analysis of the types of defect carried out by the Q/C department to disco ver the likely reason for their occurrence, (Material/process or skill related.) In general terms, a welding repair involves: 1 2 3 4 5 6 A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the defect. This may involve the use of a surface o r sub-surface NDT methods. Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint grease et c) Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified and marked ou t. An excavation procedure may be required (method used ie grinding, arc-air gou ging, preheat requirements etc). NDT should be used to locate the defect and con firm its removal. A welding repair procedure/method statement with the appropria te* welding process, consumable, technique, controlled heat input and interpass temperatures etc will need to be approved. Use of approved welders. Dressing the weld and final visual. NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to ensu re that the defect has been successfully removed and repaired. Any post repair h eat treatment requirements. Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried o ut after heat treatment requirements. Applying protective treatments (painting e tc as required). 7 8 9 10 11 12 (*Appropriate means suitable for the alloys being repaired and may not apply in s pecific situations) 1 Production Repairs Repairs are usually identified during production inspection and evaluation of th e reports is usually carried out by the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator. Disc ontinuities in the welds are only classed as defects when they are outside the p ermitted range permitted by the applied code or standard. Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need to be fulfilled: Analysis As this defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion face the problem could be cracki ng or lack of sidewall fusion. If the defect is found to be cracking the cause m ay be associated with the material or the welding procedure, however if the defe ct is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned to the lack of skill of th e welder. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Assessment In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, magneti c particle inspection (MPI) or dye penetrant inspection (DPI) may be used to gau ge the length of the defect and ultrasonic testing (U/T) used to gauge the depth . A typical defect is shown below: Plan view of defect Excavation If a thermal method of excavation is being used ie arc-air gouging it may be a requirement to qualify a procedure as the heat generated may have an a ffect on the metallurgical structure, resulting in the risk of cracking in the w eld or parent material Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

To prevent cracking it may be necessary to apply a preheat. The depth to width r atio shall not be less than 1 (depth) to 1 (width) ideally 1 to 1.5 would be rec ommended (ratio: depth 1 to the width 1.5). Side view of excavation for slight sub surface defect W D Side view of excavation for deep defect W D Side view of excavation for full root repair Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Cleaning of the excavation At this stage grinding of the repair area is importan t, due to the risk of carbon becoming impregnated into the weld metal/parent mat erial. It should be ground back typically 3 to 4mm to bright metal. Confirmation of excavation At this stage NDT should be used to confirm that the defect has been completely excavated from the area. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Re-welding of the excavation Prior to re-welding of the excavation a detailed re pair welding procedure/ method statement shall be approved. Typical side view of weld repair NDT confirmation of successful repair After the excavation has been filled the w eldment should then undergo a complete retest using the same NDT techniques as p reviously used to establish the original repair, this is carried out to ensure n o further defects have been introduced by the repair welding process. NDT may al so need to be further applied after any additional post-weld heat treatment has been carried out. 2 In-Service Repairs Most in-service repairs can be of a very complex nature, as the component is ver y likely to be in a different welding position and condition than it was during production. It may also have been in contact with toxic or combustible fluids he nce a permit to work will need to be sought prior to any work being carried out. The repair welding procedure may look very different to the original production procedure due to changes in these elements. Other factors may also be taken int o consideration, such as the effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the comp onent ie electrical components, or materials that may become damaged by the repa ir procedure. This may also include difficulty in carrying out any required preor post-welding heat treatments and a possible restriction of access to the are a to be repaired. For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must also take place on-site and without a shut down of operations, which may bring other elements that need to be considered. Repair of in service defects may require co nsideration of these and many other factors, and as such are generally considere d more complicated than production repairs. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Joining technologies often play a vital role in the repair and maintenance of st ructures. Parts can be replaced, worn or corroded parts can be built up, and cra cks can be repaired. When a repair is required it is important to determine two things: firstly, the reason for failure and, secondly, can the component actuall y be repaired? The latter point infers that the material type is known. For meta ls, particularly those to be welded, the chemical composition is vitally importa nt. Failure modes often indicate the approach required to make a sound repair. W hen the cause-effect analysis, however simple, is not followed through it is oft en the case that the repair is unsafe - sometimes disastrously so. In many insta nces, the Standard or Code used to design the structure will define the type of repair that can be carried out and will also give guidance on the methods to be followed. Standards imply that when designing or manufacturing a new product it is important to consider a maintenance regime and repair procedures. Repairs may be required during manufacture and this situation should also be considered. No rmally, there is more than one way of making a repair. For example, cracks in ca st iron might be held together or repaired by: pinning, bolting, riveting, weldi ng, or brazing. The method chosen will depend on factors such as the reason for the failure, the material composition and cleanliness, the environment and the s ize and shape of the component. It is very important that repair and maintenance welding are not regarded as activities, which are simple or straightforward. In many instances a repair may seem undemanding but the consequences of getting it wrong can be catastrophic failure with disastrous consequences. Is welding the best method of repair? If repair is called for because a component has a local i rregularity or a shallow defect, grinding out any defects and blending to a smoo th contour might well be acceptable. It will certainly be preferable if the stee l has poor weldability or if fatigue loading is severe. It is often better to re duce the socalled factor of safety slightly, than to risk putting defects, stres s concentrations and residual stresses into a brittle material. In fact brittle materials - which can include some steels (particularly in thick sections) as we ll as cast irons - may not be able to withstand the residual stresses imposed by heavy weld repairs, particularly if defects are not all removed, leaving stress concentrations to initiate cracking. Is the repair really like earlier repairs? Repairs of one sort may have been routine for many years. It is important, howe ver, to check that the next one is not subtly different. For example, the sectio n thickness may be greater; the steel to be repaired may be different and less w eldable, or the restraint higher. If there is any doubt, answer the remaining qu estions. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

What is the composition and weldability of the base metal? The original drawings will usually give some idea of the steel involved, although the specification l imits may then have been less stringent, and the specification may not give enou gh compositional details to be helpful. If sulphur-bearing free-machining steel is involved, it could give hot cracking problems during welding. If there is any doubt about the composition, a chemical analysis should be carried out. It is i mportant to analyse for all elements, which may affect weldability (Ni, Cr, Mo, Cu, V, Nb and B) as well as those usually, specified (C, S, P, Si and Mn). A sma ll cost spent on analysis could prevent a valuable component being ruined by ill -prepared repairs or, save money by reducing or avoiding the need for preheat if the composition were leaner than expected. Once the composition is known, a wel ding procedure can be devised What strength is required from the repair? The hig her the yield strength of the repair weld metal, the greater will be the residua l stress level on completion of welding, the greater the risk of cracking, the g reater the clamping needed to avoid distortion and more difficulty in formulatin g the welding procedure. In any case, the practical limit for the yield strength of conventional steel weld metals is about 1000N/mm2. Can preheat be tolerated? Not only does a high level of preheat make conditions more difficult for the we lder; the parent steel can be damaged if it has been tempered at a low temperatu re. In other cases the steel being repaired may contain items, which are damaged by excessive heating. Preheat levels can be reduced by using consumables of ult ra-low hydrogen content or by non-ferritic weld metals. Of these, austenitic ele ctrodes may need some preheat, but the more expensive nickel alloys usually do n ot. However, the latter may be sensitive to high sulphur and phosphorus contents in the parent steel if diluted into the weld metal. Can softening or hardening of the heat affected zone (HAZ) be tolerated? Softening of the HAZ is likely in very high strength steels, particularly if they have been tempered at low temper atures. Such softening cannot be avoided, but its extent can be minimised. Hard HAZs are particularly vulnerable where service conditions can lead to stress cor rosion. Solutions containing H2S (hydrogen sulphide) may demand hardness below 24 8HV (22HRC) although fresh aerated seawater appears to tolerate up to about 450H V. Excessively hard HAZs may, therefore, require post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) to soften them but provided cracking has been avoided. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Is PWHT practicable? Although it may be desirable, PWHT may not be possible for the same reasons that preheating is not possible. For large structures, local PW HT may be possible, but care should be taken to abide by the relevant codes, bec ause it is all too easy to introduce new residual stresses by improperly execute d PWHT. Is PWHT necessary? PWHT may be needed for one of several reasons, and th e reason must be known before considering whether it can be avoided. Will the fa tigue resistance of the repair be adequate? If the repair is in an area, which i s highly stressed by fatigue, and particularly if the attempted repair is of a f atigue crack, inferior fatigue life can be expected unless the weld surface is g round smooth and no surface defects are left. Fillet welds, in which the root ca nnot be ground smooth, are not tolerable in areas of high fatigue stress. Will t he repair resist its environment? Besides corrosion, it is important to consider the possibility of stress corrosion, corrosion fatigue, thermal fatigue and oxi dation in service. Corrosion and oxidation resistance usually requires that the composition of the filler metal is at least as noble or oxidation resistant as t he parent metal. For corrosion fatigue resistance, the repair weld profile may n eed to be smoothed. To resist stress corrosion, PWHT may be necessary to restore the correct microstructure, reduce hardness and reduce the residual stress left by the repair. Can the repair be inspected and tested? For onerous service, rad iography and/or ultrasonic examination are often desirable, but problems are lik ely if stainless steel or nickel alloy filler is used; moreover, such repairs ca nnot be assessed by magnetic particle inspection. In such cases, it is particula rly important to carry out the procedural tests for repairs very critically, to ensure that there are no risks of cracking and no likelihood of serious welder-i nduced defects. Indeed, for all repair welds, it is vital to ensure that the wel ders are properly motivated and carefully supervised. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

As-welded repairs Repair without PWHT is, of course, normal where the original w eld was not heat treated, but some alloy steels and many thick-sectioned compone nts require PWHT to maintain a reasonable level of toughness, corrosion resistan ce etc. However, PWHT of components in service is not always easy or even possib le, and local PWHT may give rise to more problems than it solves except in simpl e structures. Rev 1 January 2010 Weld Repairs Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

1 General Working in a safe manner, whether in the workshop or on site, is an important co nsideration in any welding operation. The responsibility for safety is on the in dividuals, not only for their own safety, but also for other peoples safety. The Visual/Welding Inspector has an important function in ensuring that safe working legislation is in place and safe working practices are implemented. The Inspect or may be required to carry out safety audits of welding equipment prior to weld ing, implement risk assessment/permit to work requirements or monitor the safe w orking operations for a particular task, during welding. There are a number of d ocuments that the inspector may refer to for guidance: Government legislation Th e Health & Safety at Work Act. Health & Safety Executive COSHH Regulations, Stat utory instruments. Work or site instructions permits to work, risk assessment do cuments etc Local authority requirements. There are four aspects of arc welding safety that the Visual/Welding Inspector needs to consider Electric shock Heat a nd light Fumes and gases Noise 2 Electric Shock The hazard of electric shock is one of the most serious and immediate risks faci ng personnel involved in the welding operation. Contact with metal parts, which are electrically hot, can cause injury or death because of the effect of the sho ck upon the body or because of a fall as a result of the reaction to electric sh ock. The electric shock hazard associated with arc welding may be divided into t wo categories: Primary voltage shock - 230 or 460V Secondary voltage shock - 60 to 100V Rev 1 January 2010 Arc Welding Safety Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Primary voltage shock is very hazardous because it is much greater than the seco ndary voltage of the welding equipment. Electric shock from the primary (input) voltage can occur by touching a lead inside the welding equipment with the power to the welder switched on while the body or hand touches the welding equipment case or other earthed metal. Residual circuit devices (RCDs) connected to circui t breakers of sufficient capacity will help to protect the welder and other pers onnel from the danger of primary electric shock. Secondary voltage shock occurs when touching a part of the electrode circuit - perhaps a damaged area on the el ectrode cable - and another part of the body touches both sides of the welding c ircuit (electrode and work, or welding earth) at the same time. Most welding equ ipment is unlikely to exceed open circuit voltages of 100V. Electric shock, even at this level can be serious, so the welding circuit should be fitted with low voltage safety devices, to minimise the potential of secondary electric shock. A correctly wired welding circuit should contain three leads: A welding lead, fro m one terminal of the power source to the electrode holder or welding torch. A w elding return lead to complete the circuit, from the work to the other terminal of the power source. An earth lead, from the work to an earth point. The power s ource should also be earthed. All three leads should be capable of carrying the highest welding current required. In order to establish whether the capacity of any piece of current carrying equipment is adequate for the job, the Visual/ Wel ding Inspector can refer to the Duty Cycle of the equipment. All current carryin g welding equipment is rated in terms of: Duty cycle All current carrying conduc tors heat up when welding current is passed through them. Duty cycle is essentia lly a measure of the capability of the welding equipment in terms of the ratio o f welding time to total time, which can be expressed as: Duty cycle = Welding ti me x 100 Total time By observing this ratio the current carrying conductors will not be heated above their rated temperature. Duty cycles are based on a total time of 10 minutes. Rev 1 January 2010 Arc Welding Safety Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Example A power source has a rated output of 350A at 60% duty cycle. This means that this particular power source will deliver 350A (its rated output) for six m inutes out of every ten minutes without overheating. Failure to carefully observ e the duty cycle of a piece of equipment can over stress the part, and in the ca se of welding equipment cause overheating leading to instability and the potenti al for electric shock. 3 3.1 Heat and Light Heat In arc welding, electrical energy is converted into heat energy and light energy , both of which can have serious health consequences. The welding arc creates sp arks, which have the potential to cause flammable materials near the welding are a to ignite and cause fires. The welding area should be clear of all combustible materials and it is good practice for the Inspector to know where the nearest f ire extinguishers are situated and know the correct type of fire extinguisher to use if a fire does break out. Welding sparks can cause serious burns, so protec tive clothing, such as welding gloves, flame retardant coveralls and leathers mu st be worn around any welding operation in order to protect against heat and spa rks. 3.2 Light Light radiation is emitted by the welding arc in three principal ranges: Type Infrared (heat) Visible light Ultraviolet radiation Wavelength, nanometres >700 400-700 <400 3.2.1 Ultraviolet radiation (UV) All arc processes generate UV. Excess exposure to UV causes skin inflammation, and possibly even skin cancer or permanent eye damage. However the main risk amongst welders and Inspectors is for inflammation of the cornea and conjunctiva, commonly known as arc eye or flash. Rev 1 January 2010 Arc Welding Safety Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Arc eye is caused by UV radiation. This damages the outmost protective layer of cells in the cornea. Gradually the damaged cells die and fall off the cornea exp osing highly sensitive nerves in the underlying cornea to the comparatively roug h inner part of the eyelid. This causes intense pain, usually described as sand in the eye. The pain becomes even more acute if the eye is then exposed to brigh t light. Arc eye develops some hours after exposure, which may not even have bee n noticed. The sand in the eye symptom and pain usually lasts for 12-24 hours, b ut can be longer in more severe cases. Fortunately, arc eye is almost always a t emporary condition. In the unlikely event of prolonged and frequently repeated e xposures, permanent damage can occur. Treatment of arc eye is simple: rest in a dark room. A qualified person or hospital casualty department can administer var ious soothing anaesthetic eye drops. These can provide almost instantaneous reli ef. Prevention is better than cure and wearing safety glasses with side shields will considerably reduce the risk of this condition. Ultraviolet effects upon th e skin The UV from arc processes does not produce the browning effect of sunburn ; but does result in reddening and irritation caused by changes in the minute su rface blood vessels. In extreme cases, the skin may be severely burned and blist ers may form. The reddened skin may die and flake off in a day or so. Where ther e has been intense prolonged or frequent exposure, skin cancers can develop. 3.2 .2 Visible light Intense visible light particularly approaching UV or blue light wavelengths passes through the cornea and lens and can dazzle and, in extreme c ases, damage the network of optically sensitive nerves on the retina. Wavelength s of visible light approaching the infrared have slightly different effects but can produce similar symptoms. Effects depend on the duration and intensity of ex posure and to some extent, upon the individuals natural reflex action to close the eye and exclude the incident light. Normally this dazzling does not produce a long-term effect. 3.2.3 Infrared radiation Infrared radiation is of longer wav elength than the visible light frequencies, and is perceptible as heat. The main hazard to the eyes is that prolonged exposure (over a matter of years) causes a gradual but irreversible opacity of the lens. Fortunately, the infrared radiati on emitted by normal welding arcs causes damage only within a comparatively shor t distance from the arc. There is an immediate burning sensation in the skin sur rounding the eyes should they be exposed to arc heat. The natural human reaction is to move or cover up to prevent the skin heating, which also reduces eye expo sure. Rev 1 January 2010 Arc Welding Safety Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

BS EN169 specifies a range of permanent filter shades of gradually increasing op tical density which limit exposure to radiation emitted by different processes a t different currents. It must be stressed that shade numbers indicated in the st andard and the corresponding current ranges are for guidance only. 4 4.1 Fumes and gases Fumes Because of the variables involved in fume generation from arc welding and allied processes (such as the welding process and electrode, the base metal, coatings on the base metal and other possible contaminants in the air), the dangers of we lding fume can be considered in a general way. Although health considerations va ry according to the type of fume composition and individual reactions, the follo wing holds true for most welding fume. The fume plume contains solid particles f rom the consumables, base metal and base metal coating. Depending on the length of exposure to these fumes, most acute effects are temporary and include symptom s of burning eyes and skin, dizziness, nausea and fever. For example, zinc fumes can cause metal fume fever, a temporary illness that is similar to the flu. Chr onic, long-term exposure to welding fumes can lead to siderosis (iron deposits i n the lungs) and may affect pulmonary function. Cadmium, however, is a different story. This toxic metal can be found on steel as a coating or in silver solder. Cadmium fumes can be fatal even under brief exposure, with symptoms much like t hose of metal fume fever. These two should not be confused. Twenty minutes of we lding in the presence of cadmium can be enough to cause fatalities, with symptom s appearing within an hour and death five days later. 4.2 Gases The gases that result from an arc welding process also present a potential hazar d. Most of the shielding gases (argon, helium and carbon dioxide) are non-toxic. When released, however, these gases displace oxygen in the breathing air, causi ng dizziness, unconsciousness and death the longer the brain is denied oxygen. S ome degreasing compounds such as trichlorethylene and perchlorethylene can decom pose from the heat and ultraviolet radiation to produce toxic gases. Ozone and n itrogen oxides are produced when UV radiation hits the air. These gases cause he adaches, chest pains, irritation of the eyes and itchiness in the nose and throa t. Rev 1 January 2010 Arc Welding Safety Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

To reduce the risk of hazardous fumes and gases, keep the head out of the fume p lume. As obvious as this sounds, it is a common cause of fume and gas over-expos ure because the concentration of fumes and gases is greatest in the plume. In ad dition, use mechanical ventilation or local exhaust at the arc to direct the fum e plume away from the face. If this is not sufficient, use fixed or movable exha ust hoods to draw the fume from the general area. Finally, it may be necessary t o wear an approved respiratory device if sufficient ventilation cannot be provid ed. As a rule of thumb, if the air is visibly clear and the welder is comfortabl e, the ventilation is probably adequate. To identify hazardous substances, first read the material safety data sheet for the consumable to see what fumes can be reasonably expected from use of the product. Refer to the Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) as defined in the COSHH regulations which gives maximum concentrati ons to which a healthy adult can be exposed to any one substance. Second, know t he base metal and determine if a paint or coating would cause toxic fumes or gas es. Particular attention should also be made to the dangers of asphyxiation when welding in confined spaces. Risk assessment, permits to work and gas testing ar e some of the necessary actions required to ensure the safety of all personnel. 5 Noise Exposure to loud noise can permanently damage hearing. Noise can also cause stre ss and increase blood pressure. Working in a noisy environment for long periods can contribute to tiredness, nervousness and irritability. If the noise exposure is greater than 85 decibels averaged over an 8 hour period then hearing protect ion must be worn, and annual hearing tests should be carried out. Normal welding operations are not associated with noise level problems with two exceptions: Pl asma arc welding and air carbon arc cutting. If either of these two operations i s to be performed then hearing protectors must be worn. The noise associated wit h welding is usually due to ancillary operations such as chipping, grinding and hammering. Hearing protection must be worn when carrying out, or when working in the vicinity of, these operations. Rev 1 January 2010 Arc Welding Safety Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

6 Summary The best way to manage the risks associated with welding is by implementing risk management programmes. Risk management is a method that requires the identifica tion of hazards, assessment of the risks and implementation of suitable controls to reduce the risk to an acceptable level. It is essential to evaluate and revi ew a risk management programme. Evaluation involves ensuring that control measur es have eliminated or reduced the risks, and review aims to check that the proce ss is working effectively to identify hazards and manage risks. It is quite like ly that the Visual/Welding Inspector would be involved in managing the risks ass ociated with welding as part of their duties. Rev 1 January 2010 Arc Welding Safety Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Ultrasonic Inspection Report Reference Number: IR 7 Weld Reference: wn10 Sheet: 1 of 1 Welder No: 1 Weld Preparation 40 Material Type: Carbon Mn Steel (Plate) Surface Condition: As Welded Welding Proc ess: M.M.A 2 Ultrasonic Unit: USM 3 Couplant: Probe and Frequency 70 4 MHZ 60 10 MHZ Size MAP MAP Sensitivity Setting F.S.H From 1.5mm Hole F.S.H From 1.5 mm Hole Report: Longitudinal and Transverse carried out from surface side only. Lack of side wall fusion located using 60 probe. Action: Name: Signature: Date: Qualification Details: Place stamp here

Magnetic Particle Report Reference Number: MT 101 Sheet 1 of 1 Weld Reference: wn 78 m Welder No: Weld Preparation Material Type: Surface Condition: Carbon Mn steel (Plate) As Welded GTAW 20 Welding Process: 2 Method of Magnetisation Parallel Conductors, AC Yoke 240v, Spacing 4inch One Dir ection used only. Black Ink to BS4069 Not Used Dye Penetrant Method Report: Slight Sub-Surface indication 157mm from datum Action: No action required Name: Robert Staines Signature: S. Staines Date: 30/04/08 Qualification Details: Place Stamp here

Radiographic Report Reference Number: IR 12 wn 10 Sheet 1 of 1 Welder No: NA Weld Reference: Weld Preparation Material Type: Surface Condition: Welding Process: Carbon Mn Steel (Plate) As Welded Sub-Arc 2nd Side Back Gouged. 35 5.0 Radiographic Equipment/Gamma: MA________ Film Type & Size: Development time & Te mp: Radiographic Technique: FFD/SFD: Co 60 30cms AGFA D4 8min @ 16c DWDI KV: 150 Source Strength: 100C 1Hr Exposure Time: Focal Spot/Source Dimensions: 3x3mm Screens: IQI Type: 0.125 Lead-Rear Only 13 C u EN 462 Film Identification Sensitivity Density Comments Action A-B 1.9 2.5 150mm From A, Lack of Penetration B-C 1.9 2.2 3mm from B Transverse Crack, or Film Mark C-D 1.9 2.2

No Defects Observed Name: Tom Farthing Signature: T. Farthing Date: 19/06/08 Qualification Details: PCN Place Stamp Here PCN PCN PCN

Appendix 3 Senior Welding Inspector Fractured Surfaces TWI WIS10 Preparatory for CSWIP (3.2) Exam Fatigue Failure Fatigue is a mechanism of failure experienced by materials under the action of a cyclic stress. It involves initiation and growth of a crack under an applied st ress amplitude that may lay well within the static capacity of the material. Dis continuities such as changes in section or material flaws are favoured sites for fatigue initiation. During subsequent propagation the crack grows a microscopic amount with each load cycle. The crack so-formed often remains tightly closed, and thus difficult to find by visual inspection during the majority of the life. If cracking remains undiscovered, there is a risk that it may spread across a s ignificant portion of the load-bearing cross section, leading to final separatio n by fracture of the remaining ligament, or another failure mode may intervene s uch as jamming of a mechanism. Fatigue occurs in metals, plastics, composites an d ceramics. It is the most common mode of failure in structural and mechanical e ngineering components. Fatigue failure is synonymous with the aviation industry where square window frames within the initial design of the first commercial jet airliner the Comet 4 C caused fatigue failures and tragic loss of life on 2 ful l commercial aircraft at around 10,000 hrs of flight time before the fracture me chanism was fully identified and re-mediated and is the reason why we look out o f oval windows whenever we should fly by jet aircraft. The phenomenon has been i nvestigated extensively over many decades, particularly in metals and alloys. As a result, design guidance is readily available in many texts and is widely codi fied. Joints in materials are particularly susceptible to fatigue and therefore need to be designed with care for cyclic loading. Fatigue design rules for welde d and bolted connections in steel can be found in many national standards, e.g. BS 7608 and BS 5400 widely used in the UK. Morphology Fatigue cracks generally exhibit a smooth surface and propagate at 90 to the dire ction of applied stress. The initiation points can usually be identified as weld flaws/features, machining marks or geometrical stress raisers. In some instance s striations and beach marks can be seen. Striations can be viewed using and ele ctron microscope and are records of the crack growing under each loading cycle. Beach marks can be view with the naked eye and can indicate a change in loading pattern. Both of these phenomena can be used to estimate the fatigue crack growt h rate. Fatigue cracks continue to grow until the increasing level of stress can not be supported with the final few cycles inducing larger amounts of fracture s urface and final fracture occurs. 1

The final fracture surface will show an area of fatigue failure emanating from t he fracture initiation point, with the fractured surface characterised by beach marks. These beach marks may no longer be visible due to burnishing caused by me tal/metal contact, though the final beach mark at the point of final failure is as a rule generally always present. Striations (x1500) Beach marks initiation site arrowed Fatigue design The standard method of representing fatigue test data is on an S-N curve. This p lots either the stress or strain range on the y-axis and the number of cycles to failure on the x-axis. The lower the stress range, the more cycles are required to cause failure. When potted on logarithmic axes the data for a particular spe cimen type can be approximated to a straight line between 105 and 107 cycles. Un der constant amplitude loading conditions most materials exhibit a fatigue limit . It is believed that tests performed at stress ranges below this limit will nev er cause a fatigue failure. For un-welded steels the fatigue limit occurs at app roximately 2 million cycles, for welded steels and aluminium alloys this is clos er to 10 million cycles. Because of the relatively low fatigue limit, aircraft c omponents made from aluminium alloys have a finite lifespan, after which they ar e replaced. Fatigue is generally independent of rate of loading and temperature except at very high temperatures when creep is likely. However, the presence of a 2

corrosive environment (e.g. sea-water) can have a significant detrimental effect on fatigue performance in the form of corrosion fatigue. log (stress or strain) Strain control Load control R = -1 S-N curve 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 log (life in cycles, N) 10 7 10 8 Typical S-N curve Flaw assessment In welded joints, fabrication flaws may give rise to premature fatigue failure, particularly planar flaws such as lack of fusion. Using fracture mechanics, the rate at which fatigue cracking will grow from such features can be estimated, an d in this way tolerable flaw sizes can be derived. British Standard 7910 provide s detailed guidance on this method of assessment. Factors to be considered when investigating a fatigue failure Fatigue cracks initiate at areas of stress concentration such as discontinuities , weldments or sires of mechanical damage. They are a result of cyclic loading a nd can occur at stress ranges well below the materials UTS. It is of prime import ance to understand the nature (vibration, thermal, mechanical etc.) and magnitud e of the loading in order to prevent failure. Often the final failure of the com ponent/structure will be due to brittle or ductile fracture, therefore the fract ure surface will show a combination of failure modes. Remediation For weldments where fatigue is known to be a problem, life extension techniques such as weld toe burr machining, TIG dressing and peening can be used. These are effective but labour intensive and therefore expensive. 3

Brittle fracture Brittle fracture is the rapid run of a crack(s) through a stressed material. The re is very little prior plastic deformation and so failures occur without warnin g. In brittle fracture the cracks run close to perpendicular to the applied stre ss, leaving a relatively flat surface at the break. A brittle fracture surface m ay exhibit one or more of the following features. Some fractures have lines and ridges beginning at the origin of the crack and spreading out across the crack s urface. Others, some steels for example, have back-to-back Vshaped Chevron marking s pointing to the origin of the crack. Amorphous materials such as ceramic glass have a shiny smooth fracture surface and very hard or finegrained materials may show no special pattern. Chevron fracture surface Radiating ridge fracture surface In common with fatigue fractures all brittle fr actures require a point of initiation, and therefore generally formed at areas o f high stress concentration. This could be from a weld toe, undercut, arc strike , or could possibly be at the tip of a freshly initiated fatigue crack, as is th ough to have been the case with the Liberty Vessels sunk during the Second World War and which often sailed through the icy cold and tempestuous Arctic Ocean in order to avoid detection and destruction from the German U Boat torpedoes. Fati gue cracks are though to have initiated at the square hatches through bad design , as in order to increase shipping production faster than shipping losses due to sinking the Liberty Vessels were the first welded vessels in the history of shi p construction. 4

Ductile Fracture When compared with brittle fractures, ductile fractures move relatively slowly a nd the failure is usually accompanied by a large amount of plastic deformation. Ductile fracture surfaces have larger necked regions and an overall rougher appe arance than a brittle fracture surface. The failure of many ductile materials ca n be attributed to cup and cone fracture. This form of ductile fracture occurs i n stages that initiate after necking begins. 5

Plane strain effect A condition in linear elastic fracture mechanics in which there is zero strain i n a direction normal to both the axis of applied tensile stress and the directio n of crack growth. Under plane strain conditions, the plane of fracture instabil ity is normal to the axis of principal stress. This condition is found in thick plates. Along the crack border stress conditions change from plane strain in the body of the metal towards plane stress at the surface, this is displayed by the appearance of thin bands, caused by intense shear, that break through to the fr ee surface. The structure now becomes a mechanism, and where plasticity breaks t hrough to the surface shear lips will be observed. Plane strain fracture: - plastic zone diameter ro much less than sample thicknes s Synopsis 1) Fatigue failures Generally produce beach marks indicating boundaries of plastic slip, generally > x 1 x 106 cycles. The fracture initiation point forms generally from a stress c oncentration ie weld toe, crack, or an abrupt change in section and can generall y be identified at the epicentre of the beach mark/radii. Never the final, but v ery often the first mode of fracture, fatigue failures are generally normal (90) to the plain of the applied cyclic stress. 2) Ductile failures Generally occur at 45 to plain of the applied stress with the fracture surface ha ving a rough or torn appearance. They may often occur as the second or final mod e of failure in a fatigue specimen where the CSA can no longer support the load and are generally accompanied by shear lips. (Local plastic deformation) 6

3) Brittle failures Generally occur at 90 to plane of the applied stress with the fracture surface ha ving a smooth crystalline appearance. Again the fracture initiation point forms generally from a stress concentration ie welded toe, crack, or abrupt change in section and can be often be identified by the presence of chevrons, which point to the fracture initiation point. Failures that initiate as brittle fractures ar e unlikely to show evidence representing any other forms of fracture morphology upon their surfaces. When in initiated as brittle fractures these surfaces do no t show any plastic indications and if initiated as such will remain purely as br ittle fractures, traveling in excess of the speed of sound. 4) Plane strain effect Flat areas occurring at 90 indicating plane strain effect may also appear central ly upon fractured surfaces, and are caused by the inelastic behavior in larger m aterial thickness, in otherwise ductile specimens. It is thus possible to find a single fracture surface showing 1 2 and 4 of the above characteristics, as in t he ductile CTOD or crack tip opening displacement test shown below. 1. Machined notch 2 2. Fatigue crack 3. Plane strain effect 4 3 4 4 4. Ductile plastic failu re indicating shear lips 1 7

Material Sheet and Test Certificate EN 10204: 3.2 Certificate Number: Name & Address: 424239-D TW Granta Park Abingt on Cambridge CB21 6AL Invoice Number: 9789-08 Date: 10 June 2008 Customer order No: TS0127 Description: Fine Grain Weldable Pressure Vessel Steel Specification: EN10028-3 1993 Grade: P355NL1 19 Cast No. 20721 %C 0.15 %Si 0.38 %Mn 1.42 %S 0.04 Ladle Analysis %P 0.05 %Cr 0.04 %Ni 0.04 %Mo 0.002 %Nb 0.004 %V 0.005 Mechanical and Physical Properties Mill Identification Plate Number Batch Number Quantity Description mm Weight Kgs Surface Condition Normalised EN 10 163-2 Cla ss B3 QF6134 44466 012 N/A 25 1 25 x 3360 x 6740 5060 Tensile Strength Rm N/mm2 Yield Strength Re N/mm2 El% on Gauge length of 80mm 21 200mm 32 KJ 112 C -50 Impact Values J 1 71 2 91 3 75 avg 79 VPN 10 Value NA STRA El% NA 539 417 Special Requests: Ultrasonic examination in accordance with BSEN 10160:1999 Clas s S3 TWI Steel Works Third Party Authorising QA Engineer

BS EN 10028-3 1993 Flat products made of steel for pressure purposes Designation Mechanical Properties min unless stated Steel Name (Part) Thickness Yield Stress Re N/mm2 275 265 255 235 225 355 345 325 315 295 Tensile Strength Rm N/mm2 390/510 390/510 390/510 370/490 350/470 490/630 490/63 0 490/630 470/610 450/590 Elongation A mm 35 >3550 >5070 >70100 >100150 35 >3550 >5070 >70100 >100150 % 24 24 24 23 23 22 22 22 21 21 P275 P355 P460 16 >1635 >3550 >5070 >70100 >100150 460 450 440 420 400 380 570/720 570/720 570/720 570/720 540/710 520/690 17 17 17 17 16 16

BS EN 100028-3: 1993 Flat products made of Steels for pressure purpose Minimum impact energy KV in J in Normalised condition (N) -50 PN PNH PNL1 PNL2 Longi tudinal 27 27 30 -40 34 34 40 -20 40 47 47 65 0 47 55 55 90 20 55 63 63 100 Longitudinal Longitudinal Longitudinal BS EN 10028-3: 1993 Flat products made of Steels for pressure purposes Designation Chemical composition % by mass max unless stated Steel Name P275N P275NH P275NL1 P275NL2 P355N P355NH P355NL1 P355NL2 P460N P460N H P460NL1 P460NL2 C 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.20 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 Si 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 Mn 1.40 1.40 1.50 1.50 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 P 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 S .025 .025 .02 .015 .025 .025 .025 .015 .025 .020 .020 .015 Cr 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 Mo 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 Ni 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 Nb 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Ti 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 V 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 Al 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 .025 .025 .025 .025 Cu 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 200 100 141 135 4 5 6 H H z6 4 6 ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 QTY 1 2 2 2 1 2 Parts List PART NUMBER 2166-C010 2166-C011 2166-C012 2166-C013 2166-C014 2166-C0 15 DESCRIPTION 350x350x12 150x75x12 250x150x12 300x125x12 200x150x12 60 OD 5 WALL 8 0 LONG z8 111 G 135 25 G M AT E RIA L :- 12 TH IC K C A RB O N S TE E L 25 N O T E :- A LL BU T T W E LD S TO B E FU LL

PE N E T R A TIO N F RO M O N E S ID E 3 2 a6 135 F F z6 135 135 z6 135 z6 E z6 135 E 13 2 3 1 135 25 111 135 z6 D D 135 300 150 150 125 80 80 C C 250 150

n60 n50 125 150 B 75 B 20x45~ 350 75 DRAWN 75 pde CHECKED A 3 AN GL E RD 350 13/01/2009 TITLE DIM E N S IO N S IN M ILIM E T RE S GE N E R AL 2 1 DE CI M AL DE CI M AL OT H E R P L ACE D I M E N S I ON S A N G U L A R D I M E N S I ON S MFG P L ACE S ASSEMBLY BRACKET T OL E R AN CE S 0 . 0 5

0 . 1 0 0 . 5 0 1 5
A N7 N5 T WI L t d G R A N T A P A R K GR E AT AB I N G T ON CAM B R I D G E CB 2 1 - 6 AL - U K T H I S D OC U M E N T G E O M E T R I C T OL E R A N C E SY M B OL S T O B S3 9 3 9 A M AY N OT BE C OP I E D OR ROVED SIZE C DWG NO

2009 D I S C L OS E D THE TO A TH IRD WR I T T E N P ART Y C ON S E N T OF WI T H O U T T WI Lt d . REV SCALE A A1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2166-C001B 1:2 SHEET A 2 12 11 10 9 1 OF 1 1

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 200 H 100 141 Parts List PART NUMBER QTY 1 2166-C010 2 2166-C011 2 2166-C012 2 2166-C013 1 216 6-C014 2 2166-C015 H ITEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 G DESCRIPTION 350x350x12 150x75x12 250x150x12 300x125x12 200x150x12 60 OD 5 WALL 8 0 LONG 135 z6 4 4 5 z8 6 6 111 135 M AT E RIA L :- 12 TH IC K C A RB O N S TE E L 25

G 25 N O T E :- A LL BU T T W E LD S TO B E FU LL PE N E T RA TION F RO M ON E S ID E 3 2 a6 F 135 F z6 135 135 z6 z6 135 E z6 E 135 13 2 3 1 135 D 25 111 z6 135 D 135 300 150 150 125

80 80 C C 250 150 n60 n50 125 150 B 75 B 20x45~ 350 350 75 DRAWN 75 pde CHECKED QA MFG APPROVED TITLE 13/01/2009 3 A N G LE RD DIM E N S IO N S IN M ILIM E T RE S TO LE R AN C E S 0 .0 5 G EN ER AL 2 1 D E C IM A L D E C IM A L P LA C E P LA C E S

0 .1 0 0 .5 0 1 5
A N 7 N 5 OTH ER D IM E N S IO N S D IM E N S IO N S T W I L td G R A N T A P A R K G R E A T A B IN G T O N C A M B R ID G E C B 2 1

- 6 A L T H IS DOCU M EN T TO A W R IT T E N M AY N OT BE OF C O P IE D T W I L td . OR ASSEMBLY BRACKET SIZE DWG NO REV U K A AN G U LAR G E O M E T R IC T O L E R A N C E SY M B O LS TO B S393 9 C 2009 D IS C L O S E D TH E T H IR D PARTY W IT H O U T A1 SCALE CON SEN T 2166-C001B 1:2 2 SHEET A 1 OF 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 1

8 1 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 4000 900 1200 2000 n570 2 1150 3 136 F 136 F 4 500 CAST S/S INSPECTION 2400 E E 25 25 700 400 400 A 600 D D 800 8 5 2980 10 100 9

100 z4 WPS 1400 135 20 141 7 C CAST S/S OUTLET VALVE 141 10 z5 C 11 1520 CAST S/S INLET VALVE 135 z6 150 N OT E :- S H E LL 15 TH IC K 50 50 D ISH E N D S P R E - F AB M AT E R IAL :- M A IN V E S SE LL 3 16 L 1 8% / 8% . SU P PO R T F RA M E C AR B ON S TE E L 45 B 30 B 20 W E LD P RO C E D U RE U S E D :H E ALTH A N D S AF E TY C O N C E RN S :B U ILD SE Q U E N C E :DRAWN 50 700 pde CHECKED QA MFG APPROVED TITLE A

2350 2400 C O N SU M AB LE S :06/02/2008 3 AN G LE RD DIM E N SION S IN M ILLIM E T R E S T O LE R A N C E S 0 .0 5 A G EN ERAL 2 1 D E C IM A L D E C IM A L P LA C E P LA C E S

0 .1 0 0 .5 0 1 5
OTH ER D IM E N S IO N S D IM E N S IO N S N 7 N 5 T W I L td G R A N T A P A R K G R E A T A B IN G T O N C A M B R ID G E C B 2 1 - 6 A L T H IS DOCU M EN T TO A W R IT T E N M AY N OT BE OF C O P IE D T W I L td . OR VESSEL FABRICATION A SIZE DWG NO REV U K A N G U LA R G E O M E T R IC T O L E R A N C E S Y M B O LS T O B S 3 9 3 9 C 2008 D IS C L O S E D TH E T H IR D PARTY W IT H O U T A2 SCALE 1400

135 z4 SE C TIO N A- A 6 CON SEN T TES2115-A001 1:20 2 SHEET A 1 1 OF 1 8 7 6 5 4 3

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 4000 1150 2 3 136 900 1200 4 2000 n570 F 136 F 500 CAST S/S INSPECTION 25 25 700 400 400 2400 E E A 600 5 D D

800 2980 100 9 100 8 z4 WPS 1400 135 20 7 141 C CAST S/S OUTLET VALVE 141 10 z5 C 11 1520 CAST S/S INLET VALVE 135 z6 50 D ISH E N D S P R E - F AB M AT E R IAL :- M A IN V E S SE LL 3 16 L 1 8% / 8% . SU P PO R T F RA M E C AR B ON S TE E L 150 50 N OT E :- S H E LL 15 TH IC K 30 45 B B 20

W E LD P RO C E D U RE U S E D :H E ALTH A N D S AF E TY C O N C E RN S :B U ILD SE Q U E N C E :C O N SU M AB LE S :DRAWN 50 700 pde CHECKED QA A 2350 2400 06/02/200 TITLE 3 AN GL E RD DIM E N SION S IN M ILLIM E T R E S T OLE RAN CE S 2 D E CI M AL P L A CE S 0 . 0 5 1 D E CI M AL P L A CE OT H E R D I M E N S I ON S AN GU LAR D I M E N S I ON S MFG GEN E RAL VESSEL FABRICATION 0 . 1 0 0 . 5 0 1 5 N7 N5 A 1400 APPROVED SIZE DWG NO REV 135 z4 SE C TIO N A- A 10 6 T WI L t d G R A N T A P A R K G R E AT AB I N G T ON CAM B RI DGE CB 2 1 - 6 AL - U K THIS G E O M E T R I C T OL E R A N C E SY M B OLS T O B S3 9 3 9 A DOCU M E N T M AY N OT BE COP I E D OR C 2008

D I SCL OSE D THE TO A TH IRD WR I T T E N P ART Y CON SE N T OF WI T H O U T T WI Lt d . SCALE A2 5 4 3 TES211 -A001 1:20 SHEET A 2 8 7 6 1 OF 1 1

Further reading Aluminium and its Alloys, F King Ellis Horwood Ltd ISBN 0-7458-0013-0 Welding Al uminium Theory and Practice Aluminium Association ISBN 89-080539 Behaviour and D esign of Aluminium Structures, M L Sharp McGraw Hill ISBN 0-07-056478-7 Metals H andbook Volume 2: Volume 4: Volume 6: Properties and Selection: Non Ferrous Allo ys Heat Treating Welding Brazing and Soldering ASM Handbook Series Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys Ed J R Davis ASM Internationa l ASM Speciality Handbook ISBN 0-87170-496X Welding Kaiser Aluminium Kaiser Alum inium Rev 1 January 2010 Further Reading Copyright TWI Ltd 2010

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector NDT Reports: Quality Check List Radiographic testing BS EN 1330 BS EN 1435 BS EN 444 Terms used in NDT radiological flaw detection Re places BS 3683 Part 3 Methods for radiographic examination of fusion-welded butt joints in steel plate/pipe. Replaces BS 2600 Parts 1 2 Methods for radiographic examination of fusion welded butt joints in steel pipe. Replaces BS 2910 BS EN 462 Part 1 Image Quality Indicators and recommendations for their use Repl aces BS 3971 BS 2737 (current) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Radiology of internal defects in castings as revealed by radiography. Focal spot or source size and strength should be displayed on the apparatus and evidence of this should be available. Calibration of densitometers using a trace able film density strip Regular checks to be carried out on safe lights. Records to be kept of processing solutions including replenisher. Lead and salt screens to be checked regularly. Characteristic curves, exposure charts and IQI charts should be available. Metals strip wedges should be available. Radiation safety m easures should be employed to the latest regulations. Evidence of radiation moni tor calibration should be available. Film storage. 10) Certificate of competency. 11) Film test strips should be used for both manu al and automatic systems. 1

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector Ultrasonic testing BS EN 12668 Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Assessing the performance characteristics of UT equipment Electrical performance of UT equipment Guidance on in-service monitor ing of probes (excluding immersion probes) Replaces BS 4331 Parts 13 Specificatio n for calibration blocks for use in U/T (manual operation) BS 2704 (current) BS EN 585 Parts 1-5 Method of UT examination of welded structures BS EN 1714 rep laces BS 3923 Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 1) 2) 3) 4) Manual examination of fusion weld s in ferritic steels Automatic examination of fusion welded butt joints in ferri tic steels Manual examination of nozzle welds Evidence should be available that regular checks carried out to BS EN 12668 Corr ect calibration blocks are available with evidence of dimensional checks having been carried out Check evidence of certified personnel Identification of equipme nt and probes, beam plots if appropriate 2

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector Penetrant testing BS EN 571 Part 1 BS EN 3059 BS EN 1330 Part 1 1) 2) 3) Penetrant flaw detection Replaces BS 6443 Measurement of UV A radiation (black light) used in NDT Replace s BS 4489 Terms used in NDT: penetrant flaw detection Replaces BS 3683 Part 1 Vapour degreaser for acidity. Date stamp aerosol cans. (1 year life for red dye) Check fluorescent and red penetrant comparison of filter papers by eye or black light monitor. Check for water contamination. Add 50% by volume to manufacturer s quoted water tolerance. If penetrant turns milky it is above the water toleran ce specified. Remover is self-checking. Failure to wash properly. Check temperat ure of wash water max 35C (Use thermometer) Check cleanliness of compressed air l ine. (Use filter paper at 30cm) Check for contamination of developer as follows: Wet developer (Visual inspection for red. Black light inspection for fluorescen t) Dry developer (Visual inspection for dampness eg.Grey in colour, not fluffy. Black light inspection for fluorescent Air circulating oven. Check thermostat . Maximum permissible temp 85 C Black light. Check minimum intensity depending upon type eg 1000W/cm2 20 Lux or 4) 5) 6) 7) a) b) 8) 9) 10) Check level of white light for red dye operation (Minimum 500 Lux) 3

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector Magnetic particle testing BS EN 9934 Parts 1-3 Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection + Inks and Powders Replace s BS 6072 and 4049 BS EN 3059 BS EN 1330 BS 5044 (current) BS 89 (current) 1) 2) Measurement of UV A radiation (Black Light) used in NDT Replaces BS 4489 Terms used in NDT Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection Replaces BS 3683 Part 2 Contrast ai d paints used in MPI Specification for direct acting indicating electrical measu ring instruments and their accessories Vapour degreaser for acidity Ammeter checks. Difference between check ammeter an d m/c ammeter shall not exceed 10% of scale reading. Note check ammeter shall be calibrated to traceable standard Magnetic Ink composition: Non-fluorescent inks not less than 1.25% and not more than 3.5% by volume Fluorescent inks not less than 0.1% and not more than 0.3% by volume Other solids if present not more than 10% by mass of ferromagnetic content Particle size in at least 99% of a represe ntative sample no particle shall exceed 100m Powders in at least 99% of a represe ntative sample no particle shall exceed 200m Test for solid content and general c ondition of inks, agitate ink, place sample of 100ml into settlement flask, allo w to settle for 60 minutes. Read off result to nearest 0.1 ml. Record as solid c ontent by volume. Special test for fluorescent inks: Check ink for evidence of y ellow green fluorescence in the supernatant liquid. If observed discard the ink Functioning test for magnetic inks and powders. Use ring piece Fig 2 BS 4069. Us ing 750 amps (RMS) at least 2 holes should give an indication. Residual magnetis m technique for powders: Use test piece Fig 3 BS 4069 Mount test piece on an ins ulated rod, apply 500 Amps DC through threading bar and apply dry powder to each hole in turn commencing with the hole nearest the surface. powder should be app lied at a distance of 200300mm At least 5 holes should give an indication 4 3) 4) 5)

Magnetic flow technique for inks and powders: Use test piece Fig 4 BS 4069 Magne tise test piece parallel to coil axis or use electro-magnets. The hole should gi ve and indication. Aerosol containers should be date stamped 6) Corrosion test: Use low carbon steel bar 150mm long 12.5mm with surface texture of 3.2 m RA. Part ially immerse the bar in ink sample form minimum of 12 hours at 25 C There should be no evidence of corrosion Black light: Check minimum intensity depending on t ype: 20 Lux or 1.0mW/cm2 or 1000W/cm2 Check level of white light: Minimum 500 Lux Permanent magnet + DC magnets Maximum pole spacing of 150mm For pole spacing le ss than 75mm the lifting capacity shall be not less than 0.24kg/mm of pole spaci ng. If greater than 75mm lifting power shall be >18kg AC electromagnets: For pol e spacing of 300mm or less lifting capacity shall be 4.5kg 7) 8) 9) 5

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector AUDIT of NDT Reports Reports Check List RT 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) Radiographic testing Material type (all types) Time/stage of inspection Place of inspection Procedure /standard number given Radiographic technique (eg DWDI) Screens (type & thicknes s) Type of radiation (gamma/X-ray) Type/strength of source or Kva SFD Type and r ange of IQI Speed of film (characteristic curve) Sensitivity as % (below 2%) Den sity range (2-3.5) Focal spot size Geometric unsharpness (g) Exposure time Develo pment method and time All defects Identified, sized and located 19) NDT technicians qualifications and name 20) Signed stamped and dated 21) BS method BS 2910 (pipe) BS 2600 (plate) Now replaced by BS EN 444

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector AUDIT of NDT Reports Reports Check List UT 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) Ultrasonic testing Material type (large grain lower Hz) Time/stage of inspection Place of inspectio n Procedure/standard number given Shear/compression probe Probe size (usually 10 mm) and type Probe frequency (4-5MHz < 3 for Cu/SS) Probe angle <10 =70 /10-15 = 60-70 >15 = 45 -60 Calibration block (type and hole used) Calibration range Scanning method Surface finish Type of couplant Type of equipment Scanning sensitivity R ecording level Joint configuration and area of weld tested All defects identifie d, sized and located NDT technicians qualifications and name Signed stamped and dated BS method BS 3923 Now replaced by BS EN 585 and BS N 1714

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector AUDIT of NDT Reports Reports Check List MT 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) Magnetic particle testing Material type (ferritic steels only) Time/stage of inspection Place of inspectio n Procedure/standard number given Method (wet/dry fluorescent/contrast etc.) Met hod and standard of surface preparation Method of magnetisation (direct current etc) Equipment type (prod/yoke/magnet/bench) Prod spacing/amperage (7.5 amp/mm) Contrast paint (type and application Test sequence (2 x directions at 90) Poor su rface finish may mask indications Sub surface imperfections (2mm max) Black ligh t 20 Lux or 1000W/cm2 Contrast light minimum 500 Lux Flux measurement strips/kg f orce etc > 50C dry powder inks are used All defects identified, sized and located NDT technicians qualifications & name Signed stamped and dated BS method BS 607 2 & inks BS 4049 Now replaced by BS EN 571

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector AUDIT of NDT Reports Reports Check List PT 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21) Penetrant testing Material type (non-porous only) Time/stage of inspection Place of inspection Pro cedure/standard number given Method (colour contrast/fluorescent) Method & stand ard of surface preparation Surface finish is critical (EB as welded??) Shelf lif e of chemicals (normally 1 year) Penetrant application method (spray/tank) Penet rant dwell time (5-60 minutes) Method of penetrant removal Type and application of developer Evaluation time (10-30 minutes) Black light (20 Lux or 1000W/cm2) Co ntrast light (minimum 500 Lux) Operating temperature range (5-50C) Surface breaki ng only imperfections All defects identified, sized and located NDT technicians qualifications and name Signed stamped and dated Method BS 6443 22) Now replaced by BS EN 9934 Parts 1-3

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector Technical Notes Rad. U/T MPI & Penetrant Radiography: X ray: KV as low as possible = best definition. Generally 60kV lowest is OK for lower density aluminium. Normally a minimum of 140kV is required for steels but must be increased as thickness increases Focal spot: Gamma: The larger the focal spot the longer must be the FFD SFD typically 500mm but varies greatly, double the distance = 4 x original exposure Typical source size of 1.5mm x 1.5mm Ytterb ium: Iridium 192: Cobalt 60: Lead screens: Used on thickness under 12mm (costly) Used for applications thickness 12-60mm Used on thickness over 40 -200mm 0.1mm front and 0.15mm back but often 0.125 front/back Used on all gamma and X-ray abo ve 120kV Typically 4min at 20 C Typically 2-3.5 Typically 2% or less. (IQI damete r of smallest wire/ thicknessx 100) 20 Lux. Viewer able to view up to density of 4. Minimum screen luminance 100,000 cd/m2 Development: Density: Sensitivity: Viewing light conditions: 1

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector Ultrasonic: Probes: Check for lamination Plate thickness <10 mm Plate thickness 10-15mm Plat e thickness 15 + mm Plate thickness >50 mm MHz: Normal welds 0 compression probe 70 60-70 45- 60 45 only 4-5MHz larger grains lower value. Higher value = less pen Re cord crystal size (usually 10mm) single or twin? Which calibration block V1/V2? Hole diameter + depth (side-drilled hole) Record of the type used Sensitivity: Couplant: 2

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector Magnetic Particle: Through paint up to 50 microns With DC sub-surface defects can be detected appro ximately 2mm deep (depends on strength of current) Above 50C up to 3150C usually dry powder Yokes: No current recorded lift off of > 4.5kg Normally AC but can be DC 6 amp/mm of space ie 200mm = 1200 amps Space and amperage must be recorded. 7.520cm (75200mm) Prods: All must record 2 directions at 90 Burmah Castrol Strip type 1 indications of 3 l ines 3

Appendix 2 Senior Welding Inspector Penetrant: Temperature: Dwell/Contact time Evaluation time 10-50 C 560 min 1030min Viewing Light Conditions for Penetrant and MPI: Normal light: Fluorescent: Light levels: 500 Lux minimum Use UVA lamp minimum power 1000 microWatt/cm2 Below 20 Lux ambient light 4

Appendix 1 CSWIP Senior Welding Inspector Question: You are required to visit a site on which your inspection team have been working . The fabrication is now completed in accordance with a nominated specification and is awaiting your final inspection/approval. Prior to signing the Certificate of Conformance; 1) What questions do you ask? 2) What measurements would you ta ke? 3) What documents would you review? Typical answer: Prior to the site visit it is vital to spend some time planning the visit in order that a logical approa ch be made and that important details are not overlooked. Knowledge of the stand ard used and an idea of the service conditions would be useful in assessing the fitness for purpose of the product. A list of all personnel in the inspection te am(s) and contact details of team leader(s) will ensure that relevant personnel are available to answer questions as required. Types of questions may include an y difficulties encountered with the job, particularly attention being given to t hose concerning the contractor. Further information regarding repair rates, safe ty standards on-site and the general moral and standard of work amongst the insp ection team(s) throughout production. Any unusual incidents may also need to be investigated. The availability of quality plans will help greatly in the plannin g of the audit. The review/audit of all relevant documentation is a major requir ement prior to signing any Certificate of Conformance or compliance. In some maj or standards/codes the list of documents to be included within the fabrication f ile are listed. In the absence of such the following could be considered a basic guide to these documents for review/audit: 1) A review of the quality plan and inspection check list to ensure all stages are completed and signed off. 2) Mate rial certificates, mill test reports, and material traceability records are docu mented and accepted. (This may include welding consumables.) 3) Process control procedures should be reviewed for adequacy, accuracy and approval. These should include approved procedures for cutting, welding, repair, NDT, heat treatment, c oating etc. 4) Review of qualifications should include welder approvals, NDT ope rator or technician approvals. All inspection approvals should be in date at tim e of fabrication and as identified and described within the contract documents. 1

5) Inspection reports should be reviewed and should include visual inspection, N DT, dimensional control, painting/coating etc. 6) If the product is pressure con tainment ie pressure vessel or high pressure pipeline etc. then hydrostatic test ing procedures and a test report/acceptance reports should be reviewed, along wi th test gauge calibration certificates and any associated documentation. 7) As b uilt drawings showing materials and weld maps should be reviewed for completenes s. 8) Finally, transit and tie down procedures should all have been approved by the relevant engineer prior to the final acceptance of the product and issue of any signed certificate of conformance. 2

Reference to the specification As-built weld maps weld traceability log Weld num bers Welder numbers Material classification and certification Welding procedure numbers (WPS PQRs) and documentation Material traceability and material certific ates Consumable control procedures and consumable certificates Welders register a nd all approval certificates Weld visual inspection procedures and visual inspec tion reports List of NDT operators and approval certificates NDT procedures NDT Procedures: NDT reports R/T report numbers U/T report numbers MPI report numbers Dye/pen report numbers Dimensional control procedures and dimensional control r eports PWHT procedures and PWHT reports + calibration certificates Hydrotest pro cedures and hydrotest reports + calibration certificates Painting procedures and painting conformance reports Non-conformance reports Load out procedure Enginee ring queries As-built drawings 3