CDA10102

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Communication File Reference: CDA10102
For additional information on this subject, contact J.S. Phillips on 874-6163
Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems
Content
Page
THE PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION OF DATA................................................................... 1 Interconnection Process............................................................................................. 1 Operational Mode ..................................................................................................... 1 Transmission Rate and Bandwidth ............................................................................ 1 Modulation and Encoding ......................................................................................... 1 Equipment Selection ................................................................................................. 2 THE INTERCONNECTION PROCESS .............................................................................. 3 OPERATIONAL MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION..................................................... 5 Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full Duplex ..................................................................... 5 Serial and Parallel Transmission of Data ................................................................... 6 Serial Transmission ....................................................................................... 6 Parallel Transmission .................................................................................... 6 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission .......................................................... 7 Asynchronous (Start-Stop) Transmission....................................................... 7 Synchronous (Block) Transmission ............................................................... 9 Polling and Selecting................................................................................................10 BIT RATE AND BANDWIDTH CALCULATIONS ..........................................................12 Transmission Rates ..................................................................................................12 Bandwidth of the Transmission Link........................................................................13 The Electromagnetic Spectrum .....................................................................13 Bandwidth Definition ...................................................................................14 Nyquist Limit: Bandwidth and Baud Rate Relationship...........................................15 Shannon's Law: Bandwidth and Maximum Bit-Rate Capacity .................................16 Data Encoding and Required Code Levels................................................................18 INTERFACE STANDARDS...............................................................................................20 Mechanical Specifications........................................................................................20 RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface .................................................................................22 Electrical Specification of the RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface.......................23 RS-232E Maximum Cable Length ................................................................25
RS-232 Distance Calculation Example .........................................................25 Functional Specification of the RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface .....................25 Procedural Specifications of the RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface ...................26 Alternative Configurations of the RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface .................27 Null Modem Cable .......................................................................................28 PC Parallel Interface ................................................................................................29 SCSI Parallel Interface .............................................................................................29 RS-449 Serial Interface ............................................................................................30 RS-530 Serial Interface ............................................................................................32 V.35 Serial Interface ................................................................................................33 IEEE-488 Standard Digital Parallel Interface for Programmable Instrumentation .....34 CABLES (BOUND MEDIA) ..............................................................................................36 Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP) ..........................................................................36 EMI..............................................................................................................36 Shielding ......................................................................................................37 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP)......................................................................37 UTP Wire Color Codes.................................................................................39 RJ-45 Modular Connector ............................................................................39 IBM Cable Types .........................................................................................41 Coaxial Cable...........................................................................................................41 Fiber Optic Cable.....................................................................................................43 Fiber Optic Link Attenuation........................................................................49 Fiber Optic Cable Testing.............................................................................49 WIRELESS TECHNIQUES (UNBOUND MEDIA)............................................................51 Wireless LANs.........................................................................................................51 Microwave Radio.....................................................................................................52 HF Radio .................................................................................................................52 Satellites ..................................................................................................................53 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION...............................................................................................54 Neutral or Unipolar NRZ .........................................................................................54 Polar NRZ................................................................................................................54
NRZ Inverted (NRZI) ..............................................................................................55 Bipolar (Alternate Mark Inversion) ..........................................................................55 Manchester Coding ..................................................................................................56 ANALOG TRANSMISSION ..............................................................................................58 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Modulation .............................................................58 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation .............................................................60 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation .....................................................................60 Phase and Amplitude Modulation.............................................................................62 MODEMS ...........................................................................................................................65 ITU-T V-Series Modems..........................................................................................65 Line Drivers and Limited Distance Modems ............................................................67 Line Drivers .................................................................................................67 Limited Distance Modems............................................................................67 Special Modem Features and Capabilities ................................................................68 Reverse and Secondary Channel Modems.....................................................68 Full Duplex Operation ..................................................................................68 Integrated Multiplexing (Multiport) Modems................................................69 Security Features ..........................................................................................69 Digital Simultaneous Voice and Data (DSVD) .............................................69 Cable Modems..............................................................................................70 Compression.................................................................................................70 Expansion (Conditioning).............................................................................70 Distortion and Equalization ..........................................................................70 Hayes Modem Command Structure..........................................................................71 WORK AID 1: HOW TO CALCULATE DB POWER RATIOS........................................72 WORK AID 2: HOW TO CALCULATE MAXIMUM BIT RATE USING SHANNON'S LAW......................................................................73 WORK AID 3: ITU-T MODEM SPECIFICATIONS .........................................................75 WORK AID 4: HAYES COMMAND SET FOR MODEMS ..............................................79 Listing Commands ...................................................................................................79
ADDENDUM A: ENGINEERING BBS - ENROLLMENT FORM ...................................82 ADDENDUM B: CC&OS BBS - ENROLLMENT FORM.................................................83 ADDENDUM C: FIRST CLASS CLIENT INSTALLATION & SETUP ...........................84 PC Installation .........................................................................................................84 Network Installation .....................................................................................84 Alternate Setups ...........................................................................................86 Macintosh Installation ..............................................................................................87 Network Installation .....................................................................................87 Alternate setups:...........................................................................................88
Table of Figures
Page
Figure 1. OSI Physical Layer Activities.................................................................... 3 Figure 2. Interconnection Examples ......................................................................... 4 Figure 3. Simplex, Half-Duplex, Full-Duplex........................................................... 5 Figure 4. Serial Interface .......................................................................................... 6 Figure 5. Parallel Interface ....................................................................................... 7 Figure 6. Asynchronous Transmission...................................................................... 8 Figure 7. Asynchronous Transmission - Idle Time ................................................... 8 Figure 8. Synchronous Transmission........................................................................ 9 Figure 9. Polling and Selecting................................................................................11 Figure 10. Single Bit Transmission (Bit Rate = Baud Rate).....................................12 Figure 11. Two Bit Transmission (Bit Rate = 2X Baud Rate) ..................................13 Figure 12. Electromagnetic Spectrum......................................................................14 Figure 13. Human Voice Bandwidth .......................................................................15 Table 1. Possible Data Transfer Rates at 2400 Baud................................................19 Figure 14. Data Interface Connectors ......................................................................21 Figure 15. RS-232 25-Pin Connector.......................................................................22 Figure 16. RS-232 Voltages ....................................................................................23 Table 2. RS-232 Functional Specification................................................................26 Figure 17. RS-232 Line Handshaking......................................................................27 Figure 18. RS-232 Interface Configuration and Null-Modem ..................................28 Figure 19. Balanced Transmission...........................................................................30 Table 3. RS-449/RS-232E/V.24 Comparison...........................................................31 Table 4. V.35 Interface Signals ...............................................................................33 Figure 20. IEEE-488 Interface.................................................................................34 Figure 21. Twisted Pair Cable .................................................................................37 Table 5. EIA-568 Cable Categories .........................................................................38 Table 6. UTP Wire Color Codes..............................................................................39 Figure 22. RJ-45 Modular Connector Pinouts..........................................................40 Table 7. IBM Cable Types ......................................................................................41 Figure 23. Fiber Optic Cables..................................................................................43
Figure 24. Fiber Optic Transmission Modes ............................................................45 Table 8. Fiber Optic Cable Configurations ..............................................................46 Table 9. EIA-598 Fiber Optic Cable Color Codes....................................................46 Figure 25. 62.5/125 m Multimode FO Bandwidth vs. Length ................................48 Figure 26. Example OTDR Output..........................................................................50 Figure 27. Wireless LAN ........................................................................................51 Figure 28. Unipolar NRZ Waveform .......................................................................54 Figure 29. Polar NRZ..............................................................................................55 Figure 30. NRZ Inverted .........................................................................................55 Figure 31. Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI).............................................................56 Figure 32. AMI with Violation Code.......................................................................56 Figure 33. Differential Manchester (Biphase) Coding..............................................57 Figure 34. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) ..............................................................59 Figure 35. Dibit Encoding Using ASK ....................................................................59 Figure 36. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) ...............................................................60 Figure 37. Phase Shift Keying (PSK) ......................................................................61 Figure 38. Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK).................................................61 Figure 39. Dibit QPSK ............................................................................................62 Figure 40. Phase/Amplitude Modulation Constellations ..........................................63 Figure 41. ITU-T V-Series Modems........................................................................66 Figure 42. Wire Gauge and Range for LDMs ..........................................................68 Table 10. Power Ratios for dB Values.....................................................................72 Table 11. ITU-T V-Series Modem Specifications....................................................76
THE PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION OF DATA The previous module introduced the ISO Open Systems Interconnect model for developing a complex data communications network. This module focuses on the Physical or first layer (Layer 1) of that model and deals only with the physical connections between equipment, and the operation of transmission links between them. As a means of introducing this module, consider the issues involved in the physical transmission of data. Interconnection Process How is equipment to be connected together? Will there be one wire or many wires, or some other medium such as fiber optics? If wires are used, what voltages will be employed? Will there be a round connector or a "bladed" connector on the end of cables? Which end of a cable will be "female" and which will be "male?" When devices are connected together, what sequence of signals will indicate that one end of the circuit is ready to send or receive data? How will a device indicate that it is not able to receive data, or that data must be retransmitted? Will signals be in the form of voltages or tones? Which conductors will carry these signals? Operational Mode Will data be sent one way at a time, or both ways at the same time? Will characters be sent one at a time, or as a block of characters? How will end devices be connected? Will they have a dedicated link or will they share the same transmission link? Transmission Rate and Bandwidth How quickly can data be sent over a link having a given bandwidth, i.e., operating frequency range? At what rate will data be sent? What is the effect of noise on that circuit capacity? The media selected (wires, cables, etc., that carry the data transmission) will have a big impact on the bandwidth and transmission data rates. Modulation and Encoding If analog links are used to carry data, how will the data be represented? Will 0s and 1s be sent by changing the amplitude, phase, or frequency of the analog signal? If digital facilities are used, how will digital and analog data be encoded? Will more than one signal be combined (multiplexed) over the same transmission link?
Equipment Selection What vendor equipment is available to meet my requirements for data transmission? These questions are OSI "Layer 1" issues, and form the basis of this Module.
THE INTERCONNECTION PROCESS The overall connection process involving the physical layer is given in Figure 1. The interconnection process begins with the end-to-end physical connection of equipment. In the case of a single direct link, this involves the physical interface on each DCE (or DTE) and the transmission medium between them. On a network, the process is more complicated, as two or more link connections must be made to establish an overall end-to-end connection.
OSI Model Layer 7: Application Layer 6: Presentation
Interconnection Process Physical Circuit Disconnection Interface
Post-Message Procedures Layer 5: Session Layer 4: Transport Layer 3: Network Pre-Message Procedures Layer 2: Data Link Layer 1: Physical Physical Circuit Connection Data Transmission
Handshaking Modulation Multiplexing Demodulation Handshaking Interface
Figure 1. OSI Physical Layer Activities Interconnection also includes pre-message and post-message procedures, called handshaking, that occur between DTEs and DCEs and between DCEs. This handshaking can take the form of voltages on a physical interface or can be control tones passed over the transmission network. The role of handshaking is one of coordination and control. Signals are used to indicate that a device has data to send, or that a device is ready to receive data. Obviously, the devices on each end of the link must be following the same set of procedures (protocols), or the information will not be properly understood. In the case of analog transmission links, digital data must be encoded as analog signals. The DCEs used to do this are generally called modems, because of their capability of modulating and demodulating the analog carrier signal. Modems are not required direct digital links. However, digital encoding techniques are often used so that timing and signal power levels can be controlled. Over short distances it is possible to directly interconnect DTEs or DCEs. The distances over which direct interconnection is possible can be extended through the use of line drivers (limited distance modems) or similar devices. Examples of these interconnections are shown in Figure 2.
OSI Model Layer 7 Layer 6 Layer 5 Layer 4 Layer 3 Layer 2 Layer 1 Physical a
a,k: b,j: c,i: d,h: e,g: f: m:
DTE interface OSI Model DTE-DCE connection (cable) Layer 7 DCE interface Signal generator (modem) Layer 6 DCE-transmission link interface Transmission link (cable, microwave, fiber optics) Layer 5 DTE-DTE connection (null modem cable) Layer 4 Layer 3
DTE-DTE Connection Using DCEs

a b c d Signal Converter m e f g h Signal Converter i j k k
Layer 2 Layer 1 Physical
DTE-DTE Direct Interconnection
Figure 2. Interconnection Examples
OPERATIONAL MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION The second component of the transmission link deals with the procedural specification of the link. This includes operational modes, such as timing considerations and the direction of data flow; access procedures, such as polling/selecting and error control; and control protocols, such as the Hayes command set. These procedures require control information to be passed between DCEs, independent of the actual data to be sent, and thus affect the efficiency of the data channel. The procedural specification and expected link performance must be fully determined before it is possible to calculate the effective transfer rate of information bits. Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full Duplex When two DTEs communicate, information can be transmitted in one of three ways: simplex, half-duplex (Hdx), or full-duplex (Fdx). In simplex transmission, information is sent in one direction only. This send-only or receive-only mode is not very versatile and is not extensively used. Half-duplex allows information to be sent in both directions, but in only one direction at a time. Full-duplex allows information to be sent in both directions at the same time. These three communications modes are shown in Figure 3.
Simplex
or
Half-Duplex
Full-Duplex
Figure 3. Simplex, Half-Duplex, Full-Duplex Full-duplex transmission can be provided in one of three ways: 1. Four-wire circuits, in which the transmitting (TX) and receiving (RX) signals are sent through separate facilities or channels; 2. Echo cancellation, in which the transmitting signal is subtracted from the total signal which allows the receiving signal to be detected. 3. Through frequency division multiplexing (FDM), the transmitting signal operating on a different frequency than the receiving signal.
Serial and Parallel Transmission of Data In the case of data transfer over copper wires, digital data is transmitted by changes in the current or voltage imposed on the wire. These changes can be sent in either a serial or a parallel technique. Parallel and serial transmission indicate whether bits are transmitted in groups over multiple conductors, or in a stream over a single conductor. Serial Transmission Serial transmission, as shown in Figure 4, transmits a group of bits over a single communications channel and is used over long distances. It requires additional control and timing signals and is therefore slower than parallel transmission. Serial transmission often incorporates error detection and correction techniques, which results in fewer transmission errors.
Sender
Receiver
00110101
00110101
Figure 4. Serial Interface
Parallel Transmission Parallel transmission, illustrated in Figure 5, is characterized by the use of separate wires for transmitting each bit in a data byte or word. Over short distances, such as between a computer and a printer, parallel transmission has the advantages of a simple interface and protocol. Over longer distances, however, parallel transmission has significant problems. First, multiconductor parallel cables are quite large, with high costs for construction and installation. Second, parallel transmission is prone to transmission errors over long distances because of different propagation delays for each conductor. For proper operation, each bit of a byte must arrive at its destination within a prescribed time window.
Sender 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Receiver
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Figure 5. Parallel Interface
Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission All digital equipment operates with the use of internal clocks. Data bits are usually associated with the width of a single clock pulse. When data is transmitted, the receiver must also be able to determine the start and end of each data bit. Thus it must use the same clock speed as the transmitting device. Additionally, the receiving clock must be synchronized with the incoming data, so the data can be properly received. The two timing methods associated with transmitting data are: synchronous and asynchronous. The word synchronous is Greek, and comes from the combination of two Greek words: syn and chronous. The word chronous means time. The word syn means with. Thus the English translation of synchronous is with time. Therefore, when the word synchronous is used in data communications, it means timing is transmitted with the data. By adding the prefix a changes the meaning of the word to its opposite, or without timing. Therefore when the word asynchronous is used in data communications, it means no timing information is transmitted with the data. Asynchronous (Start-Stop) Transmission Asynchronous transmission is used for the transmission of individual characters. In asynchronous transmission, each byte (or character) is framed by a start bit and one or more stop bits that tell the receiving DTE when to start and stop sampling the data. The timing of the receiver is reestablished each time a start bit is detected. Asynchronous DTEs are much simpler, and therefore less expensive, and more efficient when transmitting individual characters (such as terminal keystrokes) or short data packets. However, as shown in Figure 6, the additional timing bits create more overhead and, for large blocks of data, this would reduce the effective transmission rate.
Bit 1 One Pulse Unit Start Bit
Bit 2
Bit 3
Bit 4
Bit 5
Bit 6
Bit 7
Bit 8 Stop Bit(s) 1, 1.5, or 2 Bit Times
Encoded Character
Parity Bit
Direction of Data Flow
Figure 6. Asynchronous Transmission As an example, consider the following simple asynchronous message: E Message to be sent: N W 01000101 Message in ASCII: 01001110 01110111 0010001011 Message with start & stop bits: 0010011101 0011101111 0010011101 00100010110011101111 Message sent to receiver DTE:
Since there will be idle time between each character, receiver timing synchronization is reestablished with each character transmitted (Figure 7).
Character Bits S Start Bit
Parity Bit P S Stop Bit
Idle Time S Start Bit
Character Bits
Parity Bit P S Stop Bit
Figure 7. Asynchronous Transmission - Idle Time A start bit and a stop bit must be added to each character to separate one character from another (note: a parity bit is also added to each character as a form of error detection. The concept of parity and error detection will was discussed earlier in Module CDA 101.01). Thus to transmit three characters consisting of 7 bits each, 3 bits are added to each character or in this example, a total of 9 additional bits. Thus, there is only a 70% efficiency (21/30) of information transfer.
Synchronous (Block) Transmission Synchronous transmission is designed to make the transmission of large blocks of data more efficient. The term synchronous implies that the clocks in the transmitter and receiver are synchronized. This is necessary because the transmit and receive clocks are different devices and may have slight variations in their clocking rate and rise/fall times. This would have minimal impact on single characters or very short blocks of data (as in asynchronous transmission), but for large blocks of data, the clocks would gradually drift out of sync eventually causing received bit sampling errors. Hardware and software in each DTE provide clock recovery/synchronization circuits so that the data is sampled at the receiving end at the same rate (and at the correct time) as it is transmitted from the originating DTE. Thus, synchronous transmission also implies that clock synchronization information must be transmitted along with the data. If the devices are directly connected, the clock can be transmitted over its own separate wire. However, if the data must travel long distances, a separate clock wire becomes inefficient/impractical. Therefore, the clock synchronization information must be embedded into the data stream in the method of transmission encoding (e.g., Manchester Coding). For synchronous data transmissions, the transmitted block of data is surrounded (framed) by synchronization and other control characters that give additional information about the data and provide error detection and correction functions. An example of this process is shown in Figure 8.
SYNC
SYNC
DATA
DATA
DATA
DATA
FCS
Direction of Data Flow
Figure 8. Synchronous Transmission The synchronizing characters (SYNC) are used to initially establish receiver clock synchronization and frame synchronization of the incoming data. Following this initial training period, the receiver clock must be kept in sync by the transmission encoding method of the data. This is necessary because an error rate of as little as 5% in the receiving clock would result in clock drift and a loss of data recovery.
Synchronous transmission tends to be fast and nearly error-free and is the most efficient transmission for large blocks of data, but less efficient than asynchronous transmission for small blocks or single characters due to the number of overhead characters that must be added to each frame. For example if a synchronous frame had two 7 bit sync characters, one 7-bit data character and one 16-bit checksum, the total number of bits transmitted would be 37 bits for one 7-bit character or an efficiency of 19%. But if one hundred 7-bit characters were transmitted in the block, than the efficiency would rise to 96%. Polling and Selecting In order for several (or many) DTEs to share a communications link without interfering with each other, it is necessary to place a line discipline into effect. Only one DTE may transmit at a time, although more than one DTE may simultaneously receive information. This line discipline is known as polling and selecting. It requires that each DTE on a shared line have a unique address of one or more characters and circuitry (hardware and/or software) that responds to the DTE's particular address. Polling is used in the receipt of data; selecting is used in the transmission of data. When a receiving DTE polls a line, it samples each transmitting DTE in a pre-defined sequence (the polling list) to determine if any transmitting DTE has data to send. If the DTE does not have any data, the polling DTE is informed of this and continues by polling other devices. If a polled device has data to send, polling stops until the data is transmitted, after which the polling of other devices is resumed. Transmission from a DTE to a large number of terminating DTEs (selecting) is accomplished in much the same way. The originating DTE sends the address of the receiving DTE, then transmits the data when the receiving DTE is ready. Polling and selecting are illustrated in Figure 9.
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Computer (DTE)
Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4:
Poll No. 3: Do you have data? Yes I do. Send it. Data from No. 3.
POLLING
Step 1: Select No. 3. Ready to receive? Step 2: Yes I am. Step 3: Data to No. 3.
SELECTING
Figure 9. Polling and Selecting
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BIT RATE AND BANDWIDTH CALCULATIONS With the incorporation of multimedia (such as graphics, voice and video) into data applications, data file sizes have grown at an exponential rate. Data system users are constantly seeking greater data throughputs to move these large data files across various networks. This data throughput parameter is called the bit rate. The primary limiting factor of bit rate is the bandwidth of the transmission media that will be used. Other factors that affect bit rate are line noise, transmission errors, turn around delays, handshaking, etc. This section covers both bit rate and bandwidth as factors that affect data throughput, and how to calculate the theoretical limits to data throughput for a given bandwidth. Transmission Rates Bit rate and baud rate are terms that are often used incorrectly as equivalent expressions of data transmission rates. A data network designer or network user is interested in the bit rate or number of bits per second that can be transmitted, because it is the bits that will be assembled into characters and other forms of information. The transmission engineer is interested in the baud rate, because this specifies the bandwidth that must be provided. The term baud means the number of times per second that the signal on the communications circuit changes. If each signaling change represents only one bit (single-bit transmission), then bit rate and baud rate are equal. Figure 10 shows how this might be done by modulating (changing) the carrier frequency by 500 Hz when a 0 or 1 is transmitted.
2200 Hz = 1 1700 Hz 1200 Hz = 0
Figure 10. Single Bit Transmission (Bit Rate = Baud Rate) However, since it is possible to send two bits at a time (dibits), three bits at a time (tribits), four bits at a time (quabits), and even more using various encoding and modulation methods, then bit rate can be many times higher than the baud rate. An example of two bit (dibit) transmission using frequency shift keying (FSK) is shown in Figure 11.
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2200 Hz = 11 2000 Hz = 10 1700 Hz 1400 Hz = 01 1200 Hz = 00
Figure 11. Two Bit Transmission (Bit Rate = 2X Baud Rate) The goal of a modem designer is to keep the baud rate as low as possible while making the bit rate as high as possible. This accomplishes two desirable outcomes: first the lower the baud rate, the more time the receiving modem has to identify the incoming signal; and second, the transmission signal (baud rate) is kept within the useable part of the available bandwidth. Unfortunately, much of the vendor literature and many data communications engineers misuse the word baud, so that it is commonly thought that baud is equal to bits per second, even though this is not always correct. The previous discussion on bit rate and baud rate leads to two common questions: Is there a relationship between baud rate and bandwidth? Is there a theoretical maximum number of data bits that can be transmitted over a communication link having a specified bandwidth?
The answer to both questions is Yes. Bandwidth of the Transmission Link The Electromagnetic Spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is the signaling medium for virtually all long-distance communications. Electromagnetic signals can be carried on metallic wire, through waveguide, through glass and plastic fibers, or radiated directly through space. The electromagnetic spectrum has been divided into convenient frequency bands, with divisions made at even wavelengths measured in meters. Divisions and common names are given in Figure 12.
13
Frequency
Lasers
14 13 12
3 x 10 3 x 10 3 x 10
300 GHz (1 millimeter)

EHF: Extremely High Frequency
30 GHz (1cm)
Satellite SHF: Super High Frequency Microwave 3 GHz (10 cm) UHF: Ultra High Frequency TV 300 MHz (one meter) FM Radio VHF: Very High Frequency
30 MHz (10 meter)

Long-Distance Radio Coaxial Cable 3 MHz AM Radio HF: High Frequency MF: Medium Frequency LF: Low Frequency
300 kHz 30 kHz

VLF: Very Low Frequency
3 kHz
Voice Grade Circuit VF: Voice Frequency
300 Hz
Human Hearing ELF: Extremely Low Frequency
30 Hz
Figure 12. Electromagnetic Spectrum
Bandwidth Definition Bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which a particular communications channel is designed to operate. All physical media have physical characteristics that limit the frequency over which they operate. In the case of copper pairs or coaxial cable, this operating frequency range is determined by the cable resistance, capacitance, inductance and conductance. In the case of fiber optics, although light is being transmitted down the cable, only a small range of frequencies is readily transmitted over long distances. In the case of radio, in which only a limited spectrum is allocated for use, the operating bandwidth is determined by national or international agreements.
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For voice frequency (VF) circuits, the telephone switch and other communications equipment contain filters and amplifiers that pass only frequencies of 300-3300 Hz. This passband is substantially less than the 8000 Hz bandwidth of the voice signal itself, as shown in Figure 13.
Signal Strength
Intelligibility
Recognizability
4 5 Frequency, kHz
Figure 13. Human Voice Bandwidth Voice frequencies from 3 kHz to 8 kHz carry information that makes one voice distinct from another, but carry very little information that makes the voice understandable. A telephone system is designed to conserve bandwidth and limits the voice channel to 3300 Hz. For this reason it is nearly always possible to understand what is said over a telephone circuit, whereas it is sometimes difficult to identify the person who is speaking. Nyquist Limit: Bandwidth and Baud Rate Relationship In 1928, the American scientist Harry Nyquist developed a maximum relationship between bandwidth and the baud rate on a circuit, now known as the Nyquist limit for the circuit: B < 2W where: B = Baud rate. W = Bandwidth in hertz.
This means that the rate at which data can be transmitted without incurring interference must be less than or equal to twice the bandwidth in hertz. For a typical bandwidth of about 3000 Hz, data transmission can be supported only at baud rates of less than 6000 signaling elements per second. It should be noted that the corollary of this is also true: if a signal is sampled at regular intervals of time and at twice its signaling rate, the sample contains all of the information of the original signal.
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Most modems use some form of oscillation modulation, such as amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, or phase modulation, which requires one or more cycles for signal detection and decoding. These modems operate at one-half to one-quarter of the Nyquist limit. Only the most expensive and most efficiently designed modems approach the Nyquist baud rate limit of 2W. The Nyquist limit applies only to the baud rate, not to the number of bits per second that can be transmitted. As shown on the previous page, the use of special modulation techniques makes it possible to increase the amount of information each pulse or signal can carry. Shannon's Law: Bandwidth and Maximum Bit-Rate Capacity In 1948, another American scientist, Claude Shannon, presented a paper in which he discussed the encoding methods that could be used to transmit data, and the relationship between channel bandwidth (in Hertz) and noise. His result is known as Shannon's Law. He proved that the theoretical maximum bit-rate capacity of a channel with a fixed bandwidth (W) in hertz and a known signal-to-noise (S/N) power ratio could be calculated using the following equation: C = W log2 (1 + S/N) where: C = Channel capacity in bits per second. W = Bandwidth in Hertz. S = Power of the transmitted signal. N = Power of the thermal noise.
The result is an upper boundary of channel capacity under ideal conditions. S/N, the signal-tonoise ratio, is usually expressed in dB. (Work Aid 1 provides a brief review of this form of expressing power ratios.) For most telephone circuits, this upper limit is approximately 35kbps. EXAMPLE: a telephone line has a useable bandwidth of 3000 Hz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB. What is the theoretical bit rate: C = 3000 x [log2 (1 + 1000)] = 29,901 bps or C = 3.322 x 3000 x [log10 (1 + 1000)] = 29,901 bps In practice, it is impossible to achieve this theoretical maximum. In reality, only about 80% capacity is achievable. However, very good modems (V.34/V.34+ series) using very quiet telephone lines are capable of using a bandwidth of up to 3429 Hz and achieving signal rates of 33.6 kbps.
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Data Encoding and Required Code Levels The relationship between Nyquist's Limit and Shannon's laws are now demonstrated. Remember that the two relationships are: Nyquist: B < 2W
Shannon: C = W log2 (1 + S/N) For a given bit rate and baud rate, the minimum number of signaling elements per baud to reach maximum bit-rate capacity would be given by: C/B = 0.5 log2 (1 + S/N) In the previous example, for a 3000 Hz voice channel and a 30 dB signal-to-noise ratio, the number of encoded bits per baud required to reach the theoretical capacity of the channel would be: C/B = 0.5 log2 (1 + 1000) = (approximately) 5 Most modems use some form of modulation technique, such as amplitude, frequency, or phase modulation, which requires one or more cycles for signal detection and decoding. These modems operate at one-half to one-quarter of the Nyquist limit. For a modem operating at one-half the Nyquist limit and with 5 signaling elements per baud, the bit-rate capacity would be: C = (3000 baud) (5 bits/baud) = 15,000 bits/second In general, the number of signaling or code elements per baud required for a given bit-rate capacity is given by: N = C/B where C is the bit-rate capacity and B is the baud rate.
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Table 1 shows the data transfer rate for some possible combinations of baud rates and bits per baud.
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Table 1. Possible Data Transfer Rates at 2400 Baud
Baud (Modulation Rate) 2400 2400 2400 2400 2400
Bits per Baud 1 2 3 4 5
Phases Data Transfer (Signal Levels) Rate (bits/sec) 2 4 8 16 32 2400 4800 7200 9600 12,000
In the previous examples, a VF bandwidth of 3000 Hz was assumed (3300 Hz - 300 Hz). The high and low limits of this passband have significant nonlinearities, and most modem designs utilize a slightly smaller bandwidth of about 2600 Hz.
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INTERFACE STANDARDS Physical interfaces are an essential part of the physical layer. A physical interface specification usually has four parts: Mechanical specifications for the cable and cable connectors. Electrical specifications including voltages, impedances, and waveforms. Functional specifications, i.e., interface-pin assignments and signal definitions. Procedural specifications for control and data transfer (handshaking).
Mechanical Specifications There are a number of mechanical designs to be found in data communication interfaces, as shown in Figure 14. Interface standards are primarily a reference for designers, and are usually quite difficult to read. A typical mechanical specification identifies pin assignments, which piece of equipment has the female connector (the DTE), the recommended cable length, and the maximum cable capacitance. Typical connector abbreviations are: DB = data bus DIN = Deutsche Industrie Normenausshu (German Industries Norms.) RJ = recommended jack BNC = bayonet style n-type connector (or British Naval Connector)
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DB-15
High-Density 15-Pin (Monitor) DB-25 5 10 15 5 2 4 1 DB-50 6-Pin Mini-DIN (Keyboard) 5-Pin DIN 1 6 11 3
13 25 DB-37
1 14
M-50
8-Pin Mini-DIN
RJ-11 V-35
RJ-45
Centronics 36-Pin
ABC Bus Barrier Block
25
Female
50
26
25-Pair Telco-Type Connector
Figure 14. Data Interface Connectors
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RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface The most common interface in data communications is the ANSI standard RS-232 serial interface, (actually the RS designation has been replaced with ANSI/TIA/EIA-232 but this terminology has yet to be adopted among users and vendors). The RS-232 has an equivalent international standard, ITU-T V.24. RS-232 is applicable for data signaling rates up to 20 kbps for both synchronous and asynchronous serial binary data systems. A somewhat detailed analysis of this interface and its operation is very instructive in understanding how other interfaces work. The DB-25 connector, shown in Figure 6, has become universally associated with the RS-232 interface, even though it is not mentioned in the standards. Some manufacturers, most notably IBM, often use a different connector for their serial interfaces. The RS-232 interface specification has undergone minor changes over the years. The most recent specification, RS-232E (1991) brought the RS-232D specification in line with the ITU-T V.24 standard, defines pin assignments as shown in Figure 6 (RS-232C are shown in parenthesis).
DB - 25 Connector
Secondary Transmitted Data: Pin 14 Transmit Clock: Pin 15 Secondary Received Data: Pin 16 Receiver Clock: Pin 17 (Local Loop Back) Unassigned: Pin 18 Secondary Request to Send: Pin 19 (Data Terminal Ready) DTE Ready: Pin 20 Signal Quality Detector: Pin 21 Ring Detector: Pin 22 Data Rate Select: Pin 23 External Clock: Pin 24 (Unassigned) Test Mode: Pin 25
Pin 1: Pin 2: Pin 3: Pin 4: Pin 5: Pin 6: Pin 7: Pin 8: Pin 9:
Shield (Protective Ground) Transmitted Data Received Data Request to Send Clear to Send DCE Ready (Data Set Ready) Signal Ground Data Carrier Detect Reserved
Pin 10: Reserved Pin 11: Unassigned Pin 12: Secondary Data Carrier Detect Pin 13: Secondary Clear to Send
Figure 15. RS-232 25-Pin Connector
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Electrical Specification of the RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface As illustrated in Figure 7, a reference voltage positive signal on the RS-232 interface is between +3 V and +25 V. A positive signal is interpreted as "on" for control circuits, or as a binary 0 (space) during data transfer. A negative voltage of the same range indicates a negative signal, which is interpreted as a binary 1 (mark) during data transfer.
+ 25 Volts Control "ON" Data bit at SPACE (Logical "0") + 3 Volts Transition Zone Control level undefined Control "OFF" Data bit at MARK (Logical "1") - 25 Volts 0 Volts - 3 Volts
Figure 16. RS-232 Voltages The voltages used in the RS-232 serial interface were established before the era of integrated circuits, which typically operate at 5V. The use of high voltages and unbalanced circuits makes the RS-232 interface susceptible to crosstalk, noise, and voltage differences between the transmitter and receiver. The high voltages also require more rise- and fall-time, because of cable capacitance, during binary transitions. For this reason, the interface specification limits cable capacitance to a maximum of 2500 picofarads (pF). As stated above, the RS-232 standard allows a transfer rate of up to 20,000 bps. However, newer PCs have interface chips that can support up to 115,200 bps as long as short cables are used.
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RS-232E Maximum Cable Length As defined in RS-232E, the maximum cable length is a function of the electrical equipment used and the resistance/capacitance of the cable. Note: as a general rule, the capacitance from any conductor to shield is approximately twice the mutual capacitance that exists between two conductors. Therefore, shielded cable tends to reduce the maximum length by a factor of 3 over a calculated length based merely on mutual capacitance. The stray capacitance (Cs) to Earth ground for un-shielded cable is approximately 1/2 of the mutual capacitance and results in a reduction of 1/3 of the original distance calculated based on only mutual capacitance. Total Capacitance Allowed < 2500 pF Input Device Capacitance: Ic Total Cable Capacitance: Cc = Cm + 1/2(Cm)* x length of cable *for non-shielded cable only Total Line Capacitance = Ic + Cc < 2500 pF RS-232 Distance Calculation Example A user needs to interconnect two pieces of data equipment that are 100 meters apart using an RS232 interface. The user reads the cable specification and discovers the cable contains 20pF per meter of mutual capacitance (Cm). The input capacitance for the receiver is considered to be 100 pF. This leaves the user 2,400 pF (2500pF - 100 pF) for the interconnecting cable. In this example the cable is non-shielded (Cs = 1/2(20) = 10pF), therefore the total capacitance (Cc) is 20 pF + 10pF = 30 pF per meter. Dividing 2400 pF by 30 pF means that the cable could only be 80 meters long. The user must (1) move the equipment closer together or (2) select a cable that has a lower mutual capacitance. (Note: Cat 3 UTP typically has <6.6 nF per 100 meters, and Cat 5 UTP typically has <5.6 nF per 100 meters.) Functional Specification of the RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface The functional specification for the RS-232 interface is given in
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Table 2. The V.24 version of this interface is nearly identical.
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Table 2. RS-232 Functional Specification
Protective ground. Connects the chassis or frame of the equipment. Should be connected to power ground. Never leave this circuit open. These pins carry data. The DTE end (e.g., computer end) transmits data on pin 2 and receives data on pin 3. The DTE signals on pin 4 when it has data to transmit. It waits for the DCE to signal on pin 5 before sending. The DCE signals the DTE that it is ready to receive data for transmission. The interface will not work without this pin, because it completes all other signaling circuits. Also called Data Carrier Detect. Turned on when DCE receives carrier signal. Many DTEs require this signal before transmitting or accepting data. The DTR is used by the DTE to indicate that it is ready to transmit or receive data. In auto answer mode, the DTR goes on when the ring indicator is received and the modem should answer.
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The signal allows the DCE to tell the DTE that the phone is ringing. Used in auto-answer applications. See pin 20. Used by synchronous modems.
2 3 4 5 6 7
15 17 21 24 23
Allows "dual-rate" modems to switch between high or low speed. Usually set by the calling DCE. For DCEs with both primary and secondary channels. Provide control of secondary channel in the same way as for the primary channel. The secondary channel is usually a reverse channel used for monitoring and control, allowing the receiver to confirm reception or to interrupt the transmitting DCE.
12 13 14 16 19
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It is important to emphasize that the RS-232 standards define the interface between DTEs and DCEs but do not address its use as a general serial input/output port. In the case of a serial printer, for example, fewer control signals are required than for a modem. The printer cable might look like an RS-232 cable, but some pins are not connected, and others are interchanged or connected together. Procedural Specifications of the RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface The fourth and final aspect of a physical interface specification is its procedural aspect, or what is commonly called handshaking. Figure 9 illustrates the kind of handshaking that occurs across a physical interface in transferring information between DTEs. This particular sequence of events is for half-duplex (one way at a time) handshaking across a dedicated transmission link.
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Half-Duplex Dedicated Line Handshaking

DTE Note: Numbers refer to RS-232 pins. RS-232 25-conductor cable RS-232 25-conductor cable DTE
DCE
DCE
Frame GND Signal GND Term RDY REQ to SND
1
7 20 6 4 5 DCE RDY Carrier on CLR to SND DTE Data SND DTE EOT SND DTE Data RCV Timing RCV EOT RCV Timing RCV DCE RDY SIG DET RCV
1
7 20 6 8 3 17 3 17
Frame GND Signal GND Term RDY
Data SND Timing SND EOT SND Timing SND REQ to SND (REQ off)
2 24 2 24 4
Carrier off 5 8 3 17 3 17 8 CLR to SND off SIG DET RCV ACK MSG Timing RCV EOT RCV Timing RCV SIG DET off
SIG DET off
8 4
REQ to SND
Carrier on CLR to SND DTE ACK MSG DTE EOT SND Carrier off CLR to SND off
5 2 24 2 24 4 5 ACK MSG Timing SND EOT SND Timing SND REQ off
Figure 17. RS-232 Line Handshaking
Alternative Configurations of the RS-232 (V.24) Serial Interface As noted earlier, not all of the pins or connections on a serial interface are used in every serial application of the RS-232 interface. Figure 18 shows a typical configuration for connecting two DTEs or a DTE to a DCE.
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DTE (Terminal)
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 20 7
Frame Ground Transmitted Data Received Data Request to Send Clear to Send Data Set Ready Data Carrier Detect Data Terminal Ready Signal Ground
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 20 7
DCE (Modem)
DTE to DCE
1 DTE or DCE 2 3 4 5 6 8 20 7 1 2 DTE or DCE 3 4 5 6 8 20 7
NULL MODEM
DTE to DTE or DCE to DCE
Figure 18. RS-232 Interface Configuration and Null-Modem
Null Modem Cable The illustration in the lower half of Figure 18 is for a serial null-modem cable (also called Zeromodem) configuration, in which there is no hardware handshaking. Pins 2 and 3 must be interchanged so the two DTEs do not transmit on the same wire. A null-modem is in fact no modem at all, but simply a cable connection between two nearby computers. The only significant signals are Transmit Data and Receive Data signals which are reversed. The null-modem can be a specially wired plug or a cable. As has been shown, the RS-232 (V.24) interface is open to many forms of implementation. Furthermore, it is but one of many types of interfaces used in data communications. Standards organizations and vendors are continually updating existing interfaces, or developing new interfaces, to efficiently use new technologies in DTEs and in the communications network. Most development efforts are aimed at increasing the rate at which data is transmitted or at the ability to transmit data with fewer errors.
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Windows 95 includes a Direct Cable Connection feature (also called the LapLink Feature). This communications software allows the user to establish a data connection between two PCs using a null modem cable (either serial or parallel). PC Parallel Interface The parallel printer port on a PC uses a standard DB-25 pin connector. The printer uses a 25-pin centronix connector. Voltages levels are TTL (+5V). The interface consists of 8 data lines (D0 - D7). Each line is surrounded by a grounded shield. Control lines include: ACK BSY PAP ON/OF DSL STR INI ERR ALF Acknowledge character Printer buffer full, off-line, initializing, or error Paper Out On-line/Off-line Device Select Transmit data strobe Initialize printer Error - printer out of paper, printer off-line, printer error. Auto Line-Feed
NOTE: Serial printer connections use a null-modem cable configuration as discussed above. SCSI Parallel Interface The Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) is an instruction oriented, high-level infterface for external mass storage (tape drives, hard disks, CD-ROMs, scanners, etc.). The data transfer is usually carried out at a width of eight bits, with wide SCSI this may be 16 or 32 bits. SCSI interfaces are designed to transfer data at rates up to 10 Mbps in synchronous mode. SCSI interface ports come built-in to Macintosh computers but require an add-in board (host adapter) for PCs.
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SCSI devices can be daisy-chained (cable connected from one device to the next to form a chain). However, each SCSI device must have its own unique address (0 - 7) usually set through jumpers or a dial-switch on the device. Connections is via a 50-pin connector and cable. Control signals are very similar to the printer controls signals defined above. RS-449 Serial Interface The RS-449 (ANSI/TIA/EIA-449) uses two connectors, a 37 pin and a 9 pin. The purpose of this standard is to overcome some of the limitations in both performance and speed of the RS232 specification. Many applications will not require the 9 pin connector because it handles signals relevant only to a secondary channel. The RS-449 interface incorporates the RS-422 electrical standard which defines signaling rates of up to 10 Mbps and uses two wires for each data signal. Current flows in opposite directions on the two wires. This is method called balanced transmission (Figure 19).
Differentially transmitted signal
Noise Noise rejected
Figure 19. Balanced Transmission Crosstalk and interference from external sources, such as power lines, are minimized by using a balanced transmission, because the data signal is transmitted and received as a difference in voltage between two wires. Interference tends to affect both wires equally, and is then approximately canceled at the receiver. This technique permits high speed data transmission and also minimizes the problems of varying ground potentials. The transmission voltages are also reduced to take advantage of the standard TTL voltage level of 5V. In RS-422A, the difference between the voltages on the two wires determines if a mark or space is sent. This difference is only 0.4V, whereas in RS-232 it is 6V. RS-422A has also been adopted by the V.11 and X.27 standards.
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A comparison of RS-449, RS-232E, and V.24 signals are shown in the table below: Table 3. RS-449/RS-232E/V.24 Comparison
RS-449 SG SC RC IS IC TR DM SD RD TT ST RT RS CS RR SQ NS SF SR SI SSD SRD SRS SCS SRR LL RL TM SS SB Signal Ground Send Common Receive Common Terminal In Service Incoming Call Terminal Ready Data Mode Send Data Receive Data Terminal Timing Send Timing Receive Timing Request to Send Clear to Send Receiver Ready Signal Quality New Signal Select Frequency Signaling Rate Selector Signaling Rate Indicator Secondary Send Data Secondary Send Data Secondary Request to Send Secondary Clear to Send Secondary Receiver Ready Local Loopback Remote Loopback Test Mode Select Standby Standby Indicator TM Test Mode CH CI SBA SBB SCA SCB SCF LL Data Signaling Rate Selector Data Signaling Rate Indicator Secondary Transmitted Data Secondary Received Data Secondary Request to Send Secondary Clear to Send Secondary Received Line Signal Detector Local Loopback 126 111 112 118 119 120 121 122 141 140 142 116 117 Select Transmit Frequency Data Signaling Rate Selector Data Signaling Rate Indicator Transmitted Backward Channel Data Received Backward Channel Data Transmit Backward Channel Line Signal Backward Channel Ready Backward Channel Received Line Signal Detector Local Loopback Remote Loopback Test Indicator Select Standby Standby Indicator CE CD CC BA BB DA DB DD CA/ CJ CB CF CG Ring Indicator DTE Ready DCE Ready Transmitted Data Received Data Transmit Signal Element Timing Transmitter Signal Element Timing Receiver Signal Element Timing Request to Send Ready for Receiving Clear to Send Received Line Signal Detector Signal Quality Detector 125 108/2 107 103 104 113 114 115 105/ 133 106 109 110 Calling Indicator Data Terminal Ready Data Set Ready Transmitted Data Received Data Transmit Signal Element Timing Transmitter Signal Element Timing Receiver Signal Element Timing Request to Send Ready for Receiving Ready for Sending Data Channel Received Line Signal Detector Data Signal Quality Detector AB RS-232E Signal Common 102 102a 102b V.24 Signal Ground DTE Common DCE Common
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RS-530 Serial Interface The RS-530 (ANSI/EIA/TIA-530-A) is a serial interface that provides for data rates of up to 2.1 Mbps, using both balanced and unbalanced electrical signals. RS-530 complies with the RS-422A electrical characteristics of balanced digital interface circuits and the RS-423A electrical characteristics of unbalanced digital interface circuits. The RS-530 interface uses a standard 25 pin D-connector similar to the RS-232 connector. The following interchange circuits are classified as Category I (balanced) circuits and comply with the RS-422A standard: Transmitted Data Received Data DTE Source Timing DCE Source Timing Request to Send Clear to Send Received Line Signal Detector (Carrier Detect) Ready for Receiving
The following interchange circuits are classified as Category II (unbalanced) circuits and comply with the RS-423A standard: DCE Ready DTE Ready Ring Indicator Local Loopback Remote Loopback Test Mode
The RS-530 interface uses both a standard DB 25-pin connector or an alternate 26-pin connector. Using the guidelines of RS-422, cable lengths of up to 60 meters (200 feet) in length may be used. Longer cable distances are possible for specially tailored applications.
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V.35 Serial Interface The V.35 serial interface is very similar to the RS-530 interface. In fact it is a combination of the ITU-T V.35 and RS-232E standards. The connector is typically square with 34 pins, put only 14 pins are used. V.35 interface provides data rates up to 56 kbps. All the data and timing leads are balanced circuits at low voltage. However, all control leads are un-balanced and adhere to the RS-232E voltages (Table 4. V.35 Interface Signals). Table 4. V.35 Interface Signals
Pin Letter A B C D E F P, S R, T V, X Y, AA Protective ground Signal common Request to send Clear to send DCE ready
V.35 Interface Signal
Received line signal detector Transmitted data (balanced) Received data (balanced) Receiver Signal element timing (balanced) Transmitter signal element timing (balanced)
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IEEE-488 Standard Digital Parallel Interface for Programmable Instrumentation The IEEE-488 Interface is over 20 years old and is still used to connect both programmable and non-programmable electronic measuring apparatus with other apparatus and accessories necessary to assemble instrumentation systems. The number of devices that may be interconnected by one contiguous bus cannot exceed 15; total transmission path lengths over the interconnecting cables do not exceed 20m; no more than 2m between any two instruments; and the data rate across the interface on any signal line does not exceed 1 Mbps. The connector is standards, and is an Amphenol 57 series 24-way type. The IEEE-488 connector pinout is shown in Figure 20. This is very similar to the Centronics or parallel interface connector used for printers and PCs, although it has the advantage that several connectors can be interconnected back-to-back.
Pin Number Logic GND 24 Logic GND 23 Logic GND 22 Logic GND 21 Logic GND 20 Logic GND 19 Logic GND 18 Remote ENable 17 DI08 DI07 DI06 DI05
Pin Number 12 Shield 11 ATN 10 Service ReQuest 9 InterFace Clear 8 No Data ACcepted 7 Not Ready For Data 6 Data Valid 5 End Or Identity 4 DI04 3 DI03 2 DI02 1 DI01
Figure 20. IEEE-488 Interface The equipment on the bus is organized into three different types. There are controllers, talkers and listeners. Example, a printer may only need to be a listener. The controller has the most crucial role on the bus. Usually a computer, it signals which instruments are to perform the various functions. It also ensures that no conflicts occur on the bus. If two talkers tried to talk at the same time, then data would become corrupted. The bus uses basic transistor to transistor logic (TTL) signal levels (0 to +5V) and contains 16 active lines.
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The key to the bus operation is the handshaking system. The three lines named Data Valid, Not Data ACcepted, and Not Ready for Data are used to control the handshaking process. All the listeners on the bus use the Not Ready for Data line to indicate their state of readiness to receive data. It only requires one listener to hold the line low to prevent data transfer from being initiated. When all listeners are ready to receive data, the data (DI01 - DI08) is placed on the line by the talker and the Data Valid line is set low. This signals all listeners to read the data. The Not Data ACcepted line is pulled low by all listeners. When the last device removes the hold, the Not Data ACcepted is released. One of the most important lines is the Attention Line (ATN). The controller uses this line to signal whether the data is control information or data. This most commonly used to give the address of the device to where the data will be sent. The ATN line also causes any talker to relinquish its control of the bus. Other lines are Interface Clear which acts as a bus reset and is not typically used during normal operation. Remote enable is a function which is used by the controller to set instruments on the bus to local, i.e., front panel control or bus control. End or Identify is an optional function, used to signify the end of a multiple byte data transfer. The Service Request line can be used by any instrument equipped with this feature, to interrupt the current activities. For instance, when a printer runs out of paper. When the Service Request occurs, the controller must poll the instruments to see which device caused the interrupt.
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CABLES (BOUND MEDIA) The Physical Layer of the OSI protocol is concerned, in part, with the physical components of a transmission link. The transmission media is one of the key components of a transmission link. As noted earlier, a number of factors can influence the choice of a transmission medium for a particular data link. These include: Availability Distance Transmission Quality Reliability Environmental Issues Bandwidth Cost Monitoring Security
In addition to these factors, some DTE and DCE equipment will work properly only over a particular vendor-specified or vendor-provided transmission medium. A transmission medium interconnects the nodes of a computer network. Cables are the primary media used for interconnecting communications networks. Cables are also referred to as bound media as there is a direct electrical connection between two points binding them together. The primary cable types used are: Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Copper Cables Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Copper Cables Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP) The primary advantage of twisted-pair (TP) copper cable is cost. Wire is readily available from a large number of vendors and is easily installed with simple tools and a minimum of training. In some low-speed applications, up to 1 Mbps, it is possible to use regular telephone-type cable for transmitting data over limited distances. EMI The disadvantages of wire cable are its limited bandwidth and its susceptibility to crosstalk (induced signals from other cable pairs) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). The difference between voice grade twisted pair cables and data grade twisted pair cables, is the number of twists per meter. The twists counteract the EMI between cables. The more twists the better the protection.
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EMI or electrical noise can be from many sources, such as fluorescent lights, motors and heavy industrial equipment. Where security is a concern, wire might be a poor choice because it is easily tapped. Another disadvantage of twisted-pair cables is its action as a radio-frequency transmitting antenna at high (megabit) data transfer rates. This can result in radio-frequency interference (RFI) and television interference (TVI). Shielding These disadvantages of wire cable can be reduced by shielding cable pairs with a braided, conducting sheath. This sheath is connected to an earth (ground) potential to dissipate any inducted signals or other undesirable voltages. Other advantages of shielded wire include a reduction of shock hazard (the shield is grounded), a greater reliability if the outer cover is damaged, and the same signal-to-ground reference at both ends of the twisted-pair. Unshielded and shielded twisted-pair cables are shown in Figure 21.
Conventional Twisted Pair
Rubber Cover
Shielded Twisted Pair

Insulation Braided Shield
Figure 21. Twisted Pair Cable SAES-T-916 approves the use of 150 ohm STP consisting of 22 AWG round solid copper twisted pairs, enclosed in a braided or corrugated metallic shield for use as horizontal or backbone cabling with distances up to 1,200 meters. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP) Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable does not incorporate a braided shield. The characteristics of UTP are similar in many ways to STP, differing primarily in attenuation and EMI characteristics. Several twisted pairs can be bundled together in a single cable. The pairs are color coded to distinguish the pairs.
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UTP cable is a latecomer to high-performance LANs because engineers only recently solved the problems of managing radiated noise and susceptibility to EMI. Now, however, UTP is the preferred cabling method, and all new copper-based cabling schemes are based on the use of UTP. UTP cable is available in the following five ANSI/EIA/TIA categories and summarized in Table 5 below: Categories 1 and 2 are voice grade cables, suitable only for voice and for low data rates (below 4 Mbps). At one time, Category 1 was the standard voice-grade cable used for telephone systems. The growing need for data-ready cabling systems has caused Category 1 and 2 to be supplanted by Category 3 for new installations. Category 3 is the lowest data grade cable and is generally suited for data rates up to 16 Mbps. Some innovative schemes, however make it possible to support data rates up to 100 Mbps with Category 3 cable. Category 3 is now the standard cable used for most telephone installations. Category 4 is a data grade cable suitable for data rates up to 20 Mbps. Category 5 is a data grade cable suitable for data rates up to 100 Mbps. Most new cabling systems for 100 Mbps data rates are designed around Category 5 cable.
SAES-T-916 specifies the use of 100 ohm, Category 3 or Category 5, UTP for horizontal cable systems up to 90 meters and backbone cables up to 800 meters. In UTP cabling systems, the cable is only one component. All connecting devices also are graded, and the overall cabling system only supports the data rates permitted by the lowest grade of component on the system. Therefore, if you require Category 5 cabling, then all the connectors, cables and connecting devices must also be designed for Category 5 operation. Table 5. EIA-568 Cable Categories Category 1 2 3 4 5 Application Telephone and low speed data Low speed data, ISDN and T1 circuits. Cable Type Unshielded wire and cable Unshielded wire and cable
10 Mbps Ethernet and 4 / 16 Mbps Token Ring LANs 100 ohm UTP 20 Mbps LANs 100 Mbps Ethernet LANs 100 ohm UTP 100 UTP and 150 ohm STP
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UTP Wire Color Codes To make it easier for the LAN technician to ensure that he has cabled up the network correctly, color codes have been standardized for UTP wire pairs. All transmit (TX) wires are white with a secondary color stripe. All receive (RX) wires are the corresponding secondary color with a white stripe. (Example: T1 is white with a blue stripe and R1 is blue with a white stripe.) The standard color codes are shown in Table 6. Table 6. UTP Wire Color Codes
Signal T1 R1 T2 R2 T3 R3 T4 R4
Primary Color White Blue White Orange White Green White Brown
Stripe Color Blue White Orange White Green White Brown White
RJ-45 Modular Connector Everyone is familiar with the modular jack/connector used with modern telephones. Officially, it is the EIA/TIA-561 interface (8-pin). When the public telephone companies finally decided that each customer could own his own phone (and not have to lease it from the phone company), a simpler, full-proof connector was designed to ensure that the customer would always hook the phone up correctly, and reduce the potential of damaging the phone companys equipment. Modern telephones are now equipped with the familiar RJ-11, 6-pin modular jack for the phone-to-wall cable.
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This modular approach to cables and connectors was carried forward into the data communications world to make it easier for the end-user to connect his own computing equipment to the network without the need to call a technician. LANs use an 8-pin, RJ-45 modular connector that are wired in various configurations. The most common LAN connector configurations are: Token Ring 10BASE-T T568
Pinouts for the common RJ-45 wiring are shown in Figure 22.
Pair 2 Pair 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pair 1
Pair 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Token Ring
Pair 3
10BASE-T (Ethernet)
Pair 2 Pair 1 Pair 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
T568 Figure 22. RJ-45 Modular Connector Pinouts
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IBM Cable Types IBM has specified a number of twisted-pair cable designs for voice and data communications. These designs are also widely used and are identified by "type number" as shown inTable 7. Table 7. IBM Cable Types
Components Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 5 Type 6 Type 8 Type 9

2-pair shielded, 22 AWG. 2-pair shielded, 22 AWG and 4-pair unshielded, 22 AWG. 2-, 3-, or 4-pair unshielded, 24 AWG, 5.33 pf/m, 82.2/km. Two 100/140 micron optical fibers. 2-pair unshielded. 2-pair flat parallel shielded, 26 AWG. Flat undercarpet cable. 2-pair shielded, 26 AWG.
Typical Application
4- and 16-Mb/s token ring LANs. Both voice and 4- and 16-MB/s token ring LANs. Baluns, line drivers, and voice. Token ring LANs. Patch-panel data connections. Token ring LANs. Plenum cable.
Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable is constructed in four parts: center conductor, dielectric, shield, and jacket. Special, non-combustible materials (for example, Teflon) are used in cables to be installed in air plenums. In some cases, more than one coaxial conductor may be enclosed in the same jacket. Twinax is used in Wang computer systems and token-ring networks commonly use 4-conductor coaxial cables.
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Coaxial means "having the same axis." The axis of a wire or conductor is an imaginary line drawn through its center and extending its length. Coax is identified by its characteristic impedance, that is, the impedance that would be measured between conductors of an "infinitely long" length of cable. This impedance is determined by the conductor and dielectric resistance, and the inductance and capacitance between the two conductors. The reasons for using coaxial cables were discussed in the previous section under the disadvantages of simple twisted conductor pairs, that is, EMI, RFI, TVI, and so on. As mentioned, cable is generally specified by its characteristic impedance: 50 RG-8, RG-58, IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet coax)) 75 RG-6, RG-11, RG-59 (coax or twinax) 78 AppleTalk Twinax 93 RG-62 100 Data Twinax
The "RG" prefix refers to "radio grade" and is a carryover from earlier days when coaxial cable was primarily used for radio frequency communications. Coax is also specified by its material of construction and other electrical characteristics: Center conductor type: bare copper, copper covered steel, silvered copper, tinned copper. Dielectric: air dielectric polyethylene, solid or foam Teflon, solid or foam polyethylene. Shield: bare copper braid, foil, aluminum or tinned copper braid, silvered or tinned copper braid. Jacket: Teflon, polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyethylene, polyvinylidene fluoride (Kynar). Center conductor resistance (nominal dc /1000 ft): ranges from 1.4 to 56/1000 ft. Shield resistance (nominal dc /1000 ft): ranges from 0.7 to 14.7/1000 ft. Velocity of propagation ( percent speed of light): range of 66% to 84%. Nominal attenuation: dB/100 ft as a function of frequency, 5 to 1000 MHz.
Cable selection is based on the particular application for which the cable is being installed. Coaxial cable built for special applications includes thin-net cable of small diameter, and multicoax bundles of up to 34 separate conductors.
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Fiber Optic Cable A fiber optic cable conducts information in the form of light rather than electricity. Fiber optic cables are composed of very pure silicon glass that is drawn into hair-thin strands, called fiber cores. These cores are often "doped" (mixed) with other materials (e.g., germanium) to improve their optical qualities. Each glass core is incredibly transparent; fiber cables that use total internal reflections lose only half the injected signal power in 6 km. (Imagine looking through a 6 kmthick window of conventional glass!) During manufacturing, each core is surrounded by a "cladding" of pure silica glass. The cladding, in turn, is covered with a plastic coating which serves as a physical buffer. Fiber optic cables are generally specified in terms of the core/cladding diameter (e.g., 62.5/125 m), buffer diameter, and optical transmission performance at several operating frequencies. A cross-section of a typical fiber cable, and its arrangement in a multi-fiber configuration, is given in Figure 23.
Typical Individual Fiber

Structure, from center Fiber core Silica cladding Thermoplastic buffer Structure, from center Dielectric central member PVC overcoating Buffered fibers (12) Aramid strength member PVC jacket
62.5 m 125 m
Typical Multi-Fiber Cable
Figure 23. Fiber Optic Cables Fiber optic cables are manufactured for two methods of light transmission: multimode and singlemode.
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Singlemode fiber uses a much smaller core (8 to 10 m) than multi-mode fiber (50 to 100 m), which forces light pulses to take the same transmission path, thereby reducing pulse deformation due to path (timing) differences These two transmission modes are shown in Figure 24. Singlemode fiber has a much higher bandwidth and lower attenuation than multimode fiber, but is more expensive. Singlemode fiber is generally used in long-haul applications (up to 40 km), where maximum repeater spacing is an important consideration. Most short-haul data applications use the cheaper multi-mode fiber cables (up to 2 km).
Multimode Fiber
Pulse In
Single Mode Fiber
Pulse Out
Figure 24. Fiber Optic Transmission Modes
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Table 8 lists some of the more common fiber cable configurations currently being manufactured, and their performance characteristics for several of the more common operating frequencies (light having 850 nm and 1300 nm wavelengths). Table 9 lists the fiber optic color codes.
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Table 8. Fiber Optic Cable Configurations

Fiber Size Core Diameter (m) 50/125 multimode 62.5/125 multimode 100/140 multimode 8.3/125 single mode IBM (870 nm/1300 nm FDDI (-/1300 nm) 50 62.5 100 8.3 62.5 62.5 Cladding Diameter (m) 125 125 140 125 125 125 Buffer Diameter (m) 900 900 900 900 900 900 Optimal Transmission Perfornance (850 nm/1300 nm) Maximum Attenuation dB/km 5.0 / 4.0 5.0 / 3.0 6.0 / 5.0 - / 2.0 3.75 / 1.75 - / 2.5 Typical Attenuation at 23 C 4.0 / 2.0 4.5 / 2.0 5.5 / 3.5 - / 1.5 3.4 / 1.5 - / 1.5 Minimum Bandwidth (Mhz-km) 400 / 400 160 / 200 100 / 100 -/160 / 500 - / 500
Table 9. EIA-598 Fiber Optic Cable Color Codes

Fiber No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Color Blue Orange Green Brown Slate White Red Black Yellow Violet Aqua Rose Fiber No. 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Color Blue/Black Stripe Orange/Black Stripe Green/Black Stripe Brown/Black Stripe Slate/Black Stripe White/Black Stripe Red/Black Stripe Natural/Black Stripe Yellow/Black Stripe Violet/Black Stripe Aqua/Black Stripe Rose/Black Stripe
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Fiber optics has many favorable attributes for data communications. A fiber optic cable does not require a loop with two conductors. Fiber optic cable, made of sand, is chemically inert and is not subject to crosstalk with other fibers, shock hazards, the effects of EMI, or the production of RFI or TVI. Light frequencies (infrared to visible) are around 1015 THz. Frequencies like this, 10,000 times higher than microwave, suggest a corresponding higher data-carrying capacity. And since individual fibers are thinner and more flexible than copper wires, thousands of fibers can be made into a fiber optic cable with mechanical characteristics (weight, size, and flexibility) superior to copper cables. The disadvantages of fiber optics are few but important. First, light must be converted to and from electrical signals at each end, and at any repeater (amplifier) points in between. This conversion requires electrical power and sophisticated electronics. Power to remote repeater sites on long-haul fiber cables can be a difficult problem. In worst cases, the fiber cable must also contain copper conductors for this purpose. The interconnection and repair (splicing) of fiber-optic cables are more difficult than that of copper cables, although major improvements in this area have been made with the introduction of fusion splicers. Previously, there was a significant cost difference in using UTP vs. fiber optic cable, but the price difference is quickly diminishing. The following is a comparison of a Category 5 UTP vs. multimode fiber optic cable installation per user (as of May 1996).
Cat 5 UTP Wall Outlet Patch Panel Connectors Cable (150 feet) Labor Total per user $5.35 $5.06 None $41.58 $71.25 $123.24
Source: AMP Inc. (Harrisburg , PA), 1996
Fiber $5.70 $5.19 $18.24 $43.56 $66.75 $139.44
Fiber optic LAN backbones are in use in many Saudi Aramco buildings. Fiber optic cables are also being used as long-haul links. Saudi Aramco has fiber cables from Dhahran to Tanajib, Dhahran to Abqaiq, and Abqaiq to Yanbu.
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Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-T-916 and EIA-568-A specifies using two-fiber 62.5/125 m multimode optical fiber cable for horizontal and 62.5/125 m multimode or si nglemode optical fiber cable for backbone cabling. System bandwidth is not only a function of the type of fiber cable used, but also the distance and transmitter characteristics, specifically center wavelength, spectral width, and optical rise time. Figure 25 illustrates bandwidth/distance using 62.5/125 m multimode fiber optic cable and a 1300 nm LED.
1200 1000
Bandwidth (MHz)
800 600 400 200 0 100
1000
2000
Length (m)
3000
4000
Figure 25. 62.5/125 m Multimode FO Bandwidth vs. Length
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Fiber Optic Link Attenuation The single performance parameter necessary for testing fiber optic installations is Link Attenuation. Link Attenuation is calculated as: Link Attenuation = Cable Attn + Connector Attn + Splice Attn Where: Cable Attn (dB) = Attenuation Coefficient (dB/km) x Length (km) Attenuation Coefficient = 3.75 dB/km @ 850 nm for 62.5/125 m 1.5 dB/km @ 1300 nm for 62.5/125 m 0.5 dB/km @ 1310 nm for single-mode outside plant cable 0.5 dB/km @ 1550 nm for single-mode outside plant cable 1.0 dB/km @ 1310 nm for single-mode inside plant cable 1.0 dB/km @ 1550 nm for single-mode inside plant cable Connector Attn (dB) = number of connector pairs x connector loss (dB) (use 0.75 dB per connector) Splice Attn (dB) = number of splices x splice loss (dB) use 0.3 dB per splice (for fusion splicing) Fiber Optic Cable Testing Fiber optic testing is performed in two ways. First by measuring the power loss (attenuation) of the cable as described above, and secondly, by using a device called an optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR). An OTDR is a device that is used to locate faults and determine a fibers length, attenuation, uniformity and splice losses. The OTDR is connected to one end of the fiber. It transmits short optical pulses into the fiber. The impurities in the fiber, splice points, and any breaks will backscatter (reflect) some of the light back towards the OTDR. The OTDR analyzes the reflections and produces a plot of power (in decibels) versus distance. Figure 26 is an example of an OTDR output.
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OTDR Relative backscatter in dB

End of Beginning Splice Microbend Fiber of Fiber Connector
Distance in km
Figure 26. Example OTDR Output
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WIRELESS TECHNIQUES (UNBOUND MEDIA) Wireless techniques include microwave, infrared, laser, narrowband radio, and satellite systems. This media is also referred to as unbound media, as no direct physical connection exists. A network might contain a number of different media in the individual links used to provide an end-to-end connection. Wireless LANs The difficulty of wiring an existing building for new communications services has led researchers to consider several wireless techniques for transmitting data in a local environment. The first technique is the use of infrared light, similar to the signaling methods used on remote controls for consumer electronics (for example, televisions and stereos). A second method uses low-power spread-spectrum radio as a means of broadcasting and receiving data signals. As shown in Figure 27, wireless techniques employ a combination transmitter-receiver (transceiver) at each network node. In the case of infrared networks, the transceivers must be in an open area that allows light signals to be received by direct or reflected means. In the past, these wireless LANs were usually limited in their speed (up to 2 Mbps); but new spread spectrum technology has increased this speed up to a respectable 10 Mbps for wireless Ethernet.
Transceiver Transceiver Transceiver Office A Office B Office D Office C Office E Office F
Figure 27. Wireless LAN
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Microwave Radio Microwave radio systems use low-power radio transmitters to transmit information from one point to another on a line-of-sight basis. Saudi Aramco uses a large number of microwave systems to support voice, data, and special communications requirements. Microwave radio is primarily a long-haul medium, but short links, such as the studio television link (STL) in Dhahran, and between Dhahran and the Dammam R&D Building, are also in operation. Microwave systems are purchased as analog or digital systems. Analog systems usually have a maximum capacity of 300 separate channels, operating in the 960 MHz or 2 GHz frequency range. Digital microwave systems in operation in Saudi Aramco are operating in the 6 GHz range and have a normal capacity of 960 channels. Analog microwave channels have the operating bandwidth of a normal voice channel, approximately 3000 Hz. Earlier versions of digital transmission systems used by the PSTN, limited each voice channel to 64 kbps (note: data users were limited to 56 kbps in the North American T1 system). Analog inputs are sampled and then digitally encoded using pulse-coded modulation techniques (PCM), which will be discussed in greater detail later in this module. With the proper interface equipment, this allows digital telephone and microwave systems to carry 64 kbps data links without the need to pass through analog-to-digital conversion. With the implementation of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) communications systems within Saudi Aramco, data rates from 64 kbps up to 44.736 Mbps will be available to data users. These data rates are then multiplexed into high speed data streams of 622.080 Mbps (STM-2). HF Radio Mobile radio involves a base transceiver and a large number of fixed or mobile stations that can transmit and receive messages. Messages can be tones or encoded messages in paging systems, or may involve a full voice channel in mobile radio. Saudi Aramco's Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS) provides a mobile interconnection to the telephone network. Mobile radio systems operate in the UHF or VHF frequency range. Saudi Aramco supports approximately 45 separate radio networks, and more than 2500 radio units are in service. A digital link operating at 2 Mbps is also now in service. A number of vendors offer mobile radio systems that will support digital data in the form of telemetry. The Saudi Aramco Emergency Radio Network was designed as such a system, with the ability to relay telemetry data from ambulances to the Dhahran Hospital. However, telemetry transmitters for the ambulances were not provided as part of the construction and installation program.
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Satellites One of the fastest-growing media in data communications is geosynchronous (geostationary) satellites, used for relaying data communications between remote points, even thousands of miles away. Geosynchronous satellites orbit the earth at an altitude of 22,300 miles (35,800 km) and require precisely 24 hours to complete one orbit. Since this corresponds to the earth's own speed of rotation, the satellite appears to remain stationary in the sky. Communications satellites placed in geosynchronous orbit are equipped with the capacity to support many simultaneous conversations through their relay equipment. Transmitting and receiving locations are divided into two classes: earth stations, which may include sophisticated satellite monitoring and control equipment, and terminals, which are relatively simple, one-way or two-way systems. Nearly all commercial satellites will support high-speed data communications at data rates of 64 kbps and above. However, digital access from the user location to the earth station must be available to complete the link. The Saudi Arabian Ministry of Post, Telephone and Telegraph (MOPTT) operates satellite earth stations in Riyadh and Jeddah, but no Eastern Province hub has been installed to date. Thus, Saudi Aramco does not at this time access satellites for end-to-end digital transmission to national or overseas locations. Data links operating at 64 kbps are provided to Europe (AOC) and the United States (ASC) via satellite services, using analog terrestrial links to access earth stations at each end of the circuits. Saudi Aramco also uses a small number of transportable two-way, very small-aperture terminals (VSATs) for remote area communications and emergency restoration. These terminals operate through the INMARSAT (International Marine Satellite) network, and can support a dial-up voice channel (which will also support facsimile) and an optional telemetry channel for lowspeed data. Vela International, also uses the INMARSAT system to communicate with its crude oil tanker fleet. Digital satellite television was introduced into Saudi Arabia in 1995, by vendors such as Orbit and Sony. Using small satellite dishes (120 cm and smaller) digitized television and stereo radio signals are received and decoded, using a decoder located inside the subscribers home.
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DIGITAL TRANSMISSION Digital transmission systems, which are already operating in a binary mode, do not require modulation to transmit binary information. However, the binary data must be converted (encoded) into electrical signals for transmission over copper wire. Neutral or Unipolar NRZ The simplest form of transferring digital data over a copper wire media is to encode them directly as they occur, with 1s represented by a positive voltage (e.g., +5 volts) and 0s as 0 volts. This was the principal method of transmitting telegraph signals until about 1960. This encoding technique is called neutral or unipolar non-return to zero, or simply represented NRZ, because the voltage does not return to zero between adjacent 1s. This is illustrated in Figure 28.
Figure 28. Unipolar NRZ Waveform This direct method of transmitting binary information works well on short direct connections between devices, where the transmission links are shielded. But over longer distances, it has the disadvantage of residual DC voltage levels and the potential of losing synchronization when a long series of 1s or 0s is transmitted (i.e., no signal transitions). Polar NRZ A variation of unipolar NRZ is to shift the signal voltage level to the midpoint of the signal amplitude, so that 1s and 0s correspond to the same voltage but are different in polarity (+V and -V). This is shown in Figure 29.
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Figure 29. Polar NRZ Polar NRZ has the advantage of reducing power levels by half but still has the same clocking disadvantages as unipolar NRZ. References to NRZ usually infer polar NRZ rather than the unipolar NRZ shown previously. NRZ Inverted (NRZI) A variation on polar NRZ is to invert the signal on a 1 and leave the signal unchanged on a 0. This is also known as transition coding or NRZ-Mark (NRZ-M) coding, and is shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30. NRZ Inverted
Bipolar (Alternate Mark Inversion) An even better form of digital encoding is the bipolar, or alternate mark inversion (AMI), method. In bipolar encoding, 50% duty cycle pulses (half as wide as the original data) are sent, with an inversion of polarity with alternate 1s. This creates a three-state signaling space (+V, 0V, -V), which provides additional redundancy and makes system monitoring a somewhat simpler task. AMI is illustrated in Figure 31.
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Figure 31. Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) AMI is the form of digital encoding used in the US version (T1-carrier) and international version of long-haul digital carrier systems using pulse code modulation (PCM). PCM systems are used extensively in digital telephone, digital microwave and digital fiber optics networks. One of the problems with AMI encoding is this that no signal is present when consecutive 0s are transmitted. PCM systems usually provide a special timing mark (called a violation code) to preserve synchronization in the case of many consecutive 0s (Figure 32).
Violation Code Figure 32. AMI with Violation Code
Manchester Coding Another digital coding technique that has received considerable acceptance in LANs is the Manchester coding (also called digital biphase or diphase), method. Manchester coding is characterized by the transmission of two line signaling elements (a transition from high to low or low to high) per symbol. This method divides each data symbol time into two halves. As shown in Figure 33, for each data symbol, a signal element is transmitted for one-half the duration of the symbol, followed by the transmission of a signaling element of opposite polarity for the remainder of the symbol transmission. In this manner, Manchester coding provides a strong timing mark for each bit transmitted, and is used extensively in both Ethernet and Token Ring LANs.
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The advantages of using this type of coding are that the transmitted signal has no dc component and can be inductively or capacitively coupled; the forced midsymbol transition provides built-in timing transmission on the channel. IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) specifies a baseband transmission waveform using Differential Manchester coding. Differential Manchester coding allows a nondata character to be sent. These are referred to as the J and K symbols and are used in the synchronization characters of the data frame to identify the beginning of a new frame. A J symbol has the same polarity as the preceding symbol and the transmission of the JK symbols always occur in pairs to avoid accumulating a dc component.
Figure 33. Differential Manchester (Biphase) Coding
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ANALOG TRANSMISSION Modulation is the technique for varying some characteristic of an analog electrical signal (e.g., a carrier wave) so that it can carry intelligent information. Amplitude, frequency and phase are the characteristics commonly varied. Encoding is the process of converting one form of information into another form, such as the letter A into binary 100001. In voice communications, a voice signal is used to vary the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the carrier in direct proportion to the voice signal. In this way, a carrier is modulated to transmit encoded binary information (0s and 1s). The worlds electronic communication infrastructure was designed to transmit the human voice or very low speed data (e.g. Telex), not the amount of high speed data that is needed in todays modern computerized world. Until the PSTN is converted to an entirely digital system, it will still be necessary to convert digital data into an analog form (via modulation of a carrier frequency), if it is to be transmitted over the public switched telephone system. A special device called a modem (modulator/demodulator) is designed to do exactly this. The three most common forms of analog modulation are amplitude, frequency, and phase modulation. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Modulation Most people are familiar with amplitude modulation (AM) radio broadcasts. This modulation method can also be applied to data communications. As shown in Figure 34, amplitude shift keying (ASK) modulation uses a non-varying frequency, with changes in the signal strength (power level) used to represent transitions from 0 to 1. Of the three types of analog modulation, amplitude modulation is the poorest because it is the one most affected by noise during transmission.
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Figure 34. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) For a modem operating at 1200 bits/second and one signaling element per baud, the timing between bits would be 833 microseconds (1/1200 sec). For two consecutive 1s or 0s, the same amplitude would be imposed on the circuit for 1666 microseconds. An example of dibit encoding using four values of amplitude is shown in Figure 35.
11 10 01 00
Figure 35. Dibit Encoding Using ASK Although ASK modulation is an available technology, it is extremely limited in its capacity and use. Because it is an amplitude based signal, it is very susceptible to noise and outside interference (e.g., such as the noise encountered when listening to an AM radio broadcast), thus it is not suitable for high-speed critical data transmission.
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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation The second method of modulating an analog signal is through a shifting of frequency, whereby 0s and 1s are represented by a different frequency. This type of modulation is called frequency shift keying, or simply FSK, and is shown in Figure 36.
Figure 36. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) In FSK, the amplitude of the signal does not change. The encoding of 0s and 1s is effected by the transmission of different tones, with a higher-pitched tone (higher frequency) used to represent a 1 and a lower pitched tone (lower frequency) used to represent a 0. Modems using FSK usually use a set of three frequencies, such as 2125 Hz, 2225 Hz, and 2025 Hz. The middle (carrier) frequency, 2225 Hz, is used to represent an idle condition during which no data is being sent. FSK is the modulation technique used on AT&T 103 and 113, and V.21 series modems. However, FSK quickly reaches its maximum bit rate capabilities because of the limited bandwidth of the analog voice channel. Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Modulation A third method of modulating an analog signal is by shifting the phase of a signal, whereby 0s and 1s are represented by a phase shift of the carrier signal. This form of phase shift keying (PSK) is shown in Figure 37.
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Figure 37. Phase Shift Keying (PSK) There are two phases in the example of Figure 37, each transition from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0 has a corresponding 180 phase change. Another form of phase modulation is called differential phase shift keying (DPSK). In DPSK there is a change of phase every time a 1 is transmitted; otherwise, the phase remains the same. This is illustrated in Figure 38. DPSK is used in some of the older low-speed modems operating at speeds of 4800 bps and below.
Figure 38. Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) Phase modulation can be extended to smaller phase angles. Four-phase modulation (0, 90, 180, and 270) allows each frequency change to represent two bits (dibit). This encoding scheme is called quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) and is used in the Bell 201 type modem. Dibit QPSK is illustrated in Figure 39. Eight-phase modulation allows each frequency change to represent three bits (tribits).
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 61
00
01
10
11
Figure 39. Dibit QPSK
Phase and Amplitude Modulation Most modems operating at 9600 bps and faster use a combination of amplitude and PSK modulation. Phase/Amplitude Modulation also called Quadrature/Amplitude Modulation (QAM) involves splitting the carrier signal into different phases and two or more amplitudes per phase. Every phase/amplitude combination equals a single transmission element (baud). Phase and amplitude diagrams, in polar format, are referred to as constellation diagrams. Constellation diagrams for several forms of phase and amplitude modulation are given in Figure 40.
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12-Phase 3-Amplitude Bell 209 Not all phase and amplitude combinations are used.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
8-Phase 2-Amplitude/Phase CCITT V.29
128-Phase/Amplitude Trellis Encoding CCITT V.33
Figure 40. Phase/Amplitude Modulation Constellations The difficulty with all high-speed modulation techniques is that they are more sensitive to impairments in the communications channel. A relatively new method for dealing with this problem is to use a modulation scheme with even more phase and amplitude possibilities, but including transition rules between encoded states to detect (and even correct) transmission errors. This form of modulation is called trellis coding, and is used in the ITU-T V.32, V.34 and higher, modems to support data rates up to 33.6 kbps. Trellis coding makes it possible to detect and correct errors easily.
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The ITU-T V.34 recommendation provides for a super constellation of 960 phase/amplitude points using trellis coding supporting data signaling rates up to 28.8 kbps, or 8.4 bits per baud. The signal constellation visually represents the set of possible symbols that can occur during a transmission. Each bit sequence is represented by more than one symbol, so any time a modem wants to transmit a bit sequence, it can choose from a pool of available symbols to represent that particular sequence. Increasing the size of the symbol pool allows a modem to adjust to a range of noise conditions, which results in an overall higher speed.
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MODEMS The American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) company for many years set the standards for communications, including modems. In recent years, however, AT&T has chosen instead to participate in the development of worldwide ITU-T V-series recommendations. All modems used in Saudi Aramco are to comply with ITU-T V-series recommendations. ITU-T V-Series Modems The ITU-T V-series recommendations can be somewhat confusing because they may describe a specific type of modem, or merely a convention that is used within a modem, such as signal voltages (V.28), physical interface (V.24 and V.35), error correction (V.42), or data compression (V.42bis). The suffixes bis and ter encountered in V-series standards are French for "second" and "third", and refer to revisions or extensions to the original ITU standard or recommendation. Many switched and dedicated-line modems conform to ITU modem specifications, the most popular being the V.22 and V.22bis for medium speed dial-up modems, V.32 for 4.8 kbps and 9.6 kbps, V.32bis for 14.4 kbps, and V.34 for up to 28.8 kbps dial-up units (Note: upcoming changes to V.34 will incorporate speeds up to 33.6 kbps). Figure 41 summarizes the operating range for the more common ITU-T V-series modems. An index and summary of V-series modems are included in this module as Work Aid 3.
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Synchronous Asynchronous 300 Switched Networks 600 1200 V.26 bis V.27 ter V.21 Dedicated Networks V.22 V.23 V.32 V.22 bis V.26 ter V.26 V.27 bis Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation Phase and Amplitude Modulation V.29 V.32 bis V.34 2400 4800 9600 14,400 28,800
V.27
V.33
Figure 41. ITU-T V-Series Modems ITU-T recommendations generally require newer, faster modems to be compatible with earlier (slower) modems. For example, a 2400 bps V.22bis modem is compatible with a 1200 bps V.22 modem. ITU-T V.32bis allows modems to operate at 14.4 kbps with fallback rates of 4.8 k, 7.2 k, 9.6 k and 12 kbps. The V.32bis recommendation allows modems to drop back or regain higher speed operations (as line conditions permit) without a need to reestablish the DCE-toDCE connection. The original V.34 recommendation supports 28.8 kbps transmission speeds kbps with fallback rates supported by the V.32bis recommendation. However, modem manufacturers were capable of extending the speed to 33.6 kbps (with a PC to modem throughput of 115.2 kbps to 230.4 kbps). A new ITU-T specification (currently referred to as V.34+) extends V.34 to transmit at a 33.6 kbps rate. However, to achieve the 33.6 kbps speed, the telephone transmission lines must be extremely quiet. In fact only 30 percent of US phone lines are quiet enough to achieve this data rate. Like V.34, V.34+ modems dynamically adapt to the line as conditions change. To achieve these high transmission rates, V.34 modems must transmit at 3,429 baud (symbols per second). This equates to 9.8 bits per symbol and use a signal super constellation of 1,664 points. The US phone system was designed to deliver a maximum of 3500 Hz, but the lowest 100 to 200 Hz is often unsuitable for data transmission, thus the cleanest (low noise) lines must be used.
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Both V.34 and V.34+ modems use a range of adaptive techniques that enable a modem to learn about - and adjust to - line conditions. Line probing allows modems to exchange a set of signals to determine the maximum transmission rate on a particular circuit before they begin sending data. Adaptive equalization compensates for the amplitude and phase distortions of signals transmitted across a line. Preemphasis lets a modem guess how a signal is likely to be degraded across a circuit and offer a preliminary boost to offset the attenuation. The new US Robotics X2 modems take advantage of a direct digital connection to the phone company by many US data services such as America Online, Compuserve and many Internet Service Providers to give the user a receive (only) data rate of up to 56 kbps. The user can transmit (upload) at up to 28 kbps and receive (download) at up to 56 kbps (FCC limited to 53 kbps). This is very useful for accessing the Internet which is download intensive. Note: 56K technology will not work between North American and European systems. Line Drivers and Limited Distance Modems It is sometimes necessary to locate DTEs a few hundred or a few thousand meters from each other. If these devices uses serial transmission, i.e., V.24 interfaces, the user must provide some form of signal converter, as the V.24 specification will only support data transmission up to 15 m (50 ft). (Note, however, that special low-capacitance cables can extend the interconnection distances to 200 m.) Line Drivers Line drivers are signal converters that allow a serial connection to be extended up to several kilometers. A line driver is similar, but simpler, than a modem. Signals on the V.24 input lines are converted into a baseband signal involving digital pulses containing data, clock, and control information. This baseband signal is then transmitted to the terminating line driver, where the pulses are reconverted to the original data, clock, and control signals on the serial interface. Extended distance transmission produces attenuation and pulse rounding, a condition in which the edges of a square wave are distorted through the loss of high frequency components due to circuit capacitance. Line drivers typically operate at speeds of up to 19.2 Kbps. Limited Distance Modems Limited distance modems (LDMs) are also called short-haul modems. LDMs transmit data over twisted pair wire, but not through the telephone central offices. They modulate data using frequencies greater than the normal telephone channel bandwidth limit of 3300 Hz. By using these higher frequencies, greater transmission rates can be achieved using less expensive hardware. However, the higher frequencies attenuate rapidly due to circuit resistance and capacitance.
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The operating range of LDMs depends on the gauge of wire (AWG) used between devices, as indicated in Figure 42.
Range in Kilometers Bits/second 1,800 2,400 4,800 9,600 19,200 AWG 19 30.5 30.5 24.4 21.3 16.2 AWG 24 18.3 18.3 13.7 9.1 6.7
Figure 42. Wire Gauge and Range for LDMs Limited distance modems are often used to provide the interface with X.25 packet switching networks. Special Modem Features and Capabilities Many modems are equipped with various special features and capabilities. The following describe some of these special features that can be found in modern high-speed modems. Modems interface in the full-duplex mode with the PC. Reverse and Secondary Channel Modems Most data communications protocols require an acknowledgment that data has been received correctly or incorrectly. In half-duplex modems, this reverse message requires a transmit/receive turn around. Full-duplex modems do not have this requirement, but do require considerable bandwidth for full bi-directional messaging. Since acknowledgment messages are usually quite short, the reverse channel need not have the same bandwidth capacity as the forward channel. Thus, many modems support a slower speed reverse channel for the purposes of carrying acknowledgment data. Full Duplex Operation Modems that operate in a full duplex mode are capable of sharing the same bandwidth by taking advantage of echo cancellation techniques. The transmitting modem cancels the information it transmitted from the received signal, thereby leaving only the received information.
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Integrated Multiplexing (Multiport) Modems These types of modems contain a limited-function, time-division multiplexer that allows the user to transmit more than one synchronous message over a single transmission line. Security Features Some modems contain built-in security features, such as password protection, and a callback capability. These features tend to be vendor specific and not covered by international standards. Data encryption is also a common security feature. Digital Simultaneous Voice and Data (DSVD) Some newer modems also support simultaneous voice and data transmission. These 28.8 kbps modems are referred to as DSVD (Digital Simultaneous Voice and Data) or V.64 compliant. Data and voice are multiplexed providing 19.2 kbps for data and 9.6 kbps for voice. Obviously, it is necessary to have a DSVD modem on the receiving end to extract the voice from the data stream. How does Simultaneous Voice-and-Data Mode Work? The modem link between two DSVD modems is upgraded to a point-to-point packet network during simultaneous voice-and-data communications. This transition between traditional modem communications, where only data is transferred, and packet mode, where packets of data, digitized voice, and commands are transferred, is done automatically every time the modem handsets are picked up. When a connected handset is removed from its cradle, the other the modem causes the remote phone to "ring." When the remote user picks up the handset, the modems are in packet mode and the data stream can contain voice, data or control packets. When the modem is in data-only mode (i.e., traditional datacomm), the link between two modems is governed by the V.32ter standard. This means data is transferred at 19.2 Kbps uncompressed or up to 76.8 kbps with V.42bis compression. In simultaneous voice-and-data mode, the voice packets take up some of the digital capacity of the phone line, so that data throughput drops according to the amount of voice present. If a constant sound (a whistle for instance) were present, up to 9600 bps of the digital capacity could be used up. However, about 60% of typical speech is silence, so there is little reduction in the data throughput while simultaneous voice-and-data mode is active.
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Cable Modems The cable television industry (CATV) has invested considerable money in providing a high bandwidth infrastructure to bring hundreds of television channels into subscribers homes. However, there is considerable unused bandwidth available in these systems and modem suppliers are looking to take advantage of this bandwidth by developing a new series of high speed modems called cable modems. Modem speeds are expected to reach up to 10 Mbps. However, the use of cable modems does require the CATV system to become bi-directional, which requires hardware changes by the CATV providers. This is an emerging technology which may find greater use in the future. Compression A more sophisticated method of reducing the bandwidth required to send information is to examine the information being transmitted and remove any unnecessary or redundant information through a method called data compression. A good example of this process is that used by a facsimile machine, whereby individual pixels are determined to be white or black. Rather than transmitting the color of each pixel, modern facsimile machines are capable of identifying a range of white and black pixels, i.e., "pixels 1-14 are black." The ITU-V.42bis or Ziv-Lemple is a compression method that takes advantage of using lookup tables called data dictionaries and achieves compression of 8:1. Expansion (Conditioning) As mentioned, the standard voice channel available through a communications network is limited to a usable frequency of about 3000 Hz. In some cases, additional bandwidth is required. This can be provided by the use of special electronic "conditioning equipment" that reduces the distortion or expands the normal usable bandwidth of a voice frequency circuit nearer to its full available bandwidth of 3500 Hz. Distortion and Equalization If a signal of a certain bandwidth is transmitted over a channel which only passes a narrow range of frequencies (e.g., the telephone voice channel), the effect will be to distort the signal. The different frequency components will be attenuated at differing rates and the receiver will get a false impression of what was sent. If the frequency characteristics of the channel are known, then the receiver can be given appropriate compensatory characteristics. For example, a receiving amplifier could boost higher frequency signals more than lower frequency ones, counteracting the effect of greater high frequency attenuation of the transmission line. This compensation is known as equalization.
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A fixed train of pulses has a bandwidth that extends far beyond its nominal bit rate, in both directions. Clearly this could lead to bad distortion if it is sent over a band-pass channel. However, it is possible to encode the digital data in such a way that the frequency content is adapted to the channel over which it is to be sent, by varying the method of representing binary 0 and 1. This is known as line encoding and will be covered in more detail later in this module. Another problem requiring equalization is the affects of time delay. Analog signals at different frequencies travel at different rates through a transmission medium. Because each signaling element contains many frequencies, the signaling elements arrive at the receiver over a period of time rather than all at once. The equalizer must also counteract the effects of this time delay. The use of an adaptive equalizer allows the receiver to adjust to varying line conditions. At modem communication start-up, a training sequence bit pattern is sent to allow the receiver to adapt more rapidly to the line conditions, then would be the case if random data was received. You will hear this training tone occur when modems are attempting to establish communications. Modern high speed modems initially train at a much lower bit rate (2400 bps) which allows a faster equalization. Then shift-up to the higher data rate. Hayes Modem Command Structure Another type of compatibility, relating only to microcomputer modems, involves the Hayes AT command structure. Hayes compatibility involves 22 modem commands and 16 register settings, which allow modem operation with various communications programs. Hayes-compatible products have speakers for audibly following calls in progress; front-panel status lights on external units; and auto dial, auto answer, manual dial, and manual answer operating features. Work Aid 3 has a list of common Hayes commands.
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WORK AID 1: HOW TO CALCULATE DB POWER RATIOS This Work Aid is designed to assist the Participant in calculations involving dB power ratios. One of the legacies of Alexander Graham Bell, in addition to the telephone, is the measure of relative power, the Bell. A Bel is the logarithm of the ratio of two powers. The Bel, however, is too large for practical use, so one-tenth of a Bel, or a deciBel, is commonly used: deciBel = dB = 10 log10 (P2/P1) An engineer often works with power ratios expressed as decibels, abbreviated dB. A common occurrence is the signal-to-noise power ratio (S/N) encountered in data communications. Table 10 provides some of the power ratios for even dB values. As expected from the defining equation for deciBel, changing any power ratio by a factor of 10 results in a deciBel change of 10. Table 10. Power Ratios for dB Values
-4x 0.000100 0.000079 0.000063 0.000050 0.000040 0.000032 0.000025 0.000020 0.000016 0.000013 -3x 0.00100 0.00079 0.00063 0.00050 0.00040 0.00032 0.00025 0.00020 0.00016 0.00013 -2x 0.0100 0.0079 0.0063 0.0050 0.0040 0.0032 0.0025 0.0020 0.0016 0.0013 -1x 0.100 0.079 0.063 0.050 0.040 0.032 0.025 0.020 0.016 0.013 -0x 1.00 0.79 0.63 0.50 0.40 0.32 0.25 0.20 0.16 0.13 dB 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 +0x 1.00 1.26 1.58 2.00 2.51 3.16 3.98 5.01 6.31 7.94 +1x 10.0 12.6 15.8 20.0 25.1 31.6 39.8 50.1 63.1 79.4 +2x 100 126 158 200 251 316 398 501 631 794 +3x 1000 1259 1585 1995 2512 3162 3981 5012 6310 7943 +4x 10000 12589 15849 19953 25119 31623 39811 50119 63096 79433
Use of the Table 1. The vertical columns correspond to decade intervals, i.e., 0-9, 10-19, etc. 2. The horizontal rows correspond to digit values. Example: -22 Example: 15 Example: 32 Calculator Method Using the Windows 95 calculator Inv Log function, the conversion calculation is: InvLog (dB/10) dB = col 3 x row 3 dB = col 8 x row 5 dB = col 10 x row 2 = 0.0063 = 32 = 1585
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WORK AID 2: HOW TO CALCULATE MAXIMUM BIT RATE USING SHANNON'S LAW This Work Aid is designed to assist the Participant in calculating the theoretical maximum number of bits/second that can be transmitted over a communications channel using Shannon's law. In 1948, an American scientist Claude Shannon presented a paper in which he discussed the encoding methods that could be used to transmit data, and the relationship between coding and noise. He proved that the theoretical maximum bit-rate capacity of a channel of bandwidth of W hertz would be: C = W log2 (1 + S/N ) where C = The maximum bit-rate capacity. W = Available bandwidth in hertz. S = Power of the transmitter. N = Power of the thermal noise. S/N, the signal-to-noise ratio, is usually expressed in dB. It is also useful to remember the following mathematical relationship since many simpler calculators have a LOG (log10) key and not a log2 function. log2 (X) = log10 (X) / log10 (2) = 3.322 log10 (X) Example Calculation: Typical values for a voice-grade circuit are: W = 2700 Hz (3000 Hz-300 Hz); S/N = 25 dB = 316 (note: 316 comes from Table 10 in Work Aid 1). Use of the formula is quite straight forward and is best illustrated by the following two examples: For the typical VF circuit described above, the maximum number of bits/second that could be transmitted is: C = 2700 log2 (1 + S/N) = 22,432 bits/second C=3.322 [2700 log10 (1 + S/N)] = 22,433 bits/second
or
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WORK AID 3: ITU-T MODEM SPECIFICATIONS This Work Aid is designed to assist you in selecting the correct modem for a particular application. 1. Define the bit-rate and other requirements for the modem to be used. Transmission speed in bits per second. Full duplex (Full Dx) or half duplex (Half Dx). Synchronous or asynchronous operation. Switched network or private line (dedicated) circuits. Private line use includes point-topoint (PP) and multi-point (MP) applications. Facilities required: two-wire or four-wire. Four-wire circuits use two separate transmission paths, one for each direction of transmission. This may be two pairs (four wires) of metallic conductors or two channels in a carrier system. Reverse channel is a special feature of V.23 and later modems to provide a separate low speed channel for data acknowledgments and other control signals to be sent from the receiving modem thus providing for a faster handshaking sequence. Equalization. Equalization refers to the reduction of frequency and phase distortion by introducing time differences in a signal to compensate for frequency-dependent attenuation and time delays in a circuit. Adaptive equalization indicates that the modem is capable of automatically adjusting to circuit conditions. Scrambler refers to an additional coding of the data to insure that a sufficient number of 1s and 0s are transmitted to insure clock synchronization. Select the appropriate modem specification using
2.
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Table 11. ITU-T V-Series Modem Specifications.
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Table 11. ITU-T V-Series Modem Specifications

V.21 Transmission (b/s) Modulation (Baud) Forward Carrier Freq. 300 300 1080 Hz V.22 600 600 1200 2400 Full Dx Either PSK 1:1 Undef Yes PP 2W Undef Undef Fixed Yes V.22 1200 600 1200 2400 Full Dx Either PSK 2:1 Undef Yes PP 2W Fixed Yes V.22bis 1200 600 1200 2400 Full Dx Either QAM 2:1 Undef Yes PP 2W Fixed Yes V.22bis 2400 600 1200 2400 Full Dx Either QAM 4:1 Undef Yes PP 2W Fixed Yes V.23 600 600 1300 1700 Half Dx Either FM 1:1 yes Yes V.23 1200 1200 1300 2100 Half Dx Either FM 1:1 yes Yes V.26 2400 1200 1200 1800 Full Dx Sync PS 2:1 yes no PP, MP 2W Undef Undef
Backward Carrier Freq. 1750 Hz Full/Half Duplex Synchronous/Async Modulation Technique Bits per Baud Reverse Channel Switched Network Use Private Line Use Facilities Required Equalization Scrambler Full Dx Either FSK 1:1 Undef Yes Optional
Optional Optional 2W Undef Undef 2W Undef Undef
V.26bis Transmission (b/s) Modulation (Baud) Forward Carrier Freq. Backward Carrier Freq. Full/Half Duplex Synchronous/Async Modulation Technique Bits per Baud Reverse Channel Switched Network Use Private Line Use Facilities Required Equalization Scrambler 1200 1200 1200 1800 Half Dx Sync PS 1:1 yes yes No 2W Fixed Undef
V.26bis 2400 1200 1800 -Half Dx Sync PS 2:1 yes yes No 2W Fixed Undef
V.26ter 2400 1200 1800 -Either Sync PS 2:1 Undef yes PP 2W Fixed Yes
V.26ter 1200 1200 1800 -Either Either PS 1:1 Undef yes PP 2W Fixed Yes
V.27 4800 1600 1800 -Either Sync PS 3:1 yes no PP
V.27bis 4800 1600 1800 -Either Sync PS 3:1 yes no PP
V.27bis 1200 1200 1800 -Either Sync PS 2:1 yes no PP
V.27ter 2400 1200 1800 -Half Dx Sync PS 2:1 yes yes no 2W
2W, 4W 2W, 4W 2W, 4W
Manual Adaptive Adaptive Adaptive Yes Yes Yes yes
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V.27ter Transmission (b/s) Modulation (baud) Forward Carrier Freq Backward Carrier Freq Full/Half Duplex Synchronous/Async Modulation Technique Bits per Baud Auxiliary Channel Switched Network Use Private Line Use Facilities Required Equalization Scrambler 4800 1600 1800 -Half Dx Sync PSK 3:1 yes yes no 2W Adaptive Yes
V.29 2400 2400 1700 -Either Sync QAM 1:1 yes yes PP 2W Adaptive Yes
V.32 Transmission (b/s) Modulation (baud) Forward Carrier Freq Backward Carrier Freq Full/Half Duplex Synchronous/Async Modulation Technique Bits per Baud Auxiliary Channel Switched Network Use Private Line Use Facilities Required Equalization Scrambler 4800 2400 1800 -Either Sync QAM 2:1 yes yes PP 2W Adaptive Yes
V.32 7200 2400 1800 -Either Sync Trellis 3:1 yes yes PP 2W Adaptive Yes
V.32bis 14400 2400 1800 -Either Sync Trellis 6:1 yes yes PP 2W Adaptive Yes
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V.34 Transmission (b/s) Modulation (baud) Forward Carrier Freq Backward Carrier Freq Full/Half Duplex Synchronous/Async Modulation Technique Bits per Baud Auxiliary Channel Switched Network Use Private Line Use Facilities Required Equalization Scrambler 2400 2400 1800 -Either Sync QAM 1:1 yes yes PP 2W Adaptive Yes
Note: V.34 also supports 21.6k, 24k, and 26.4k bps; V.34+ supports 33.6kbps, and baud rates of 2400, 2743, 2800, 3000, 3200 and 3429
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WORK AID 4: HAYES COMMAND SET FOR MODEMS Modem commands were standardized by the Hayes Communications Co. and are now commonly referred to as the Hayes Command Set or Hayes Compatible. The Hayes Command Set consists of dialing commands and register commands. The register commands override factory default settings for modem operating parameters (example: delay time between dialing digits). Commands are executed by pressing the carriage return key on the keyboard. Spaces are not required between commands and are ignored. Command strings begin with the AT (Attention) command - AT&T, ATH1, etc. Exception is the A/ command. Up to 60 characters can be entered on a single command string. Use either all upper case or all lower case characters, but not a mixture (i.e., At). Listing Commands The following are some of the basic Hayes Commands. Use AT$ for a complete listing of the commands your modem supports.
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Command AT AT$ ATA A/ ATC ATDT ATDP ATDL ATEx ATHx ATLx ATMx Attention
Definition
List Hayes Command Set Answer Incoming Call Repeat Last Command (no AT or carriage return required) C1=Carrier On, C0=Carrier Off Dial using Tones Dial using Pulses Redial Last Number E1=Enable Character Echo to Screen, E0=Disable Echo H1=Off Hook, H0=On Hook Loudness (L1=Low, L2=Medium, L2=High) (internal modems only) M0=Speaker Off , M1=Speaker On until Connection, M2=Speaker On Continuously, M3=Speaker On after last digit dialed and off when connected. Reset Modem Pause (default is 2 seconds per comma, modify &S8 to change default parameter) Remain in command mode, do not go on-hook. (Escape sequence) Return to command mode (from chat mode)
ATZ , (comma) ; (semi-colon) +++
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Examples: ATH1 Go off hook. ATDT1234567 Go off hook and tone dial 1234567. ATA Answer incoming call. ATM2 Speaker on continuously. ATDT9,1234567 Go off hook, dial 9, pause 2 seconds then dial number. ATS8=4 Set comma pause to 4 seconds per comma. ATDT180010,,,,,,,1234567890,,888111122225555 Dial AT&T USA Direct, pause 14 seconds, dial number, pause 4 seconds, dial credit card number.
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ADDENDUM A: ENGINEERING BBS - ENROLLMENT FORM

This bulletin board is to be used for business purposes only. Send to: Supervisor, P&CSD/CS&IED/PIMSU E-2330, DH/ Fax: 873-9281 User ID: (if you have one - if not, one will be assigned) Request Private Conference Access: If Y, specify which Private Conference: Badge Number: First Name: Middle Initial(s): Last Name: Address: Telephone: Fax: MSMail Postoffice (if known): Title: Signature: * Y/ N
* I understand that the Engineering bulletin board system is a communication environment to be used for information sharing, development and problem solving. It is not to be used for sharing personal computer software. I will ensure that any files uploaded to the system are allowed to be freely distributed. I will ensure that any executable file uploaded to the system has been checked to be free of viruses. Submitted by (enrollee's supervisor): Signature: Name: Title: Unit: Division: Department:
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ADDENDUM B: CC&OS BBS - ENROLLMENT FORM Send to: Tel, Fax: 876-4107, 876-4098 (Bulletin Board Administrator)
User ID: This is the same as your MS-Mail / Memo ID. Badge Number: First Name: Middle Initial(s): Last Name: Office Address: Telephone: Fax: MS Mail PostOffice address: Job Title: Signature: *
* I understand that this CC&OS Bulletin Board System is a communication environment to be used for Saudi Aramco information sharing, development and problem solving. It is not to be used for sharing personal computer software. I will ensure that any files uploaded to the system are allowed to be freely distributed. I will ensure that any executable file uploaded to the system has been checked to be free of viruses. I will not use the Bulletin Board System for any illegal or unauthorized activities. Submitted by (enrollee's Division Head): Signature: Name: Title: Division: Department:
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ADDENDUM C: FIRST CLASS CLIENT INSTALLATION & SETUP The following information is provided to assist you in installing and setting up FCC. PC Installation Network Installation Installation files are available on the following servers Novell Server: CAPCSD7316/SYS ID: PCSD No password Volume: SYS:PCSD\Apps\WinApps\FCWIN
Windows NTAS Server: \\PCSDCADT\APPS ID: you need your own Password: you need your own Directory: WinApps\FirstCls
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Double-click on the setup.exe file, press Continue, select where you want to install the files and sit back for a couple of seconds. The installation process will create a FCWIN directory on your disk that contains the following files and subdirectories:
Copy the files from the SETTINGS.NEW directory on the server into the SETTINGS directory in the FCWIN directory on your own disk. Launch the FirstClass application, under the file menu select Open Settings and open one of the following settings files: ENGBBSV3.FC for the pretty splash screen and sound ENGBSSV3.FC smaller - no graphics, no sound Enter your User ID: And your password: Press the Login button and you should be connected. For Automatic Mail Notification (does not work with modem or TCP/IP installations) In the FirstClass Window double-click on the FirstClass Notify icon, select the active FirstClass Notify icon and select Restore. Select Setup from menu and enter the following info: Server: Saudi Aramco Engineer'g Your User ID: Your password: Press OK. If you always want to be notified of FirstClass mail, put the FirstClass Notify icon in your startup window.
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Alternate Setups If you are not on the CC&OS Aramco network then you will need to connect to the Engineering BBS via modem or TCP/IP Select setup and you will see the following setup screen
TCP/IP: If you are using tcp/ip for your network then you need to use the IP address of 166.87.5.103 for the server instead of Saudi Aramco Engineerg. You also need to select tcp/ip.fcp from the pull down menu in the connect via box (top box on this screen}. Modem: If you are using a modem connection then You need to select Modem.fcp from the pull down menu in the connect via box (top box on this screen}.You also need to select the Setup button on the top line of the setup screen. The next setup screen will allow you to choose a modem setup from a pull down menu. The phone number for the Engineering BBS is already set. The Engineering BBS has a bank of 8 modems on a rollover from the single number 873-4242. The modems support up to 14.4 kbps.
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Macintosh Installation Network Installation Download the FirstClass Client s/w from one one of the following servers: Windows NTAS Server: P&CSD CA Data Server ID: fcguest Password: password Directory: Apps:AppleApps:FirstClass : FirstClass272.sea Double click on the FirstClass272.sea file, press Continue, select where you want to install the files (hopefully in your Applications Folder) and sit back for a couple of seconds. The Engbbs.sea (self extracting application) should expand into a folder located on your disk containinig the FirstClass Client 2.7 application and four subdirectories: FCP, Modems, Scripts and Settings. Configuration - In this version of the Engbbs s/w we have included preconfigured settings files for the Engineering BBS. These settings files are preset to point to our server and network. All you have to do is add your account name and password (if you want the system to log you in automatically). To configure your installation: 1. Start the FirstClass Client 2.7 application 2. From the file menu select Open Settings and open the settings file located in the folder. 3. Select and OPEN the ENGBBS v.3 settings: 4. The following login screen should come up
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Insert your user ID and password then Login Alternate setups: If you are not on the CC&OS Aramco network then you will need to connect to the Engineering BBS via modem or TCP/IP Select setup and you will see the following setup screen
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If you are using tcp/ip for your network then you need to use the IP address of 166.87.5.103 for the server instead of Saudi Aramco Engineerg. You also need to select tcp/ip.fcp from the pull down menu in the connect via box (top box on this screen}. If you are using a modem connection then You need to select Modem.fcp from the pull down menu in the connect via box (top box on this screen}.You also need to select the Setup button on the top line of the setup screen. The next setup screen will allow you to choose a modem setup from a pull down menu. The phone number for the Engineering BBS is already set. The Engineering BBS has a bank of 8 modems on a rollover from the single number 873-4242. The modems support up to 14.4 kbps. AUTOMATIC MAIL NOTIFICATION - IF you are located on the network you can use the notifier init to let you know if mail arrives for you while you are not logged in. This does not work for modem installations. Read the "Read-Me" file About FC Net Notification for instruction on how to configure the FirstClass Notification Init.
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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Chapter : Communication File Reference: CDA10102

For additional information on this subject, contact J.S. Phillips on 874-6163

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

OSI Model Layer 7: Application Layer 6: Presentation

Interconnection Process Physical Circuit Disconnection Interface

Handshaking Modulation Multiplexing Demodulation Handshaking Interface

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

a,k: b,j: c,i: d,h: e,g: f: m:

DTE-DTE Connection Using DCEs

Layer 2 Layer 1 Physical

DTE-DTE Direct Interconnection

Figure 2. Interconnection Examples

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Figure 4. Serial Interface

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Figure 5. Parallel Interface

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Bit 1 One Pulse Unit Start Bit

Bit 8 Stop Bit(s) 1, 1.5, or 2 Bit Times

Direction of Data Flow

Character Bits S Start Bit

Parity Bit P S Stop Bit

Idle Time S Start Bit

Parity Bit P S Stop Bit

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Direction of Data Flow

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4:

Figure 9. Polling and Selecting

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

2200 Hz = 1 1700 Hz 1200 Hz = 0

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

2200 Hz = 11 2000 Hz = 10 1700 Hz 1400 Hz = 01 1200 Hz = 00

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Communication Data Communications: Media, Modulation And Modems

300 GHz (1 millimeter)