Chapter 2 Cellular Reproduction

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Chapter Outline
Cells and Chromosomes Mitosis Meiosis Life Cycles of Some Model Genetic Organisms

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cells and Chromosomes

In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, the genetic material is organized into chromosomes.

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Cellular Environment

Cytoplasmthe inside of a cell Water Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Molecules Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins, including enzymes Membranemade of lipids and proteins Organelles
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Animal and Plant Cells

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Chromosomes
Double-stranded DNA with associated proteins and sometimes RNA Prokaryotic cells contain one circular chromosome plus smaller plasmids Most eukaryotic cells contain several large linear chromosomes
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Vocabulary for Chromosomes

Diploid Haploid Somatic cells Germ line Gametes Centromere
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cell Division in Prokaryotes: Fission

A mother cell divides to produce two daughter cells. The mother cells chromosome is duplicated prior to fission. Each daughter cell receives one copy of the chromosome. Clonea population of genetically identical cells. Colonya visible mass of cells.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cell Division in Eukaryotes: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Points
Cells, the basic units of all living things, are enclosed by membranes. Chromosomes, the cellular structures that carry the genes, are composed of DNA, RNA, and protein. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are contained within a membrane-bounded nucleus; in prokaryotes they are not. Eukaryotic cells possess complex systems of internal membranes as well as membranous organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the endoplasmic reticulum.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Points
Haploid eukaryotic cells possess one copy of each chromosome; diploid cells possess two copies. Prokaryotic cells divide by fission; eukaryotic cells divide by mitosis and cytokinesis. Eukaryotic chromosomes duplicate when a cells DNA is synthesized; this event, which precedes mitosis, is characteristic of the S phase of the cell cycle.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Mitosis
When eukaryotic cells divide, they distribute their genetic material equally and exactly to their offspring.

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Microtubules and Centrioles

Spindle Microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) Centrosomes and centrioles Pericentriolar material Aster
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Mitosis in Animal Cells

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cytokinesis in Animal and Plant Cells

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Points
As a cell enters mitosis, its duplicated chromosomes condense into rod-shaped bodies (prophase). As mitosis progresses, the chromosomes migrate to the equatorial plane of the cell (metaphase). Later in mitosis, the centromere that holds the sister chromatids of a duplicated chromosome together splits, and the sisters chromatids separate (or disjoin) from each other (anaphase)
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Points
As mitosis comes to an end, the chromosomes decondense and a nuclear membrane reforms around them (telophase). Each daughter cell produced by mitosis and cytokinesis has the same set of chromosomes; thus, daughter cells are genetically identical.

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Meiosis
Sexual reproduction involves a mechanism that reduces the number of chromosomes by half.

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Homologues

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Prophase I: Leptonema
Chromosomes condense Each chromosome has two sister chromatids

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Prophase I: Zygonema
Synapsis of homologous chromosomes Synaptonemal complex

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Synaptonemal Complex

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Prophase I: Pachynema
Chromosomes condense further

Bivalent Tetrad Crossing over occurs

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Prophase I: Diplonema
Paired chromosomes separate slightly but are in contact as chiasmata

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Chiasmata

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Prophase I: Diakinesis
Nuclear envelope fragements Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores Chromosomes move to central plane in pairs

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Metaphase I
Paired chromosomes are oriented toward opposite poles Terminalization: chiasmata move toward telomeres

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Anaphase I
Chromosome disjunction (separation of paired chromosomes) Separated homologues move toward opposite poles
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Telophase I
Chromosomes reach the poles; nuclei forms Spindle apparatus is disassembled Daughter cells separated by membranes Chromosomes decondense Each chromosome still has two sister chromatids
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Prophase II
Chromosomes condense Chromosomes attach to a new spindle apparatus Sister chromatids are attached to spindle fibers from opposite poles
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Metaphase II
Chromosomes align at equatorial plane

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Anaphase II
Centromeres split Chromatid disjunctionsister chromatids move toward opposite poles

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Telophase II
Separated chromatids gather at poles; daughter nuclei form Each chromatid is now called a chromosome Each daughter nucleus contains a haploid set of chromosomes

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cytokinesis

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Daughter cells are NOT genetically identical

Maternal and paternal homologues synapse, then disjoin. Different pairs disjoin independently. Homologous chromosomes exchange material by crossing over

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Points
Diploid eukaryotic cells form haploid cells by meiosis, a process involving one round of chromosome duplication followed by two cell divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II). During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair (synapse), exchange material (cross over), and separate (disjoin) from each other. During meiosis II, chromatids disjoin from each other.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Life Cycle of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Oogenesis in Mammals

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Spermatogenesis in Mammals

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Points
In yeast, haploid cells with opposite mating types fuse to form a diploid zygote, which then undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid cells
Meiosis in the reproductive organs of Arabidopsis produces microspores and megaspores, which subsequently develop into male and female gametophytes
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Key Points
The double fertilization that ocurs during Arabidopsis reproduction creates a diploid zygote, which develops into an embryo, and a triploid endosperm, which develops into nutritive tissue in the seed In mice and other mammals, one cell from female meiosis becomes the egg, whereas all four cells from male meiosis become sperm
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.