Unplugged But Connected

Review of Contactless Energy Transfer Systems

Marian P. Kazmierkowski and Artur J. Moradewicz

ecently, contactless (or contact-free) energy transfer (CET) systems have become more widely developed and investigated [1][4]. This innovative technology brings about new possibilities of supplying mobile devices with electrical energy by allowing elimination of cables, connectors, and/or slip rings. This increases reliability and maintenance-free operation of such systems in critical applications such as aerospace, biomedicine, multisensors, and robotics. A large number of technologies for CET have been established, but these can be summed up in three commonly accepted terminologies: CET contactless (or contact-free) power transfer (CPT) wireless power transfer (WPT). In this article, we refer to CET systems following this nomenclature. The aim of this article is to review of power electronics-based CET systems. Various techniques are divided according to the medium used for energy transfer and are presented as (see Figure 1) acoustics-based CETs, light-based CETs, capacitivebased CETs, and the largest group, inductively coupled CETs. The basic principles and the latest developments in these techniques with a special focus on inductively coupled solutions are systematically described. The advantages and limitations are briefly examined, and the application field where each technique is particularly suited

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MIE.2012.2220869 Date of publication: 10 December 2012

comstock

1932-4529/12/$31.002012IEEE

december 2012 IEEE industrial electronics magazine 47

Light CET Systems

Acoustic Contactless Energy Transfer Systems Light

Inductive Coupling With Magnetic Core on Secondary Side

Capacitive Coupling

With Magnetic Cores

Without Magnetic Core

Figure 1 The classification of CET systems.

Primary-Side Power Converter Energy Source Grid dc ac T

Medium R

Secondary-Side ac/dc Converter Load ac dc

Light or optical systems operate similar to far-field EM or microwave energy transfer and are also used for CET. In optical systems, however, the wavelengths lie in, or near the visible spectrum. Laser diodes are used to generate the optical power beam and photovoltaic diodes (PV) convert it back into electrical energy. Although microwave technology is able to deliver massive amounts of energy, its efficiency and practical applications become limited when utilized over longer distances because of diffractive losses (see Figure 3). The reported power level is in the range between less than one watt and dozens of watts, and optical-toelectrical conversion efficiency is 2030% [3], [9], [10]. Applications mainly include spacecraft platforms and terrestrial technologies [9], [10].

Capacitive CET Systems

Figure 2 The basic principles of an acoustic CET system. The transmitting transducer (T) and the receiver (R).

is indicated. Some oscillograms that illustrate properties of these discussed inductive CET techniques are shown.

Acoustic CET Systems

Figure 2 illustrates the basic principle of the acoustic CET system [2]. Electrical energy delivered via a power electronic circuit is converted by a transmitting transducer into a pressure wave that is transferred through a medium (i.e., air, living tissue, or metal). A receiving transducer positioned along the path of the sound wave performs an inverse process, converting the sound wave into electrical energy. A rectifier with a capacitive filter supplies a load. Usually, piezoelectric materials are used as transmitting and receiving transducers. Compared to inductive CET, acoustics-based CET systems have the following features and advantages: For any given dimensions of the transmitter and receiver, the frequency used in the acoustic CET system can be a factor cem/cair (indicating the propagation speed

of EM and acoustic waves in air, respectively) smaller than that of inductive CET for the same directionality. Consequently, the losses in the power electronic converter can be lower. These systems can be used where EM fields are not allowed. These systems have smaller system dimensions when high directionality is required. Normally, the efficiency of the acoustic CET is less than that of the inductive ones; however, when the distance between the transmitter and the receiver is much larger than their radii, the efficiency of the acoustic CET can be higher [2], [6]. Typical applications of acoustic CET systems include biomedical (with a power range up to 100 mW and efficiency up to about 40%), through-wall systems for metal enclosures (for example, sensors in nuclear systems, vacuum chambers, gas cylinders) transferring 1 kW at 84% efficiency [7], [8] (see Table 1).

A basic scheme illustrating the principle of capacitive CET systems is shown in Figure 4. Electrical energy delivered via a high-frequency resonant power electronic converter is connected to two primary metal plates. When two isolated secondary plates are placed in addition, an alternating electric field is formed between the plates resulting in a displacement current that can flow through. As a result, power can be transferred to the load without direct electrical contact and a certain freedom of movement between the primary and secondary plates is possible. An inductor is usually connected in series with the secondary coupling plates to tune the equivalent coupling capacitor and increase the output power. Finally, a rectifier with a capacitive filter supplies a load. Usually, the surfaces of the coupling metal plates are coated with dielectric materials to provide electrical isolation and to increase the coupling capacitance [11][13]. Contrary to inductively coupled CET systems, the capacitive CET employs an electric field and metal barriers and surroundings become less of an issue. Thanks to the constrained nature of the electric field between

48 IEEE industrial electronics magazine december 2012

Table 1Overview of CET technologies.

Technology (Medium) Converter switching frequency (kHz) Output Power (W) Distance length (mm) Efficiency (%) Properties Typical Applications

Acoustic (sound)

20100

0.011000

0.21 1300

180

Strong directional High distance/size When EM waves are not allowed Laser beaming Long distance Thermal derating Metal penetration Reduced EMI Low standing Power losses High efficiency High EMI Low distance/size No metal penetration abilities

Throughmetalwall Sensor nuclear technology Biomedical Ultrasonic CET Space Terrestrial technology Biomedical LED supply Mobile phones Playing robots Sensors EV and battery chargers Robots and manipulators Cranes and AGEV Mobile devices Sensors and actuators

Light (optical EM) Capacitive (electric field)

(1012) 7001,400 nm 100 kHz to several MHz

1 100

Long (m to km) Low 0.10.5

2030

1 50

5080

Inductive

(magnetic field)

20 kHz to several MHz

1 W200 kW

0.22,000

$ 80 - 90

metal plates, capacitive CET systems also have the potential to reduce EM interference (EMI). The power level and efficiency of these CET systems is in the range of 550 W and 5080%, respectively. Typical applications of capacitive CET systems include supplying power to light-emitting diode (LED) lamps, mobile phones, soccer-playing robots, sensors for respiratory machines biopotential measurement systems, and other devices [11], [12].

required [15], [26]. Hence, the inductively coupled CET system consists mainly of a large air gap transformer and resonant converter.

Variants of ICET
Depending on the power range and air gap length, different transformer cores can be used. A general overview representing a typical construction of

inductive coupling used in CET systems is shown in Figure 6. It can be seen that for a high power and low air gap, transformers with magnetic cores in the primary and secondary sides are applied. Contrary to this, for a large air gap and low/medium power, air transformers (coreless) are preferred. A special case is a sliding transformer

m # 1,400 nm Primary-Side Power Converter ac dc Laser m $ 700 nm T Medium R

Inductive CET Systems

Figure 5 shows the basic block diagram of inductively coupled CET systems. It consists of a primary-side dc/ac resonant converter, which converts dc into high-frequency ac energy. Next, the ac energy via a transformer with the inductive coupling factor k is transferred to the secondary-side receiver. The secondary side is not connected electrically with the primary side and thus can be movable (linearly and/or rotating), giving flexibility, mobility, and safety to supplied loads. On the secondary side, the high-frequency ac energy is converted safely by an ac/dc converter to meet the requirements specified by the load parameters. In most cases, a diode rectifier with a capacitive filter is used as an ac/dc converter. However, in some applications an active rectifier or inverter (for stabilized dc/ac loads) is

Secondary-Side ac/dc Converter Load Load dc dc

Energy Source

PV

Figure 3 The basic principles of light CET system. The transmitting transducer (T) and the receiver (R).

Primary Plate 1 Primary-Side HF Power Converter Energy dc Source Grid ac Secondary Plate 2 Primary Plate 2 Figure 4 The basic principles of the capacitive CET system. Secondary Plate 1

Secondary-Side ac/dc Converter ac dc

december 2012 IEEE industrial electronics magazine 49

Load

Primary-Side Supply Converter Energy Source dc Grid ac

Coupling Factor

Secondary-Side Resonant ac/ac Circuit Conversion k L Secondary Windings ac ac

converter load. The other three topologies (Table 2) are all dependent on the magnetic coupling [40]. Control Methods The control methods of resonant converters used in ICET systems can be generally classified as shown in Figure 7. The fixed frequency is used in systems where the coupling factor (distance) and load are constant [17], [19]. However, in cases with variable load parameters the frequency is monitored online and adaptively adjusted according to load conditions. It can be implemented by phase control with a phase locked loop circuit [5] or peak current control [23][25]. Also, reliable operation can be achieved using integration control methods [41], [43]. Cascaded Transformers Figure 8 shows a CET system used in power supply for robots and manipulators [2125]. The indirect dc link ac/dc/ac power converter generates a square wave voltage of 200600 V and a 2060 kHz frequency. This voltage is fed to the primary winding of first rotatable transformer located on the first axis of the robot. The transformers secondary side is connected to the next dc link ac/dc/ac power converter, which, using the PWM technique, generates variable-frequency ac voltage to supply the first three-phase motor. The transformers secondary side is also connected to the primary side of the next rotatable transformer, which is located on the second joint of the robot. The transformer feeds the second axis drive through a process similar to the one described above for the first machine. More transformers may be added to create an arrangement of an ac bus throughout the robot. Similar systems are applied for multilayer optical discs used in data storage systems [14]. However, the output power in optical discs is in the range of 2030 mW, whereas in a robot supply it is 1020 kW [22]. Multiple Secondary Winding The CET system of Figure 5 can be equipped with multiple secondary

Resonant Circuit Slave Inductance Primary Windings

Figure 5 The basic principles of the inductive CET system.

that can have construction for linear or circular movement (see the section Multiple Secondary Winding). The final configuration of CET systems also depends strongly on the number of loads to be supplied. In such cases, transformers with multiwinding secondary or primary sides are used. Converters and Compensation Circuits The advantages of a seriescompensated secondary side are that there is no reflected reactance when the secondary side operates at the resonant frequency, while the parallel compensated secondary side reflects a capacitive reactance at the secondary resonant frequency. The favorable

characteristic of a parallel compensated secondary is mainly that it is independent of the connected load. Parallel secondary compensation, which gives a current source output, is well suited for applications such as battery charging in electric vehicles. However, series secondary compensation topology is better for systems with intermediate dc voltage bus, such as pulse width modulation (PWM)-controlled converter feeds variable-speed ac drives. In this case, compensation topology should be suitably selected according to output requirements. Theoretically, seriesseries (SS) is the best topology, as the primary capacitance is then independent of either the magnetic coupling or the

Power Secondary Side

High Power Medium Power

Low Power

Primary Side

Air Gap Figure 6 The power range of inductive CET systems versus air gap length.

50 IEEE industrial electronics magazine december 2012

Table 2Variants of compensation circuits used in ICET systems.

Simplified circuits Abbreviation Comments Sensitivity for coupling and load changes

Cr 1

L11 L12

N1 k N2

L22

SeriesSeries (SS)

Cr 2

Voltage source characteristics, dc voltage bus

Independent of coupling and load changes

Cr 1

L11 L12

N1 k N2

L22 Cr 2

SeriesParallel (SP)

Current source characteristics, battery charging

Sensitive to coupling changes

L11 Cr 1 L12

N1 k N2

L22

ParallelSeries (PS)

Cr 2

Voltage source characteristics, dc voltage bus

Sensitive to coupling and load changes

L11 Cr 1 L12

N1 k N2

L22 Cr 2

ParallelParallel (PP)

Current source characteristics battery charging

Sensitive to coupling and load changes

windings, as shown in Figure 9. This is a very flexible solution in which several isolated and/or moving loads can be supplied [15], [16], [45]. In situations when stabilized ac or dc loads are required, an additional active dc/ac or dc/dc converter has to be added (Figure 9). Of course, it results in additional losses and efficiency reduction. Based on this idea, in [15] and [16] a CET system has been proposed that can be compared with a plugand-socket extension cable. Instead of inserting a plug into a socket, a connection between a supply line (cable) and loads (clamps) is established using CET. Also, ABB Corporate Research, Ladenburg, Germany, has developed a factory communication and wireless power supply system for sensors and actuators called WISA [17][19]. In this solution, a coreless single winding primary side (constructed in the form of a frame) is coupled with distributed multiple secondary windings to supply sensors and actuators with 10 mW output power each. The transformers used in the system of Figure 9 can have different constructions: stationary, rotating, rotatable, with a magnetic core, or coreless. As an example, a rotating transformer with double parallel connected secondary windings is used in

CET systems for the power supply of airborne radar systems [20]. Sliding Transformers The contactless electrical energy delivery systems used in long distance are based on sliding transformers with long primary windings [27], [28].

Two configurations are applied: a primary winding forming an elongated loop as long as the range of receiver movement requires (Figure 10), or a circular form for circular movement. The output converter(s) and load(s) is directly connected to a secondary winding placed on a movable magnetic core. The magnetic core constructions

Control Methods

Fixed Frequency

Variable Frequency

Peak Value Regulator (i.e., Current)

Phase Regulator with Current Sign Detector or Frequency Estimator

Current Sign Detector

Frequency Changes

Integration Method

Figure 7 The control methods used in inductive CET systems.

december 2012 IEEE industrial electronics magazine 51

Primary-Side Supply Converter Resonant Energy Circuit Source dc ac ac dc Grid

L k L Coupling Factor Self Inductance L k L

dc Link Resonant Circuit PWM Inverter Axis Drives ac dc M 3 dc ac

ac dc

dc ac

Secondary Primary Windings Windings Primary-Side

L k L

ac dc

dc ac

Rotatable Transformers

Secondary-Side

Figure 8 An inductive CET system with cascaded rotatable transformers.

enable free movement of the secondary winding along the primary winding loop. The sliding transformer makes it possible to construct long, contactless electrical energy delivery systems for mobile receivers. These transformer cores are composed of many strips of magnetic materials. Regarding magnetic and mechanical properties, the amorphous or nanocrystalline magnetic materials are preferable. However, when the high dynamic properties of mobile receivers are required, some problems may appear because of core inertia. A heavy magnetic core is fixed with the energy receiver; therefore, it increases the mass of the secondary side. The length of the primary winding is in the range of 170 m and the output power is 1200 kW [2].

An Example of A Bidirectional Battery Charger With V2GCapabilities

The automotive industry has developed a new generation of fuel-efficient hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs). Common for these vehicles is the possibility for plug-in grid power. By utilizing an appropriate power electronic system, the PHEV can either deliver energy from the grid during its charging mode or supply energy back to the grid in case of discharging. This new unique aspect of bidirectional power flow is defined as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capability [3133]. V2G is a promising technology for increasing the amount of distributed energy generation (wind energy) because, if used in

large numbers, battery packs can play the role of distributed energy storage needed for power management during peak hours [33], [3739]. The amount of stored energy can be so large that a PHEV market penetration of only 10% could take the place of 25% of the energy generation capacity in main regions of the United States [33]. Of course, such a scenario requires development of an appropriate infrastructure, including battery charging stations, bidirectional power electronic interfaces (V2G), teleinformatics system communication between vehicles and charging stations, and power system operators. Several solutions to power electronic interfaces for V2G capability have been proposed [3134], [3739], [41]. System Description The configuration of the 15-kW bidirectional inductive CET system, developed in [41], is shown in Figure 11. At the grid-side energy input are a threephase active rectifier (operating with sinusoidal grid current waveform and unity power factor) and a full-bridge Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) converter. On the secondary side, a mirror full-bridge IGBT converter with a battery pack is connected. The secondary part is located on the vehicle, is movable relative to the primary side, and is electrically separated from the secondary circuit. Due to the large air gap between the two

Secondary-Side Resonant ac/dcdc/ac Circuit Conversion ac dc Coupling Factor Primary-Side Resonant Energy Supply Converter Circuit Source ac dc Grid dc ac dc ac 3

L k

Secondary-Side Resonant ac/ac Circuit Conversion ac M 3 ac Secondary Windings ac dc

Slave Inductance Primary Windings

dc ac Resonant Secondary-Side Circuit ac/dcdc/ac Conversion

Figure 9 An inductive CET system with multiple secondary windings.

52 IEEE industrial electronics magazine december 2012

Energy Source Grid

Primary-Side Supply Converter ac dc dc ac

Table 3 Parameters of bidirectional inductive CET system.

Parameter Value Unit Comments

Udc L1 = L2 C r1 = C r2 R1 = R2

400 160 66 0.1 0.10.8 10 95

(V) (uH) (nF) (X!) (X!) (%)

dc voltage Leakage inductances Resonant capacitors Winding resistance Coupling factor Load resistance Efficiency (dcdc)

ac Secondary-Side Converter dc

k Re h max

Movable Load

Figure 10 An inductive CET system with a sliding transformer.

windings, the CET transformer operates under a much lower magnetic coupling factor. As a result, the main inductance is very small, whereas leakage inductances are large as compared with the conventional transformer. Consequently, the increase in magnetizing current causes higher converter conducting losses and winding losses increase because of large leakage inductances. To minimize the aforementioned disadvantages of CET transformers, resonant converters that utilize the energy stored in the transformer are applied [16]. To build up resonant circuits, an compensation of transformer leakage inductances has been used (Cr1 and Cr2 in Figure 11) in which values of resonant capacitances are independent of coupling factor k. This allows operation with high efficiency even when primary and secondary windings are not perfectly

positioned. The basic parameters of the bidirectional CET system are given in Table 3. The implemented field programmable gate array (FPGA) control method of the presented bidirectional CET system consists of two parts. The first is based on integral control of a resonant converter [41], [43], [44] and is responsible for maximum energy transfer including overcurrent and overvoltage protection. The second part (implemented using wireless transmission modules between the CET mobile and stationary parts [41]) controls the direction of energy flow between the grid and battery pack. The integral control method guarantees operation of the resonant converter at a resonant frequency because the changes in the transistor gate signals on the primary side occur only when the current exceeds zero value [43].

Simulated and Experimental Results Figure 12 shows selected oscillograms of voltages and currents (when k = 0.2 and the air gap = 23 cm) illustrating steady-state operation of the bidirectional inductive CET system (Figures 11 and 13) at a 60-kHz switching frequency. The oscillogram in Figure 12(c) shows the situation when the integral control shorts the lower transistor in the full-bridge resonant converter reducing the peak of primary current. In this way, the energy flow is controlled and also the system protected.

Conclusion
Contactless energy transfer (CET) techniques can be generally divided into four groups based on the medium used: acoustic, light, capacitive, and inductive coupling. The basic principles and the latest developments in these techniques have been described in this article. The advantages and limitations have been briefly examined, and the application field where

Energy Source Grid Base Driver Base Driver FPGA DSP Control Circuit

+ R1 Cr1 L1 k L2 Cr2 R2 Super Cap Battery Base Driver Base Driver FPGA FPGA Control Circuit -

Rx Tx

Rx Tx

Figure 11 A bidirectional inductive CET system for V2G operation.

december 2012 IEEE industrial electronics magazine 53

P1

Tek

Stop

M Pos: 0.000s

CH1 Primary VoltageVoltage-u CH1Primary up p CH2 Primary CurrentCH2Primary Current-iip [25A/div] A/div] p [25

1 ip up 4 ip [25 A/div] up [200 V/div] P1 [5 kVA/div] (a) Tek Stop M Pos: 0.000s MEASURE CH1 Max 256 V CH2 Max 16.0 A CH3 Max 208 V MATH Cyc RMS 2.59 kVA CH4 Freq 25.08 kHz? CH2\12.6 A 28.0825 kHz 2 M 3 MATHPrimary Power P1 [5 kVA/div] CH3Secondary Voltage-us CH4Transistor Gate Signal

[5 us/div]

CH1 200 V CH2 5.00 A M 5.00 ns CH3 200 V CH4 20.0 V MATH 1.00 kVA (b)

MEASURE CH1 Max 448 V CH2 Max 10.6A CH3 Max 424 V MATH Cyc RMS 2.67 kVA CH4 Freq 63.71 kHz? CH2/8.20 A 26.4191 kHz

CH1 Primary VoltageVoltage-u up CH1Primary p CH2 Primary CurrentCH2Primary Current-iip [10A/div] A/div] p [10

2 1 M 3 MATH Primary Power MATHPrimary P1 [2kVA/div] kVA/div] P 1 [2

CH3 Secondary VoltageVoltage-u us 4 CH3Secondary s CH4 Driver Input CH4Driver Input Signal Signal CH1 200 V CH2 5.00 A M 5.00 ns CH3 200 V CH4 20.0 V MATH 1.00 kVA (c)

Figure 12 Oscillogram: (a) simulated and (b) and (c) experimental. Steady-state converter operation. Air gap length 23 cm, P1rms = 13.35 kV A. From the top: voltages up, us, current ip, and primary side power P1.

Resonant Circuit Super Capacitors Primary & Secondary Side Battery

each technique is particularly suited has been indicated. Recently, the research trend favors inductively coupled CETs. It is possible, however, that acoustic- and capacitive-based CET techniques can offer a new and interesting perspective for future research.

Biographies
Marian P. Kazmierkowski (mpk@isep. pw.edu.pl) received his M.S., Ph.D., and Dr.Sci. degrees in electrical engineering from the Institute of Control and Industrial Electronics (ICIE), Warsaw University of Technology, Poland, in 1968, 1972, and 1981, respectively. He also received honorary doctorate degrees from Aalborg University, Denmark, in 2004, and from INP, Toulouse, France, in 2010. From 1987 to 2008, he was the

Active Rectifier

Resonant Converter

Control Circuit DSPFPGA

dc Link PWM Converter Secondary Side

Primary Side

Figure 13 A view of the experimental setup of a 15 kW bidirectional inductive CET system.

54 IEEE industrial electronics magazine december 2012

director of ICIE. Since 2003, he has been the head of the Centre of Excellence on Power Electronics and Intelligent Control for Energy Conservation, ICIE. Currently, he is the dean of the Engineering Science Department, Polish Academy of Science. In 2005, he received the Dr.-Ing. Eugene Mittelmann Achievement Award from the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IES), and, in 2007, the SIEMENS Research Award in Poland. In 2007, he was elected a member of the Polish Academy of Science. He was the editor-in-chief of IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics from 2004 to 2006. He is a Fellow of the IEEE. Artur J. Moradewicz received his M.Sc. degree from the Lublin University of Technology, Poland, in 2001, and his Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Electrotechnical Institute (IEl), Warsaw, Poland, in 2008. Since 2001, he has been with IEI as a researcher. Currently, he is the head of the Laboratory of Numerical Control, Department of Electric Drives. He was the leader of several national funded and industrial projects on contactless energy transfer systems. His research interests include modeling and development of power converters, digital signal processing, and digital control of high-frequency power conversion systems.
[1] J. Boys, M. P. Kazmierkowski, E. Lomonova, U. Madawala, and G. Covic, Contactless energy transfer systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 1, 2013, to be published. [2] E. Lomonova, M. Roes, J. Duarte, and M. Hendrix. Acoustic energy transfer: A review, IEEE Trans. Industr. Electron., vol. 60, no. 1, 2013, pp. 243248. [3] R. M. Dickinson, Wireless power transmission technology state of the art: The first Bill Brown lecture, Acta Astronaut., vol. 53, nos. 410, pp. 561570, 2003. [4] M. P. Kazmierkowski, A. Moradewicz, J. Duarte, E. Lomonova, and C. Sonntag, Contactless energy transfer, in The Industrial Electronics Handbook, Part II: Power Electronics and Motor Drives, 2nd ed., B. M. Wilamowski and J. D. Irvin, Eds. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011, ch. 35, pp. 35-135-19. [5] U. K. Madawala and D. J. Thrimawithana, A single controller for inductive power transfer systems, in Proc. 35th IEEE Annu. Conf. Ind. Electron. 35 Nov. 2009, pp. 109113 [6] E. Waffenschmidt and T. Staring, Limitation of inductive power transfer for consumer application, in Proc. Eur. Conf. Power Electr. Appl., Sept. 2009, vol. 1, pp. 110. [7] X. Bao, W. Biederman, S. Sherrit, M. Badescu, Y. Bar-Cohen, C. Jones, J. Aldrich, and Z. Chang, High-power piezoelectric acousticelectric power feed thru for metal walls, in Proc. SPIE, Apr. 2008, vol. 6930, pp. 69300Z-169300Z-9).

References

[8] Y. Hu, X. Zhang, J. Yang, and Q. Jiang, Transmitting electric energy through a metal wall by acoustic waves using piezoelectric transducers, IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr., Freq. Control, vol. 50, no. 7, pp. 773781, July 2003. [9] D. E. Raible, D. Dinca, and T. H. Nayfeh, Optical frequency optimization of a high intensity laser power beaming system utilizing VMJ photovoltaic cells, in Proc. Int. Space Opt. Syst. Appl. Conf., May 2011, pp. 232238. [10] A. Sahai and D. Graham, Optical wireless power transmission at long wavelengths, in Proc. Int. Space Opt. Syst. Appl. Conf., May 2011, pp. 164170. [11] C. Liu and A. P. Hu, Steady state analysis of a capacitively coupled contactless power transfer system, in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Energy Convers. Congr. Expo., San Jose, CA, 2009, pp. 32333238. [12] C. Liu, A. P. Hu, and N.-K. C. Nair, Modelling and analysis of a capacitively coupled contactless power transfer system, IET Power Electron., vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 8088015, 2011. [13] M. P. Theodoridis, Effective capacitive power transfer, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 12, pp. 49064913, Dec. 2012. [14] Y. Fujita, A. Hirotsune, and Y. Amano, Contactless power supply for layer-selection type recordable multi-layer optical disk, in Proc. IEEE Optical Data Storage Topical Meeting, 2006. Montreal, Canada, 23-26 Apr. 2006. [CD-Rom] [15] F. F. A. Van der Pijl, P. Bauer, J. A. Ferreira, and H. Polinder, Design of an inductive contactless power system for multiple users, in Proc. IEEE IAS Ann. Meeting, 2006, pp. 343349. [16] F. F. A. Van der Pijl, P. Bauer, J. A. Ferreira, and H. Polinder, Quantum control for an experimental contactless energy transfer system for multiple users, in Proc. IEEE IAS Annu. Meeting, 2007, pp. 18761883. [17] Ch. Apneseth, D. Dzung, S. Kjesbu, G. Scheible, and W. Zimmermann, Introduction wireless proximity switches, ABB Rev., no. 4, pp. 4249, 2002. [18] K. OBrien, G. Scheible, and H. Gueldner, Analysis of wireless power supplies for industrial automation systems, in Proc. IEEE-IECON03. 2-6, Nov. 2003, Roanoke, VA pp. 367372, vol. 1. [CD-Rom]. [19] G. Scheible, J. Endersen, D. Dzung, and J. E. Frey, Unplugged but connected: Design and implementation of a truly-wireless real-time sensor/actuator interface, ABB Rev., nos. 3-4, pp. 7073, 6568, 2005. [20] K. D. Papastergiou and D. E. Macpherson, An airborne radar power supply with contactless transfer of energy: Part I. Rotating transformer, and Part II: Converter design, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 28742893, Oct. 2007. [21] A. Esser and H. C. Skudelny, A new approach to power supply for robots, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 872875, 1991. [22] A. Esser, Contactless charging and communication for electric vehicles, IEEE Ind. Appl. Mag., vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 411, Nov.-Dec. 1995. [23] A. J. Moradewicz, Contactless energy transmission system with rotatable transformer: Modeling, analyze and design, Ph.D. dissertation, Electrotech. Instit., Warsaw, Poland, 2008. [24] A. J. Moradewicz and M. P. Kazmierkowski, Contactless energy transfer system with FPGA: Controlled resonant converter, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 9, pp. 31813190, 2010. [25] A. J. Moradewicz and M. P. Kazmierkowski, High efficiency contactless energy transfer system with power electronic resonant converter, Bull. Polish Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci., vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 375381, 2009. [26] R. Mecke and C. Rathage, High frequency resonant converter for contactless energy transmission over large air gap, in Proc. IEEE-PESC, Aachen, Germany, 2004, pp. 17371743.

[27] J. T. Boys and G. A. J. Elliot, An appropriate magnetic coupling coefficient for the design and comparison of ICPT pickups, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 333335, Jan. 2007. [28] J. Lastowiecki and P. Staszewski, Sliding transformer with long magnetic circuit for contactless electrical energy delivery to mobile receivers, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 19431948, 2006. [29] J. Meins, R. Czainski, and F. Turki, Phase characteristics of resonant contactless high power supplies, Przeglad Elektrotechniczny (Electrotech. Rev.), vol. 83, no. 11, pp. 1013, 2007. [30] G. A. Covic, J. T. Boys, M. L. G. Kisin, and H. G. Lu, A three-phase inductive power transfer system for roadway-powered vehicles, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 33703378, 2007. [31] D. C. Erb, O. C. Onar, and A. Khaligh, Bi-directional charging topologies for plugin hybrid electric vehicles, in Proc. IEEE 35th Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo., Feb. 2010, pp. 20662072. [32] Y-J. Lee, A. Khaligh, and A. Emadi, Advanced integrated bidirectional AC/DC and DC/DC converter for plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 58, no. 8, pp. 39703980, 2008. [33] B. Kramer, S. Chakraborty, and B. Kroposki, A review of plug-in vehicles and vehicles-togrid capability, in Proc. IEEE 34th Annu. Conf. Ind. Electron., Nov. 2008, pp. 22782883. [34] S. Han and D. Divan, Bi-directional DC/DC converters for plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) applications, in Proc. IEEE 23rd Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo., Feb. 2008, pp. 784789. [35] IEC 61851-1, VDE 0122-1, Konduktive Ladesystem fur ElektrofahrzeugeTeil 1: Allgemeine Anforderungen (IEC 69/156/CD:2008), International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, Switzerland. [36] IEC 6219 6-1, Plugs Socket-Outlets, Vehicle Couplers and Vehicle IntelsConductive Charging of Electric Vehicles, 1st ed. 2003, International Electrotechnical Commission, Geneva, Switzerland. [37] D. J. Thrimawithana and U. K. Madawala, A contactless bi-directional power interface for plug-in hybrid vehicles, in Proc. IEEE Veh. Power Propulsion Conf., 711 September 2009, pp. 396401. [38] U. K. Madawala and D. J. Thrimawithana, A bidirectional inductive power interface for electric vehicles in V2G systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 1, 2011. [39] V. V. Haerri, U. K. Madawala, D. J. Thrimawithana, R. Arnold, and A. Maksimovic, A plug-in hybrid Blue-Angel III for vehicle to grid system with a wireless grid interface, in Proc. IEEE Veh. Power Propulsion Conf., 2010, pp. 15. [40] C.-S. Wang, O. H. Stielau, and G. A. Covic, Design considerations for contactless electric vehicle battery charger, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 13081313, Oct. 2005. [41] R. Miskiewicz and A. J. Moradewicz, Contactless power interface for plug-in electric vehicles in V2G systems, Bull. Polish Acad. Sci., Tech. Sci., vol. 59, no. 4, pp. 561568, 2011. [42] K. W. Klontz, A. Esser, R. R. Bacon, D. M. Divan, D. W. Novotny, and R. D. Lorenz, An electric vehicle charging system with universal inductive interface, in Proc. PCC-Yokohama, 1993, pp. 227232. [43] J. T. Matysik, The current and voltage phase shift regulation in resonant converters with integration control, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 12401242, 2007. [44] M. K. Kazimierczuk, RF Power Amplifiers. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008. [45] G. A. J. Elliott, S. Raabe, G. A. Covic, and J. T. Boys, Multiphase pickups for large lateral tolerance contactless power-transfer systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no. 5, pp. 15901599, 2010. 

december 2012 IEEE industrial electronics magazine 55