IV. RESEARCH 1. Give the importance of the endocrine system.

The endocrine system helps regulate and maintain various body functions by synthesizing (making) and releasing hormones, chemical messengers. The major areas of control and integration include responses to stress and injury, growth and development, absorption of nutrients, energy metabolism, water and electrolyte balance, reproduction, birth, and lactation. The endocrine system is composed of glands that release their hormones directly into the bloodstream for chemical signalling of target cells. These glands include the pituitary gland, the pineal gland, the hypothalamus, the thyroid gland, the parathyroid glands, the thymus, the adrenal glands, the ovaries (in females) or testes (in males), and the pancreas. Typically, the body synthesizes hormones in one part and transports it to another through the bloodstream or lymph. Endocrine glands have a rich blood supply through which hormones travel to reach their target organs. Hormones alter the metabolism of target organs by increasing or decreasing their activity. These changes in activity are strictly balanced to maintain homeostasis (a stable internal environment). 2. Contrast between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland as to structure and function. Exocrine glands have ducts and they secrete onto a surface. Exocrine glands includes sebaceous and sweat glands (in the skin), salivary glands (oral), and Brunners glands. Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions into body cavities, into the lumen of an organ, or to the outer surface of the body. Exocrine glands can be Unicellular or Multicellular.

Endocrine gland in the other hand do not have ducts, they secrete their product (hormones) into the instertitial fluid, hormones diffuse into blood capillaries and blood carries them to the target cells throughout the body. Their secretions (hormones) are secreted into the blood stream. Because of this, the hormones can act over long distances, and reach any organ in the body to co-ordinate activity. Often there is a specific 'target' organ that the hormone acts on. This long range activity is also often called neuroendocrine - as it is somewhat analogous to the co-ordinating activity of neurones. Some short range endocrine activity also occurs in the digestive system - and this is known as paracrine activity - for example enter endocrine cells of the gut respond to activity by secreting peptides of monoamines that act locally. The secretory cells of endocrine glands are therefore always found in close proximity to a capillary bed, and have a rich network of blood vessels. The signalling molecules released hormones, are usually released by exocytosis, by the secretory cells, into the interstitial spaces and pass through fenestrated capillaries to enter the blood stream and move to target organs. The target organs will have specific receptors for the hormone, and can respond when the hormone binds. This means you should know the gland, hormone, target organ/cells and response to the hormone.

3. Define the following: a. Hornone- a naturally occurring substance secreted by specialised cells that affects the metabolism or behaviour of other cells possessing functional receptors for the hormone. b. Receptor- a naturally occuring substance secreted by specialised cells that affects the metabolism or behaviour of other cells possessing functional receptors for the hormone c. Releasing hormone- any of several hormones produced in the hypothalamus and carried by a vein to the anterior pituitary gland where they stimulate the release of anterior pituitary hormones; each of these hormones causes the anterior pituitary to secrete a specific hormone d. Target tissue- a group of cells that have receptors embedded in the plasma membrane that are complementary in shape to specific hormone molecules. Only these cells will respond to that specific hormone. e. Negative Feedback- A feedback in which the system responds in an opposite direction to the perturbation. f. Positive Feedback- A feedback in which the system responds to the perturbation in the same direction as the perturbation. 4. Differentiate the Neurophysis and the Hypophysis as to action The pituitary gland consists of two components: the anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis), and is functionally linked to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk (also named the "infundibular stem", or simply the "infundibulum"). It is from the hypothalamus that hypothalamic tropic factors are released to descend down the pituitary stalk to the pituitary gland where they stimulate the release of pituitary hormones. While the pituitary gland is known as the 'master' endocrine gland, both of the lobes are under the control of the hypothalamus; the anterior pituitary receives its signals from the parvocellular neurons and the posterior pituitary receives its signals from magnocellular neurons. Posterior Pituitary ADH and oxytocin are produced in neuronal cell bodies of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei in the hypothalamus. They are then transported along the axons of the hypothalamohypophyseal tract to the posterior pituitary, where they are stored. Later they are released into the capillary plexus of the infundibular process which passes the hormones to the posterior hypophyseal portal veins for distribution to target cells in other tissues. No hormones are actually produced in the posterior pituitary, they are only stored. The posterior pituitary is lighter in color than the anterior pituitary because it is made of myelinated neuronal tissue (white matter). This is apparent upon both gross and microscopic examination.

Anterior Pituitary Although the hypothalamus does not produce the hormones of the anterior pituitary as in the posterior pituitary, it plays an important role in their production. Releasing hormones synthesized by hypothalamic neurons travel down axons and diffuse into the primary plexus of the

hypophyseal portal system. They are then carried by the hypophyseal portal veins to the secondary plexus for distribution to target cells within the anterior pituitary.

References: undefined. (2001). Body Guide. In Endocrine System Information. Retrieved August 17, 2013, from http://www.pennmedicine.org/health_info/body_guide/reftext/html/endo_sys_fin.html. undefined. (2005). The Histology Guide. In Exocrine and Endocrine glands. Retrieved August 17, 2013, from http://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/glandular/exocr_endocr_properties.php.