The Indefinite Integral and Basic Formulas of Integration. Table of Integrals.

Definition of the Antiderivative and Indefinite Integral

The function F(x) is called an antiderivative of f(x), if

The family of all antiderivatives of a function f(x) is called the indefinite integral of the function f(x) and is denoted by

Thus, if F is a particular antiderivative, we may write

where C is an arbitrary constant.

Properties of the Indefinite Integral

In formulas given below f and g are functions of the variable x, F is an antiderivative of f, and a, k, C are constants.

Table of Integrals

It's supposed below that a, p (p 1), C are real constants, b is the base of the exponential function (b 1, b > 0).

Example 1

Calculate
Solution.

Example 2

Calculate the integral

Solution.

Transforming the integrand and using the formula for integral of the power function, we have

Example 3

Calculate
Solution.

We use the table integral

. Then

Example 4

Find the integral

Solution.

Using the table integral

, we obtain

Example 5

Calculate the integral

Solution.

Since

, the integral is

Example 6

Find the integral

Solution.

without using a substitution.

Using the double angle formula sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x and the identity sin2x + cos2x = 1, we can write:

Change of Variable Let F(x) be an indefinite integral or antiderivative of f(x). Then

where x = g (u) is a substitution. Accordingly, the inverse function u = g 1(x) describes the dependence of the new variable on the old variable.

It's important to remember that the differential dx also needs to be substituted. It must be replaced with the differential ofthe new variab For definite integrals, it is also necessary to change the limits of integration. See about this on the page "The Definite Integral and Fundamental Theorem of Calculus". Example 1

Calculate the integral Solution. Let . Then

. Hence, the integral is

Example 2

Find the integral Solution.

We make the substitution . Then The integral is easy to calculate with the new variable:

or

Example 3 Calculate the integral .

Solution. Rewrite the integral in the following way:

Noting 2e = a (This is not a change of variable, since x still remains the independent variable), we get the table integral:

Example 4 Calculate the integral Solution. We can write the integral as .

Changing the variable

we get the answer

Example 5

Find the integral Solution. We make the following substitution:

Hence,

Integration by Parts Let u(x) and v(x) be differentiable functions. By the product rule, Integrating both sides of the expression, we obtain

or, rearranging terms,

Integration by using this formula is called integration by parts. Example 1 Compute Solution. We use integration by parts: . Let . hen .

Hence, the integral is

Example 2 Integrate Solution. We are to integrate by parts: u = ln x, dv = dx. The only choices we have for u and dv are . Then .

Example 3 Calculate the integral Solution. .

Use integration by parts:

. Then

, and the integral becomes

To calculate the new integral, we substitute

. In this case,

, so that the integral in the right sid

Then the result is

Example 4 Find the integral Solution. We use integration by parts: integral can be written in the form: . Let . Then .

,so th

Apply integration by parts one more time. Now let integral we started with is

. Hence,

, so that th

Solving this equation for this integral, we obtain

Example 5

Find a reduction formula for Solution. We apply integration by parts:

. Let

. Then

Hence,

Solve the equation for

. As a result, we obtain

Integration of Rational Functions

A rational function 1.

, where P(x) and Q(x) are both polynomials, can be integrated in four steps:

Reduce the fraction if it is improper (i.e. degree of P(x) is greater than degree of Q(x));

2.

Factor Q(x) into linear and/or quadratic (irreducible) factors;

3.

Decompose the fraction into a sum of partial fractions;

4.

Calculate integrals of each partial fraction.

Consider the specified steps in more details. Step 1. Reducing an improper fraction If the fraction is improper (i.e. degree of P(x) is greater than degree of Q(x)), divide the numerator P(x) by the denominatorQ(x) to obta

where is a proper fraction. Step 2. Factoring Q(x) into linear and/or quadratic factors Write the denominator Q(x) as

where quadratic functions are irreducible, i.e. do not have real roots. Step 3. Decomposing the rational fraction into a sum of partial fractions. Write the function as follows:

The total number of undetermined coefficients Ai , Bi , Ki , Li , Mi , Ni , ... must be equal to the degree of the denominatorQ(x).

Then equate the coefficients of equal powers of x by multiplying both sides of the latter expression by Q(x) and write the system of line equations in Ai , Bi , Ki , Li , Mi , Ni , .... The resulting system must always have a unique solution. Step 4. Integrating partial fractions. Use the following 6 formulas to evaluate integrals of partial fractions with linear and quadratic denominators:

1.

2. For fractions with quadratic denominators, first complete the square:

where

Then use the formulas:

3.

4.

5.

The integral

can be calculated in k steps using the reduction formula:

6. Example 1

Evaluate the integral

Solution. Decompose the integrand into partial functions:

Equate coefficients:

Hence,

Then

The integral is equal to

Example 2

Evaluate

Solution. First we divide the numerator by the denominator, obtaining

Then

Example 3

Evaluate the integral Solution. We can write:

Example 4

Evaluate the integral Solution. Decompose the integrand into partial functions:

Equate coefficients:

Hence,

Then

The integral is equal to

Example 5

Evaluate

Solution. Decompose the integrand into the sum of two fractions:

Equate coefficients:

Hence

The integrand can be written as

The initial integral becomes

Example 6

Find the integral

Solution. We can factor the denominator in the integrand:

Decompose the integrand into partial functions:

Equate coefficients:

Hence,

Then

Now we can calculate the initial integral:

Example 7

Calculate the integral Solution.

Rewrite the denominator in the integrand as follows:

The factors in the denominator are irreducible quadratic factors since they have no real roots. Then

Equate coefficients:

This yields

Hence,

Integrating term by term, we obtain the answer:

We can simplify this answer. Let

Then

Hence,

. The complete answer is

Example 8

Evaluate the integral

Solution. We can factor the denominator in the integrand:

Decompose the integrand into partial functions:

Equate coefficients:

Hence,

Thus, the integrand becomes

So, the complete answer is

Example 9

Calculate the integral Solution.

Decompose the integrand into partial functions, taking into account that the denominator has a third degree root:

Equate coefficients:

We get the following system of equations:

Hence,

The initial integral is equal to

Example 10

Find the integral Solution. Since

is reducible, we complete the square in the denominator:

Now, we can compute the integral using the reduction formula

Then

Integration of Irrational Functions To integrate an irrational function containing a term we make the substitution .

To integrate an irrational function involving more than one rational power of x, make a substitution of the form to be the least common multiple of the denominators of all the fractional powers that appear in the function.

, wheren is ch

An expression rational in x and

is integrated by the substitution

. and

See Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Substitutions about integration of irrational functions involving Example 1

Find the integral Solution. We make the substitution:

Then

Example 2

Calculate the integral

Solution. We make the following substitution: Then the integral (we denote it by I ) becomes

Divide the fraction:

As a result, we have

Example 3

Evaluate the integral Solution. We can write the integral as

Since the least common multiple (LCM) of the denominators of the fractional powers is equal to n = LCM(1,3) = 3, we make the substi

Thus

Make the new substitution:

The final answer is

Example 4

Evaluate the integral Solution. We can write the integral as

Make the substitution:

The integral becomes

Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, we divide the numerator by the denominator:

The integral is equal to

Example 5

Find the integral Solution. We can write the integral as

As can be seen, the least common multiple (LCM) of the denominators of the fractional powers is equal ton = LCM(3,4) = 12, we make substitution:

This yields

The degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, therefore, we divide the fraction:

After simple transformations we obtain the final answer:

Example 6

Evaluate Solution. Make the substitution:

This yields

Example 7

Calculate the integral Solution. We make the substitution

As a result, we have

Integration of Rational Expressions of Trigonometric Functions Any rational expression of trigonometric functions can be always reduced to integrating a rational function by makingthe

universal trigonometric substitution x = 2arctan t (or

).

The following trigonometric formulas are used to transform rational expressions of sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x and csc xinto rationa functions of t :

To calculate an integral of the form

, where R is a rational function, use the substitution

Similarly, to calculate an integral of the form

, where R is a rational function, use the substitution

If an integrand is a function of only tan x, the substitution t = tan x transforms this integral into integral of a rational function.

To calculate an integral of the form = tan x and the formulas

, where both functions sin x and cos x have even powers, usethe substitution

Example 1

Evaluate the integral

Solution. We use the universal trigonometric substitution:

Since

, we have

Example 2

Calculate the integral

Solution. Make the universal trigonometric substitution:

Then the integral becomes

Example 3

Find the integral

Solution. As in the previous examples, we will use the universal trigonometric substitution:

Since

we can write:

Example 4

Evaluate

Solution. We can write the integral in form:

Use the universal trigonometric substitution:

This leads to the following result:

Example 5

Calculate the integral Solution. Since

, we can write

Hence,

so the integral can be transformed in the following way:

Make the substitution

. Then use the identity

We get the final answer:

Example 6

Calculate the integral

Solution. We solve this integral by making the trigonometric substitution

Taking into account that

we find the integral:

Example 7

Find the integral Solution. We make the substitution:

As a result, the integral becomes

Using the method of partial fractions, we can write the integrand as

Calculate the coefficients A, B and C:

Hence,

So the integral is

Integration of Some Classes of Trigonometric Functions

In this section we consider 8 classes of integrals with trigonometric functions. Special transformations and subtitutions used for each of classes allow us to obtain exact solutions for these integrals. 1. Integrals of the form To find integrals of this type, use the following trigonometric identities:

2. Integrals of the form It's assumed here and below that m and n are positive integers. To find an integral of this form, use the following substitutions: a. If the power n of the cosine is odd (the power m of the sine can be arbitrary), then the substitution is used.

b.

If the power m of the sine is odd, then the substitution

is used.

c.

If both powers m and n are even, then first use the double angle formulas

to reduce the power of the sine or cosine in the integrand. Then, if necessary, apply the rules a) or b).

3. Integrals of the form The power of the integrand can be reduced by using the trigonometric identity and the reduction formula

4. Integrals of the form We can reduce the power of the integrand using the trigonometric identity and the reduction formula

5. Integrals of the form This type of integrals can be simplified with help of the reduction formula:

6. Integrals of the form Similarly to the previous examples, this type of integrals can be simplified by the formula

7. Integrals of the form

a.

If the power of the secant n is even, then using the identity the secant function is expressed asthe tangent function. The factor is separated and used for transformation of the differential. As a result,the entire integral (including differential) is expressed as the function of tan x.

b.

If both the powers n and m are odd, then the factor sec x tan x, which is necessary to transform the differential, is separated. T the entire integral is expressed through sec x.

c.

If the power of the secant n is odd, and the power of the tangent m is even, then the tangent is expressed as the secant using the identity . Then the integrals of the secant are calculated.

8. Integrals of the form

a.

If the power of the cosecant n is even, then using the identity the cosecant function is expressed as the cotangent function. The factor is separated and used for transformation of the differential. As a result,the integrand an differential are expressed through cot x.

b.

If both the powers n and m are odd, then the factor csc x cot x, which is necessary to transform the differential, is separated. Th the integral is expressed through csc x.

c.

If the power of the cosecant n is odd, and the power of the cotangent m is even, then the cotangent is expressed asthe cosecant the identity . Then the integrals of the cosecant are calculated.

Example 1 Calculate the integral .

Solution. Let u = cos x, du = sin xdx. Then

Example 2 Evaluate the integral .

Solution. Making the substitution u = sin x, du = cos xdx and using the identity

, we obtain

Example 3 Find the integral Solution. .

Using identities

and

, we can write:

Calculate the integrals in the latter expression.

To find the integral

, we make the substitution u = sin 2x, du = 2cos 2xdx. Then

Hence, the initial integral is

Example 4 Calculate the integral Solution. We can write: .

Transform the integrand using the identities

We get

Example 5 Evaluate the integral .

Solution. Making the substitution u = cos x, du = sin xdx and expressing the sine through cosine with help of the formula obtain

Example 6

Evaluate the integral Solution. Transform the integrand by the formula

Hence,

Then the integral becomes

Example 7 Evaluate the integral Solution. We use the identity to transform the integral. This yields .

Example 8 Calculate the integral Solution. Using the identity , we have .

Example 9 Calculate the integral Solution. We use the reduction formula .

Hence,

The integral

is a table integral which is equal to .) As a result, the integral becomes

. (It can be easily found usingthe

universal trigonometric substitution

Example 10 Evaluate the integral Solution. We use the reduction formula .

Hence,

Example 11 Compute .

Solution.

Example 12 Compute Solution. Use the identity . Then .

Since

(see Example 9) and

is a table integral equal

to

, we obtain the following complete answer:

Integration of Hyperbolic Functions The 6 basic hyperbolic functions are defined by

There are the following differentiation and integration formulas for hyperbolic functions:

We provide here a list of useful hyperbolic identities:

When an integrand contains a hyperbolic function, the integral can be reduced to integrating a rational function by usingthe

substitution Example 1

Calculate the integral Solution.

We make the substitution: u = 2 + 3sinh x, du = 3cosh xdx. Then

. Hence, the integral is

Example 2 Evaluate Solution. Since .

, and, hence,

, we can write the integral as

Making the substitution u = cosh x, du = sinh xdx, we obtain

Example 3 Evaluate the integral Solution. .

We use integration by parts: integral is

. Let

. Then,

. Hence

Example 4 Evaluate the integral Solution. .

Since

, we obtain

Example 5

Find the integral Solution.

By definition of the hyperbolic cosine,

. Hence, the integral is equal

Example 6

Find the integral Solution.

By definition,

and

. Hence,

We make the substitution: u = e x, du = e xdx and calculate the initial integral:

Example 7 Calculate the integral Solution. .

Applying the formulas

and

, we get

Example 8 Evaluate the integral Solution. We use integration by parts. Let .

Then

Apply integration by parts again to the latter integral. Let

Then we have

Solving this equation for

, we obtain the complete answer:

Integration of Hyperbolic Functions

The 6 basic hyperbolic functions are defined by

There are the following differentiation and integration formulas for hyperbolic functions:

We provide here a list of useful hyperbolic identities:

When an integrand contains a hyperbolic function, the integral can be reduced to integrating a rational function by usingthe

substitution Example 1

Calculate the integral Solution.

We make the substitution: u = 2 + 3sinh x, du = 3cosh xdx. Then

. Hence, the integral is

Example 2 Evaluate Solution. Since .

, and, hence,

, we can write the integral as

Making the substitution u = cosh x, du = sinh xdx, we obtain

Example 3 Evaluate the integral Solution. We use integration by parts: integral is . Let . Then, .

. Hence

Example 4 Evaluate the integral Solution. .

Since

, we obtain

Example 5

Find the integral Solution.

By definition of the hyperbolic cosine,

. Hence, the integral is equal

Example 6

Find the integral Solution.

By definition,

and

. Hence,

We make the substitution: u = e x, du = e xdx and calculate the initial integral:

Example 7 Calculate the integral Solution. .

Applying the formulas

and

, we get

Example 8 Evaluate the integral .

Solution. We use integration by parts. Let

Then

Apply integration by parts again to the latter integral. Let

Then we have

Solving this equation for

, we obtain the complete answer:

Integration of Hyperbolic Functions The 6 basic hyperbolic functions are defined by

There are the following differentiation and integration formulas for hyperbolic functions:

We provide here a list of useful hyperbolic identities:

When an integrand contains a hyperbolic function, the integral can be reduced to integrating a rational function by usingthe

substitution Example 1

Calculate the integral Solution.

We make the substitution: u = 2 + 3sinh x, du = 3cosh xdx. Then

. Hence, the integral is

Example 2 Evaluate Solution. Since .

, and, hence,

, we can write the integral as

Making the substitution u = cosh x, du = sinh xdx, we obtain

Example 3 Evaluate the integral Solution. We use integration by parts: integral is . Let . Then, .

. Hence

Example 4

Evaluate the integral Solution.

Since

, we obtain

Example 5

Find the integral Solution.

By definition of the hyperbolic cosine,

. Hence, the integral is equal

Example 6

Find the integral Solution.

By definition,

and

. Hence,

We make the substitution: u = e x, du = e xdx and calculate the initial integral:

Example 7 Calculate the integral Solution. .

Applying the formulas

and

, we get

Example 8 Evaluate the integral Solution. We use integration by parts. Let .

Then

Apply integration by parts again to the latter integral. Let

Then we have

Solving this equation for

, we obtain the complete answer:

Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Substitutions

In this section we consider integrals of the form radical .

, where R is a rational function of x and the

To calculate such an integral, we need first to complete the square in the quadratic expression:

Making the substitution

, we can obtain one of the three possible integrals, depending on the values of the

coefficients a, b and c:

1.

2.

3. Now, we use the following trigonometric or hyperbolic substitutions to simplify the integrals: 1. Integrals of the form Trigonometric substitution:

2. Integrals of the form Trigonometric substitution:

Hyperbolic substitution:

3. Integrals of the form Trigonometric substitution:

Hyperbolic substitution:

Remarks:

Instead of the trigonometric substitutions in cases 1, 2, 3 you can use the substitutionsx = r cos t, x = r cot t, x = r csc t, respect

Using the formulas given above, we consider only positive values of the root. For example, in strict writing

We suppose here that Example 1

Evaluate the integral Solution. We make the substitution:

Then

Here, we used the trigonometric formula Example 2

to simplify the integral.

Evaluate the integral Solution.

We make the hyperbolic substitution: x = a sinh t, dx = a cosh tdt. Using the hyperbolic identity

, we can write:

Example 3

Calculate the integral Solution.

To find the integral, we make the substitution:

. Using the identity

, we have

Express sin t in terms of x:

Hence, the integral is

Example 4

Calculate the integral Solution. We make the substitution:

. Hence,

Then the integral becomes

Returning back to the variable x :

we obtain the complete answer:

Example 5

Evaluate the integral Solution.

We make the trigonometric substitution: x = a sec t, dx = a tan t sec tdt. Calculate the integral using the identity

For t, we have the following expression:

Hence, returning back to the variable x, we obtain:

Example 6 Evaluate the integral Solution. We can write the integral as .

Make the trigonometric substitution:

Now we can calculate the integral:

Example 7 Evaluate the integral Solution. Here we make the hyperbolic substitution (for diversity): becomes . Since .

, the integral

Use the double-angle formula

to reduce the power of the integrand. Then

Example 8

Calculate the integral

Solution. First we complete the square in the integrand.

Then, making the substitution

and using the identity

, we can write:

The integral answer is

was already found in Problem 9 on the page Integration of some classes of trigonometric functions, so the com

Example 9 Find the integral Solution. Make the substitution: .

Then

Express

and

in terms of x:

Hence,

Example 10

Evaluate the integral Solution. Using the trigonometric substitution

, we get

Now, we make the substitution

. The integral becomes

Use the method of partial fractions to transform the integrand:

Equate the coefficients:

Then

Hence, we can write the integrand as

So, the initial integral is equal to

Returning back to the variable x, we have

Hence, the final answer is

The Definite Integral and Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Let f (x) be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]. The definite integral of f (x) from a to b is defined to bethe limit

where

Properties of the Definite Integral We assume below that f (x) and g (x) are continuous functions on the closed interval [a, b].

1.

2.

where k is a constant;

3.

4.

5.

If

for all

, then

6.

7.

8.

If

in the interval [a, b], then

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Let f (x) be a function, which is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. If F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x) on [a, b], then

The Area under a Curve The area under the graph of the function f (x) between the vertical lines x = a, x = b (Figure 1) is given by the formula

Fig.1 Fig.2 Let F (x) and G (x) be indefinite integrals of functions f (x) and g (x), respectively. If f (x) g (x) on the closed interval[a, b], then the a between the curves y = f (x), y = g (x) and the lines x = a, x = b (Figure 2) is given by

The Method of Substitution for Definite Integrals

The definite integral

of the variable x can be changed into an integral with respect to t by making the substitutionx = g (t):

The new limits of integration for the variable t are given by the formulas where g -1 is the inverse function to g, i.e. t = g -1(x). Integration by Parts for Definite Integrals In this case the formula for integration by parts looks as follows:

where Example 1

means the difference between the product of functions uv at x = b and x = a.

Evaluate the integral

Solution. Using the fundamental theorem of calculus, we have

Example 2

Calculate the integral Solution.

Example 3

Evaluate the integral Solution. First we make the substitution:

Determine the new limits of integration. When x = 0, then t = 1. When x = 1, then we have t = 2. So, the integral withthe new variable be easily calculated:

Example 4

Evaluate the integral Solution. We can write

Apply integration by parts:

. In this case, let

Hence, the integral is

Example 5 Find the area bounded by the curves and .

Slution. First we find the points of intersection (see Figure 4):

As can be seen, the curves intercept at the points (0,0) and (1,1). Hence, the area is given by

Fig.3 Example 6 Find the area bounded by the curves and .

Fig.4

Solution. First we find the points of intersection of the curves (Figure 4):

The upper boundary of the region is the parabola

, and the lower boundary is the straight line

. The area is given

Example 7 Find the area of the triangle with vertices at (0,0), (2,6) and (7,1). Solution. First we find an equation of the side OA (refer to Figure 5):

Similarly, we find an equation of the side OB:

Next, find an equation of the side AB:

As seen from the Figure 5, the area of the this triangle can be calculated as the sum of two integrals:

Fig.5 Example 8

Fig.6

Find the area inside the ellipse

Solution. By symmetry (see Figure 6), the area of the ellipse is twice the area above the x-axis. The latter is given by

To calculate the last integral, we use the trigonometric substitution x = asin t, dx = acos tdt. Refine the limits of integration. When x = a, then sin t = 1, and . When x = a, then sin t = 1, . Thus we get

Hence, the total area of the ellipse is ab.

The definite integral

is called an improper integral if one of two situations occurs:

The limit a or b (or both the limits) are infinite;

The function f (x) has one or more points of discontinuity in the interval [a,b].

Infinite Limits of Integration Let f (x) be a continuous function on the interval [a, ). We define the improper integral as

Consider the case when f (x) is a continuous function on the interval (, b]. Then we define the improper integral as

If these limits exist and are finite then we say that the improper integrals are convergent. Otherwise the integrals are divergent. Let f (x) be a continuous function for all real numbers. We define:

If, for some real number c, both of the integrals in the right side are convergent, then we say that the integral otherwise it is divergent. Comparison Theorems Let f (x) and g (x) be continuous functions on the interval [a, ). Suppose that

is also conv

for all x in the interval[a, ).

1.

If

is convergent then

is also convergent;

2.

If

is divergent then

is also divergent;

3.

If

is convergent then

is also convergent. In this case, we say thatthe

integral

is absolutely convergent.

Discontinuous Integrand Let f (x) be a function which is continuous on the interval [a,b), but is discontinuous at x = b. We define the improper integral as

Similarly we can consider the case when the function f (x) is continuous on the interval (a,b], but is discontinuous at x = a.Then

If these limits exist and are finite then we say that the integrals are convergent; otherwise the integrals are divergent.

Let f (x) be a continuous function for all real numbers x in the interval [a,b], except for some point

. We define:

and say that the integral improper integral is divergent. Example 1

is convergent if both of the integrals in the right side are also convergent. Otherwisethe

Determine for what values of k the integral Solution. By the definition of an improper integral, we have

converges.

As seen from the expression, there are 2 cases: If 0 < k < 1, then as and the integral diverges;

If k > 1, then Example 2

as

and the integral converges.

Calculate the integral Solution.

Hence, the given integral converges. Example 3

Determine whether the integral Solution.

converges or diverges?

Note, that

for all values x 1. Since the improper integral

is convergent according to the results inExample 1, the

integral Example 4

is also convergent by Comparison Theorem 1.

Calculate the integral

Solution. There is a discontinuity at x = 0, so that we must consider two improper integrals:

Using the definition of an improper integral, we obtain

For the first integral,

Since it's divergent, the initial integral also diverges. Example 5

Determine whether the improper integral Solution. We can write this integral as

converges or diverges?

By the definition of an improper integral, we have

Since both the limits exist and are finite, the given integral converges. Example 6

Determine whether the integral

converges or diverges?

Solution. We can write the obvious inequality for the absolute values:

It's easy to show that the integral

converges (see also Example 1). Indeed

Then we conclude that the integral (absolutely) by Comparison Theorem 3. Example 7

also converges by Comparison Theorem 1. Hence, the given integral

conve

Determine whether the integral

converges or diverges?

Solution. There is a discontinuity in the integrand at x = 2, so that we must consider two improper integrals:

Using the definition of an improper integral, we obtain

For the first integral,

Since it is divergent, the given integral Example 8

is also divergent.

Determine for what values of k the integral

converges?

Solution. The integrand has discontinuity at the point x = 0, so that we can write the integral as

As seen from this expression, there are 2 cases:

If 0 < k < 1, then

and the integral converges;

If k > 1, then Example 9

and the integral diverges.

Find the area under the curve y = ln x between x = 0 and x = 1. Solution. The given region is sketched in Figure 1. Since it is infinite, we calculate the improper integral to find the area:

Use integration by parts. Let u = ln x, dv = dx. Then

. Thus

We can apply L'Hopital's rule to find the limit:

Hence, the improper integral is

As seen from the figure, the required area is

Fig.1 Example 10 Find the circumference of the unit circle.

Fig.2

Solution. We calculate the length of the arc of the circle in the first quadrant between x = 0 and x = 1 and then multiply the result by 4. The equation of the circle centered at the origin is Then the arc of the circle in the first quadrant (Figure 2) is described by the function

Find the derivative of the function:

Since the length of an arc is given by

, we obtain

Now we calculate the improper integral

Thus, the circumference of the unit circle is