An Elementary Latin Grammar (1893) PDF

GRAMMAR
IYANDWILKI1STS
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
LaL.G-r
AN ELEMENTARY
LATIN GRAMMAR
BY
HENRY JOHN EOBY

M.A., LL.D.
AND
A.
S.
WILKINS
LITT.D., LL.D.
|gf>.
Hontion
MACMILLAN AND
AND NEW YORK
CO.
1893
All rights reserved
PEEFACE
THIS book
to
is
intended to be used as an introduction
Mr. B,oby's Latin Grammar for Schools. much has been intentionally omitted which
Hence
is
comlittle
monly given
or
in Latin grammars, but
which
is of
no use
to
the
pupil
who
is
engaged with the

parts of the larger
elements of the language.
Some
book have been reproduced with
slight omissions
and
occasional simplifications of language, other parts have
been greatly reduced, especially in the Syntax. The main purposes of its preparation have been that the
pupil should have nothing to unlearn
to his
when he
proceeds
more advanced work, and that Jie
facts of the
language should be, so far as possible, explained, and not left to be a matter of memory.
Some
Mr.
S.
useful suggestions have been received from
G.
Owen,
of Christ Church, Oxford.
A.
S.
W.
CONTENTS
1
.
The Latin Language

Alphabet Consonants Vowels
Quantity Accent
Phonetic Changes
.
......
.
PAGE
1
2.
2
3
3
3-4.
5. 6.
7.
8-9.
4 4 4
6
8 9
10-12. Inflexions in general 13-32. Inflexions of Nouns
First Class
14-18)
Second Class ( 19-24) i Stems and Consonant Stems Greek Nouns (32) 33-39. Pronominal Adjectives 40. Certain Pronouns
41-43.
44-47.
14
(
25-31)
22
28 29 33 35
37 45 49
48-51.
52-74.
Comparison of Adjectives Numerals Adverbs Inflexions of Verbs

.
. .
.... ....
.
Examples of Inflexions of Verbs Consonant and a stems ( 56-64) Other Vowel Conjugations ( 65-70)
.
...
. .
.
53 66
Deponent Verbs (71)

Irregular Verbs 75-79. Verbal Stems
.
74
75
. .
(
.
72-74)
. .
gl
-81.
List of Irregular Verbs
84
vin

PAGE
82-155. Syntax
109
(
Principal Use of Cases
84)
.111
112
Nominative (85)
Accusative
(86) Dative (87) Ablative (88) Genitive (89)
113 114
115
90.
Infinitive
91.
92.
Gerunds, Gerundive, Supine

Participles
117 118 118 120 120

(
93-95.
Indeclinable
Words
93), Prepositions
Adverbs
94),
Conjunctions
(95)
96-102.
Use of Verb Inflexions

Inflexions of Voice
(
96-99)
....
(
120 122 122

125 128 134 135
Inflexions of Person
and Number
Tenser
.
100-102)
103-111. Indicative
112.
113-123.
Mood and Imperative Mood Subjunctive Mood
its
...
.
124-129. Contrasted Uses of the Indicative
....
130-136. Reported Speech 137-139. Different Kinds of Sentences

140. Sequence of Tenses Some Uses of the Cases
......
of
140 142 148 150

151 156
141-146.
147-151. Use of Pronouns
152-154. Use of Conjunctions

155.
Interrogations
157 159
APPENDIX
A.
B.
C.
Roman Money Roman Reckoning
Time
Relations by Blood and Marriage
D. Abbreviations of
E.
Names
.160 .163 .163

164 165
Roman
Writers
F. Prosody
and Metre
ELEMENTARY LATIN GEAMMAE

1.
LATIN was the language spoken by the inhabitants

this
of a
district
Of
on the western side of Italy, hundreds of years B.C. tract the chief town was Rome, and the conquests
of the
countries.
Romans spread the language over the neighbouring The modern languages of Italy, France, Spain,
and of parts of Eastern Switzerland, and mainly through the influence of the Christian Church it was the language principally used in European literature, law, state documents, and learned intercourse, during the Middle Ages.
Portugal, Wallachia, are derived from it ;
to
The Latin language was at its best from about 100 B.C. about 100 A.D. The greatest writers nourished during
;
this period
is
and
it is
the language of their writings which
especially treated of in this
grammar.
Latin belongs to the group of languages which includes Greek, Keltic, Teutonic, and Slavonic families in Europe, and the chief languages of Persia and India in Asia. There are many points of resemblance between Latin and all of these, both in vocabulary and in inthe
flexions.
KLKMKNTARY
LATIN" (JKAMMAft
ALPHABET
2. The following table contains the letters of the Latin alphabet as used in Cicero's time, with their names and probable pronunciation.
Sign.
VOWELS
CONSONANTS
Consonants are classified according to the character of the sound. Of the Latin consonants p, b c, g t, d are momentary, or noncontinuous (often called mutes), that is to say, the voice cannot dwell
3.
; ;
upon them s and f are continuous. Again p, c, t, s, f are voiceless, i.e. they are not accompanied by x any sound of the voice b, g, d and usually r, 1, are voiced, that is, they cannot be pronounced without some sound of the voice.
; ;
the sounds
If the air is allowed to pass through the nose instead of the mouth, m, n, and ng (a single sound, as in sing) are produced
instead of b, d, g.
was
little
used,
Such sounds are called nasal. and was always followed by a
q was always
followed by u, and qu (pronounced as in English) regarded in prosody as a single consonant.
x was
4.
merely written for cs.

classification of
The following Table shows the

NON-CONTINUOUS.
Latin consonants.
Diphthongs are sounds produced in the passage from one vowel sound to another. The right rule for pronouncing diphthongs is to sound the two vowels rapidly one after the other. Thus au as Gorman on, a somewhat broader sound than the
ordinary English ow in cow, to/ru. eu as a Cockney or Yankee pronunciation of oiv in cow, town. ae nearly as the single vowel a in English hat, lengthened.
ei nearly as in English feint, or ai in faint. oe between oiin boil, and ei in feint.
The vowels one to another.
may
be arranged thus, so as to suggest the relation of
a
e
i
QUANTITY
6.
Vowels are either lony by nature,

of the vowels
is
as
it,
or short
by nature,
as
given by the following English Vowels are said to examples: aha, demesne, quinine, promote, Zulu. be (usually) long by position, when followed by two consonants, as
ardet
;
The pronunciation
more
correctly the
xi/l.ll>le is
long, the vowel
and the
first,
con-
sonant counting as a long vowel. Sometimes a vowel in such a. position, may be taken as either long or short it is then called <<*/// ///<///, and is
;
marked
thus, patrem.
ACCENT
word which contains more than one, In words of two pronounced with more stress than the rest. in other syllables the accent falls on the first syllable, as miiifiiiis cases it falls on the last syllable but one. if thai be. long, either by nature or by position, as i/idico, otherwise on the last, but two, as
7.
One
syllable in every Latin
is
indfoo.
PHONETIC CHANGES
8.
Many words underwent

to
:
Romans
pronounce.
Some
changes which made them easier for the of the most frequent changes are the
-
following
Whole
syllables
were sometimes omitted, as vene
flcium
for
PHONETIC CHANGES
voluntas veneni-ficium, poison-making from volens, willing. When three consonants come together,
;
5
voluntitas), willingis
(for
ness,
the middle one
often
omitted, as fulmen, lightning (for fulgmen), from fulgere,
to
flash
mul-si (for mulcsi), perfect of mulcere, to stroke. Of two consonants the former is often assimilated either
completely or
(2)
(1)
partially to the latter,
as (1) ces-si for ced-si,
sub-mus, puel-la for puer-la, op-pono for ob-pono, ad-curro (2) scrip-tus for scrib-tus, op-tineo for ob-tineo, con-tineo for com-tmeo, im-berbis for in-berbis. s between two vowels is changed to r, as onus, oner-is (compare onus-tus), dirlmo for dis-emo. 9. Vowels are changed often in composition and inflexions.
for
eum-mus
ac-curro
for
a. Eoot-vowels are changed, when by a syllable being prefixed, as in compound words, the root syllable loses the first place. Thus a changes usually to e before two consonants or before r, as damno, condemno facio, effectus pario, comperio. a to i usually before ng or any single consonant except r, as tango,
;
attingo facio, efficio. e to i, as lego, colligo emo, adimo. ae to i, as aestimo, existimo caedo, incido. b. In suffixes usually
; ; ;
6 changes
e
to
I,
to
i,
as
cardon-, cardmis
;
alto-, alti-tudo.
as ille, illic unde, undique ; but e remains before r, as piper, piper-is,
agmen, agmin-is,
and before two consonants, as nutrimen, mitrlmentum (compare nutrimin-is). c. Short vowels are often omitted between two consonants, as audacter for audaci-ter, vinclum for vinculum, dextra for dextera. h and v between two vowels are often omitted and the vowels then coalesce, as ml for mini, prendo for prehendo, audisse for
audivisse,
d.
amaram
for
amaveram.
is
The quantity of vowels
sometimes changed
thus short vowels
are lengthened (1) When a consonant is omitted, as
from jugum, a yoke

(2) (3)
ju-mentum, a plough least, cadtus), from cadere, to fall. In forming the perfect tenses of verbs, as lego, legi, ago, egi. By contraction with another vowel, as fructuis (genitive of
;
casus, a fall
(for
fructus)
e.
is
contracted to fructus.
are shortened chiefly
Long vowels
last in the
word, as calcar for calcare,
when the syllable becomes amator compared with
the
the
genitive amatoris.
INFLEXIONS IN GENERAL
10. Latin, like English, has many words which never vary in form, and many others which vary according to their
Thus man builds, men build, man built, j/tan's particular use. building are all sayings which contain two words altered in order to change the meaning. Of these words mau
expresses
an existing thing,
call
build
Grammarians
man
a noun,
build
expresses an action. a verb. NOUNS
(including pronouns and adjectives) and VERBS are the two great classes of words which are subject to change. The other parts of speech (adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, interjections), commonly called particles, as happily,
and, after, alas, do not change. In Latin, both nouns and verbs have more changes than These changes consist mainly of they have in English.
additions or other changes at the end of the word, sometimes of additions at the beginning, sometimes of changes
in the middle.
Thus
in English man's,
built,
;
additions or changes at the end of the word with man) shows a change in the middle.
building show men (compared
word, so far as
;
is
said to be inflected.
inflexions
the stem.
suffix.
thus changes according to its use, additions or changes are called the more permanent part of the word is called This remains unchanged unless affected by the
it
The
11. Nouns are divided into two classes, nouns substantir<>, which express things, and nouns adjective, which express the
In English the former are inflected to nature of things. The denote number and case, e.g. man, man's, men, men's. latter are not so inflected, e.g. good man, good man's (food), In Latin both nouns substantive and nouns good men.
Nouns substantive are inflected adjective are inflected. to denote the number as well as the case, as hominis,
man's
;
homines, men
hominum,
'men's.
Nouns
adjective
INFLEXIONS IN GENERAL
are trebly inflected, i.e. they are changed to denote the gender (i.e. sex or imagined sex) of the person or thing denoted, and they are changed also to denote the case
(like man's)
and the number

she's
;
(like men), as
bonus, good
he
bona, good things bonorum Pronouns are sometimes inflected like nouns, but more commonly like adjectives. The inflexions in Latin nouns are, as has been shown, much more numerous than in English. 12. Verbs again in Latin differ much from verbs in English. Not only are there many more changes to express different persons and numbers, different tenses and moods, but each form of a verb in Latin, which is not of the nature of a noun, is complete in itself and expresses
he's
;
bona, good she bonae, good
bonum, good
thing
plural, boni, good
(cibus), good men's (food), etc.
a complete meaning. In English we require a pronoun or noun with the verb, e.g. I love, thou lovest, he loves. In Latin
amo
thou
l>e
itself / love, amas expresses by itself expresses by itself a person loves, but may he loves or she loves. Different forms are used for the
expresses
by
lovest,
amat
plural,
e.g.
amamus,
we
love;
amatis, ye
love;
amant,
e.g.
they love.
Different
forms again are used for past

; ;
time,
amabam, I was loving amabas, thou wast loving amabat, he was loving amabamus, we were, loving amabatis, ye
; ;
were loving; amabant, they were loving. Other forms slightly or considerably changed are used to denote future time or
or the like. What in English is often expressed by combinations of different words is in Latin often expressed by changes in the same word.
commands or wishes
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
13.
The
inflexions of
nouns and pronouns are in the main
the same.
The
inflexions of verbs are quite distinct. inflexions of nouns are always additions to or altera-
The
tions in the end of the stem.

gender, the case,
They
serve to
mark the
and the number
of the word.
There are in Latin

Three genders, called masculine, feminine, and
Six cases, called nominative,
locative,
neuter.
accusative, genitive, dative,

is
and
ablative.
(The use of these cases
explained in
84.)
(In some nouns another form is found to which the vocative case has often been applied.)
name
of
Two
Nouns
The
or
numbers, singular and
plural.
are divided into
two
classes
first class
has the genitive plural ending in -arum, or -erum, has the genitive plural ending in -uum, or -ium,
-orum.
The second
or in
class
-um
preceded by a consonant.
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
FIRST CLASS
14.
The
first class
contains stems ending in

1.
or e or o.
Stems in a
water
;
aqua (/.), Examples. (m.), a clerk ; Claudia, a
woman
bona, a good she ; scrlba, of the Claudian house.
Singular.
10
KLKMENTARY LATJN GRAMMAR
15.
2.
Stems
in e
Two words
a thing
;
dies
(in. /.),
only have forms for all cases, viz. res a day. Few have any plural.
Singular.
(/.),
Nom.
Ace.
res
dies
acies
rem
1
/
diem
die! or die
aciem
acii or acie
Gen.
Loc.
rei or re
Dat.
Abl.
re
die
acie
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
16.
11
3.
Stems in
(m.\
;
Examples. good he bellum

;
dominus
(n.),
a,
lord;
bonus
(m. adj.}, a
thing.
war
bonum
(n. adj.),
a good
12
17.
KLKMENTARY LATIN GRAM MA

Stems
in -ro generally
II
singular. different kinds are
native
Many
;
drop the omit e before
final
r.
us
in nomiof
Instances
numerus,
vir,
a number
puer, a boy
ager, a piece of land
a man.
Singular.
Nom.
Ace.
numerus
puer
ager
vir
numerum
numeri
j
puerum
pueri
agrum
agri
virum
viri
Gen.
Loc.
Dat.
Abl.
puero
Plural
agro
viro
Nom.
Ace.
numeri numeros
pueri puer 6s
agri
viri
agros
vir 6s
Gen.
Loc.
numerorum puerorum agrorum virorum

numeris
puerls
agris
viris
Dat.
Abl.
are declined erus (or herus), a master humerus), a shoulder; and the adjectives ferus, wild; properus, hasty:, pTOBp&rtiB, favourable.
Like
numerus
(or
umerus
Like puer, are s6cer, father-in-law ; gener, son-in-law and the adjectives asper, nmijh vesper, evening star liber, free miser, wretched ; tener, tender. Similarly satur, satura, saturum, #iti<ifc<l. Like ager are declined aper, a wild boar faber, a workman ; liber, lark, a book ; and the adjectives noster, our ; vester, your dexter, riylit (hum/), and sinister, left, are usually so declined, but sometimes retain the e, like
; \ ;
:
tener.
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
13
18. In the best period steins in -vo or -quo retained in nominative and accusative singular -6s, -6m instead of -us, -urn. Thus equos, a horse (also spelt ecus) aequom, equity but in modern books we usually find -us, -um. In substantives in -io the genitive singular ended in single i, except in some poetry.
;
Nom.
servos
14
ELEMENTARY LATIN
CM?
AM MA
If.
SECOND CLASS
19.
The second
class of
nouns contains stems ending
in
or
or a consonant.
1.
Stems in U
hand
Examples
(n.), knee.
manus
(/.),
visus
(?.), sight
genu
Singular.
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Loc. Abl.
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
15
20. Some words are found with inflexions both from o The most important word of stems and from u stems. this kind is domus (/.), a home.
Singular.
16
21.
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAK

2.
Stems in
Of these some have nominative in -es, some in -is, some in -s preceded by a consonant or long vowel.
Instead of -ris
tive in e.
we
often find -er.
Neuters have nomina-
Examples.
(/.), light;
nubes
/.), (/.),
(/.),
cloud;
ship; tristis (m.
triste (n.\ sad;

art;
puppis (/.), stem of a urbs (/.), city; lux

sea;
ars
mare
(??,),
animalis
(adj.),
animal
imber
(m.),
a storm of rain.
Singular.
Nom.
Ace.
nubes
puppis
tristis
triste
nubem
nubis nubi
puppim
puppis puppi
or
tristem
triste
puppem
Gen.
Dat.
puppe
Plural.
Nom.
Ace.
nubes nubes
or
nubis
Gen.
Dat.
Loc.
Abl.
,
nubium
[
>
nubibus
Nom.
Ace.
urbs
urbem
urbis urbi
)
Ccn.
Dat.
Loc.
urbe
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
17
Plural
Nom.
Ace.
urbes urbes
or
urbis
Gen.
Dat.
Loc.
\
.'
urbium
urbibus
18
22.
3.
Consonant stems
STEMS ENDING IN MUTES form nom.

t or
sing,
by adding s
before this s
final
is
omitted.
I
e before
sing,
stem consonant becomes
except in nom.
I,
before final stem consonant
often becomes
is
except in nom. sing.

this
Sometimes where I in the other cases becomes e in the nom. sing.
the earlier form,
Examples.
princeps
(m. /.),
judex
rex
(adj.), stem princep-, stem judic-, a judge;
chief
cl vitas (/.),
stem reg-, a king; stem civitat-, citizenship; eques (in. /.), stem equSt-, horseman ; caput (n.\ stem caput-, head ; pes (m.), stem ped-, a foot.
(m.),
Singular.
Nom.
Ace.
princep-s
(adj.)
(in.
judex
/.)
rex
princip-em
princep-s
princip-ls princip-i
(n.)
judic-em
judic-Is judic-i
reg-em
reg-is
reg-i
Gen.
Dat.
Loc. Abl.
princip-e
Plural.
'
judic-6
reg-e
princip-es (?./.) (no Gen.

,
neut.)
judlc-es
reg-es
princip-um
V
judic-um
judic-Ibus
reg-um
reg-Ibus
Loc. Abl.
princip-ibus
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
19
Nom.
Ace.
civitas
civitat-em
civitat-is
civitat-i
equds equit-em
equit-is equit-i
caput caput
capit-is
capit-i
pes
ped-em
ped-is ped-i
Gen.
Dat.
Loc.
Abl.
civitat-e
equit-6
capit-6
ped-e
Plural.
^7'Jcivitat-es
Gen.
Dat.
Loc.
Abl.
\
6quit-es
capit-a
ped-es
civitat-um
> civitat-ibus
equit-um
equit-ibus
capit-um ped-um
capit-ibus ped-ibus
Civitas and a few other nouns with stem in tat- have sometimes -mm in gen. plur.
in one of
STEMS ENDING IN n form the nominative singular two ways Those ending in -on and -on (all being masc. or fern.) drop the final n, the o then being always long in good
23.
;
Latin in the cases other than nominative singular -6n becomes -in. Those ending in -en remain unchanged in the cases other than nominative singular -en becomes -in. Most of these are in -men, and all these except flamen (m.) are
;
neuter.
As Examples
homo (m. /.), stem homon-, a man oratio (/.), stem oration-, speech ; tibicen (m.), stem tlblcen-, a flute-player ; nomen (n.), stem nomen-, a name.
:
20
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMA
II
Singular.
Nom.
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
21
Singular.
Norn,
Ace.
consul consul-em
consul-is consul-i
mulier mulier-em
mulier-is mulier-i
patSr patr-em
patr-is
patr-i
amor amor-em
amor-is amor-i
Gen.
Dat.
JLJUU.
Abl.
22
Singular.
Plural.
Nom.
Ace.
meli6r (w./.)m61ius melior-em meliiis

melior-is melior-1
)
(n.)
Nom.
Ace.
]
j
m&liores (m.f.) melior (n.)
Gen.
Dat.
Loc.
Gen.
Dat.
Loc.
melior-um
^
> melior-ibus
Abl.
mehor 6
-
Abl.
Contrast of
fifoms
and Consonant Stems
25. The class of i stems and the class of consonant stems have, speaking generally, certain marked differences.
1. A very large proportion of the i steins have the syllable which precedes the i long, sometimes from the length of the vowel, more often from the i being preceded by two consonants, as fini-, parti-.
In the consonant stems the
final
by
a vowel,
and
this preceding
stem consonant is always preceded vowel is generally short, as due-,
princip-.
2.
Further, the
stems
fall
mainly into three divisions, thus
A. Substantives and adjectives of not more than two syllables in the

genitive singular, as nubes, gravis. B. Adjectives with derivative suffixes, as aud-aci, ag-ili.
C. Adjectives
compounded of noun stems,

fall
as in-ermi, tri-remi.
The consonant stems
into three divisions, thus
A. Substantives (few) of not more than two syllables in the genitive singular, as canis,
mensis.
suffixes, as
B. Substantives with derivative
ima-gon, am-or.
Also adjectives in comparative degree.

C. Substantives
and
adjectives
compounded
of verbal
stems,
as
re-due, prae-sed.
CLASSIFICATION OF
STEMS
23
CLASSIFICATION OF
26. A.
STEMS
syllables in the genitive
The nouns
of not
more than two
singular have either

1.
or
or
2.
3.
Disyllabic nominative in -es, Disyllabic nominative in -is (m.f.), neuter in 6, Disyllabic nominative in -er (for eris),
or
1.
4.
Monosyllabic nominatives.
-es: all feminine, as proles,
Stems with disyllabic nominatives in

offspring
;
sedes,
seat.
except verres (m. ), a boar.
vates (m.
2.
/., gen. pi. often
vatum), a
-is.
seer.
Stems with disyllabic nominatives in
(a) Adjectives, e.g.
dulcis
sweet
all
gravis
tristis
etc.
omnis
heavy sad
levis
light
turpis foul
(/3)
Substantives.
in gender
-i
Common
anguis
clvis
testis
(abl.
rarely)
snake
citizen
finis (abl. often
-i)
boundary
hostis
enemy
witness
Masculine
24
Feminine
apis (gen.
pi.
I'LKMKNTARY LATIN GRAMMAB
apu\n
bee
CLASSIFICATION OF
Notice also
STF,MS
25
nix
vis
(/.) (gen. nivis,
stem nigvi-), snow (no gen.
pi.)
(f.), force,
thus declined
Plural.
Singular.
Nom.
Ace.
vis
vires vires
vim
vis (rare)
?
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
virium
viribus viribus
vi
27. B. Adjectives with derivative suffixes.
"With long penult

-aci, -oci, -trici, as
-ati, -iti, as
audax,
bold
atrox, cruel
;
victrix, conquering.
(pi.),
nostras, of our country
penates
;
gods of our home.

;
-ali, -uli, -eli, -ili,
as aequalis, equal
tribulis, of a tribe
crudelis,
cruel
hostilis, of an enemy. -ari, as familiaris, intimate.

;
(Neuter substantives usually drop the e in the nora. singular as animal, an animal laquear, a ceiling. ) serpens, -anti, -enti, present participles, as amans, loving
: ; ;
crawling.
-esti, as
-ensi, as forensis, of the forum. agrestis, of the fields ; caelestis, of heaven.
"With short penult

-ili,
as agilis, active
facilis, cosy.
),
-bri, -cri, -stri (for beri, etc.
as celeber, crowded
alacer, alert
equester, on horseback.
armed
D.
28. C. Adjectives compounded of noun stems, as inermis, unexpers, without share insignis, distinguished.
; ;
few others, as Conors, a troop

;
indoles, native disposition

;
and
adjectives like hilaris, cheerful

;
inanis, empty
;
celer, swift few others.
memor, mindful
viridis, green
happy and a teres, round

felix,
;
26
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT STEMS

29. A. Substantives disyllabic in genitive
with disyllabic nom. canis (m.f.), dog. mensis (m.), month (gen. pi. some(gen. sems), old man times mensium) frater, brother mater, mother ; pater, father. (b) with monosyllabic uom.
(a)
:
senex
Masculine.
dux
grex rex pes praes vas
duels
gregis regie pedis praedis vadis
leader
flock
lar
laris
household
thief
fluii-i-r
fur
flos
11103
furls
floris
[god
king
foot
surety bail
naoris
roris
ros
sal, sails, salt,
manner dew
pi.
sol, soils, sun,
and
have no gen.
Feminine.
ops
opis
s.)
help
crux
nux
nucis precem (no nom.
nut
prayer
nex vicem
Neuter.
crucis necis
(no nom.
s. )
cross
murder
change
aeris
bronze
crus
jus
pi.
cruris
juris
leg
6s
oris
6s,
mouth bone, has nom.
law
ossa, gen. ossium.
The following have no

cor
gen. plural
mel
far
cordis mellis
farris
heart
honey
spelt
ver rus tus
veris
ruris
turis
spring
country
incense
3O.
B. Derivative substantives
and a few
adjectives.
Masculine with stems in ec, et,

or 6s
on
(except verbal subst. in ion), or
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT STEMS

As
vortex
27
28
D. Also
custos (in. f.} custodis keeper merces (/. ) heir heres (m. /.) heredis palus (/.) sacerdos (m.) sacerdotis^n'es^ quies(/.)
clnis
(m.) cineris
(m.) pulveris
mercedis
paludis
quietis
telluris
hire
a marsii
rent
ash
dust
tellus (/.)
the earth
pulvis
32. Note, Many Greek words, especially proper names, used in Latin retain some of the Greek case-endings. This is most frequent in the poets. Thus we find
1.
Stems in a
Xom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
Prusia or Prusias Prusia or Prusia Prusiam or Prusian Prusiae Prusiae Prusia

2.
Circa or Circe Atrides Atride Circa or Circe Atridam or Atriden Circam or Circen Circae or Circes Atridae Atridae Circae Atrida Circa or Circe
or or
Atrida Atrida
Stems in o
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Epirus or Epiros Epire Epirum or Epiron
3.
Stems in
or consonant
Singular.
Plural.
^'/m/ it far.
Ace.
tigrim or tigrin
tigris or tigridos tigri or tigridi
tigres or tigridas
Phyllida
Phyllidis or Phyllidos
Phyllidi
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
tigrium
tigribus
tigribus
tigre or tigride
PhylHde
In such words there are
many
irregularities.
PRONOMINAL AND SOME OTHER ADJECTIVES
29

33.
whole.
Some
in -ius, the dative in
adjectives have the genitive singular ending -1, alike for all genders. E.g. totus,
Singular.
Masc.
Fern.
Neut.
Nom.
Ace.
totus
Gen.
Loc.
)
totum totms
>
totam
in all genders
all
v totum
Dat
Abl.
toti in
genders
toto
tota
toto
Plural.
Nom.
Ace.
toti
totos
totae totas
tota
Gen.
Loc.
"|
totorum
>
)
totarum
genders
totorum
Dat.
Abl.
totls in
all
Similarly are declined unus, one none; solus, alone.
ullus, any
nullus,
has gen.
So ipse
(in old
language ipsus), ipsa,

all
ipsum
ipsius, dat. ipsi for
genders.
Genitive.
Dative.
alter
altera
alterum
uter
utra utrum neuter neutra neutrum
one of two alterius which of two utrius

neither
alteri
utri
neutrius neutri
30
34.
A few
the same
way except
other pronominal adjectives are declined in that they have d instead of in for the
last letter of the
neuter nom. and ace. singular.

Singular.
Thus
Masc.
Fern.
Neut.
Nom.
Ace.
alius
other
alia
alitid
Gen.
Dat.
Loc.
Abl.
]
)"
alium alms in
alio
aliam
all
aliud
alii in all
genders genders
alia
alio
Nom.
Ace.
ille
that
ilia
ill
illud
illud
ilium
illms or illms in
illi
I
am
Gen.
Dat. Loc.
Abl.
all
genders
in all genders
ilia illo
illo
j
So iste, that of yours, ista, istud. like totus.
The
plural
is
in all
The demonstrative particle ce was sometimes appended to those cases of ille and iste which end in s (e.g. illosce), and frequently in an abridged form (c) to the
others (except gen. plural). E.g. Dat. Loc. neuters illud, istud become illuc, istuc.
35. hie,
this, is
illic.
The
declined as follows
Singular.
Masc.
Fern.
Neut.
Nom.
Ace.
hie
haec
hunc
huius
(or
hanc
hujus)
in all genders
hoc hoc
Gen.
Loc.
Dat.
Abl.
hie (adverb) huic in all genders
hoc
hac
hoc
31
Plural
Masc.
Fern.
Neut.
Nom.
Ace.
hi
hos
hae has
haec haec
Gen.
Loc.
\
>
horum
his in
all
harum
genders
horum
Dat.
Abl.
J
fuller
The
Haec
is
rarely found for
forms hosce, hasce, huiusce are found in Cicero. nom. fern. plur. Plautus has also hice (for
hie), etc.
36. Is,
that, is
thus declined
Singular.
Nom.
Ace.
is
ea
earn
eum
id id
Gen.
Loc.
Dat.
Abl.
eius (ejus) in all genders ibi (adverb) ei in all genders
eo
ea
eo
Plural
Nom.
Ace.
61 or
ii
eos
eas
ea
Gen.
Loc.
eorum
1
> eis or iis in all
earum
genders
eorum
Dat.
Abl. J
I
and
Is are
sometimes written
for
ii, iis.
ibus, dat. abl. plur.
also occurs rarely.
-pse
is
sometimes appended, as eumpse, eapse.
32
37.
Idem
(for
is-dem)
is
thus declined
33
As
The
ablatives
of
all
genders,
qui
in
sing.,
quis in
plural, are
sometimes used.
tive
genitive cuius is occasionally treated as an adjecand declined cuia, cuium, etc. As an indefinite pronoun, qua is more common than quae in nom. sing. fern, and neut. plural. As indefinite and interrogative pronouns, quis (m. /.),
quid (n.) are generally used for qui, quod, when not in agreement with a substantive.
39.
Similar are the

Adjectives.
compound pronouns
Substantives.
aliqui
aliqua
aliquod
some
aliquis
aliquid
ecqui
ecquaor ecquae
ecquod
any?
ecquis
quis-
ecquid
quid-
qumam quaenam quodn&mwhat?

quidam
quicun-
nam
nam
quaedam quoddam a
quaecun- quodcun-
certain one
que
quilibet
que
que
whatsoever
quivis
quaelibet quodlibet any you like quaevis quodvis any you will
whatsoever
at all
Also like quis, quid
quisquis
quidquid
or
quicquid
quisquam quidquam or quicquam any And partly like quis, partly like qui
quispiam quaepiam quisque quaeque
quodpiam some quodque each
PECULIAR INFLEXIONS OF CERTAIN PRONOUNS

Personal Pronouns
called personal pronouns are very nor are all the cases formed in their inflexions, peculiar
40.
The substantives
from the same stem.
34
DEGEEES OF COMPAEISON OF NOUNS ADJECTIVE
35
DEGREES OF COMPAEISON OF NOUNS ADJECTIVE

41. From many adjectives two derivative adjectives are formed in order to denote the degree of the quality exThe simple form is called the positive. pressed by them.
The comparative expresses a higher degree of the quality in a comparison of two things or persons. The superlative. expresses the highest degree in a comparison of more than
two things or persons, durissinms, hardest.
as
durus, hard
durior, harder
The comparative
quality
is
is
sometimes used to express that the

too
possessed in
is
high a degree.
The
quality
superlative
is
sometimes used to express that the
possessed in a very high degree.
Ordinary Formation of Comparative and Superlative

42. These derivative adjectives are formed positive as follows
from the
1. The stem of the comparative is formed by adding ios to the last consonant of the stem, ie. by changing the inflexion i or is of the genitive into ios. The s is changed into r before vowels and in the nom. sing. masc. and In the neuter nom. and ace. sing, ios fern, (see 24).
becomes ius. 2. The stem of the superlative is formed by adding isslmo or issima to the last consonant of the stem.
Thus
Genitive.
Comparative.
Superlative.
dur-us, hard
trist-is, sad
dur-i
trist-is
dur-ior
trist-ior
fellc-ior
dur-issimus
trist-issimus felic-issimus
felix (felic-s), happy fellc-is
Some
last
adjectives form their superlative
by doubling the
These are
consonant of the stem and adding imus.
(a) Adjectives with stems ending in ero or eri, the e being omitted or retained in the comparative as in the
inflexions of the positive.
36
pulcher, /////, romp, pulchr-ior, supcrl. pulcher-rimus. So niger, black piger, shithfn-1 ruber. red ; taeter,
; ;
foul
vafer, cunning saluber, health/id.

;
acer,
sharp
celeber,
famous
asper,
routjli
asperior
;
asperrimus
mus)
dexter, rigid (also rarely supcrl. dextimiser, wretched pauper, poor tener, f Also ruder; uber, abundant.
swift
;
So celer,
liber, free
vetus, old
no comp.
prosperus, prosperous
(/>)
veterrimus prosperrimus
last
The following
;
adjectives
whose
stem consonant
;
is
1:
facilis, easy
similis,
like; difficilis, difficult
disslmilis,
mi lifa\ gracilis, thin, slender'; humilis, low; as facil-is,
facil-limus.
Irregular or Defective Adjectives
(besides those
named
above,
2, a).
43.
The following
are either deficient in the positive
degree or form their comparative or from a different stem

Positive.
and superlative irregularly
Comparative.
Superlative.
bonus, malus,
HOIK!
Imil
(jmit.
melior
pejor
optimus pessimus
magnus,
parvus, small multus, mif/t
major minor
plus (ucut.) nequior
divitior
ditior
maximus
minimus
plurimus nequissimus
divitissimus ditissimus
(Cic.)
nequam
dives)
dis
i
.
(indccl.), ///>/:///
r " :h
senex, l<t juvenis, yoiniij

potis,
senior
junior
potior, M/>;ocior, mi-iflcr
pote
(indccl.), alfc.
(natu maximus) (natu minimus) potissimus
possible
(no positive)
ocissimus
frug-alissimus
frugi
(iiulci:!.), ?/w////
frugalior
NUMERALS
Comparative.
Superlative,
37
egentior
egentissimus
Sgtaus
benevolus, well-icishing maledicus, evil-speaking
benevolentior benevolentissimus maledicentior maledicentissimus

magnificentior magnificentissimus citerior citlmus deterior, less good deterrimus
(
magmficus, splendid citra (adv.), on this side

de
(prep.),
down from
extra (adv. ), externus (adj. ), outside exterior /

infra
(aclv.
),
extremus extimus
infimus, imus
intra
post,
(adv.),
infer 1 (adj. within

next
),
low inferior
interior
(in
intimus
( {
posterus,
time)
/ posterior,
I
postremus
hinder, later
prae (prep. ), before prope (adv.), near
prior
propior
j
supra
(adv.),
super
postumus primus proximus supremus

last (in time)
superior
v
high
summus
ultimus, farthest
ultra (adv.
),
beyond
ulterior
Adjectives used only in the positive
Many adjectives, which express a state or quality which does not readily admit the idea of a higher or lower degree, e.g. material (e.g.
aureus, golden), time (e.g. nocturnus, nightly), special relationship (e.g. paternus, fatherly), have no comparative or superlative. In some others they are wanting without any such apparent reason. If a comparison
is
required in such adjectives, the defect
is
supplied by adding
;
magis and maxime.

mirus, most wonderful.
Thus magis mirus, more wonderful
maxime
NUMERALS
44.
Cardinal
many?"
(quot).
Numerals answer the question " how Ordinal Numerals answer the question
"which in numerical order?" (quotus). Distributive Numerals answer the question "how many each, or, at each time?" (quoteni). Numeral Adverbs answer the
"
question
1
how many
:
times
"
(quotiens).
;
Chiefly used in plural

;
inferi, the beings beloio

;
superi, the beings
aboce
infera, the places below
supera,
the places above.
38
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAE

List
of
AK.\I;H
UOMAN
1
SIGNS.
LDINAL
(adjectives).
I.
UTO.US, a,
um
ii.
duo,
ae, o
NUMERALS
Numerals
ORDINAL
(all
39
declinable adjectives).
40
ELEMENTARY LATIN GUAM MA
11
ARABIC SIGNS.
NUMERALS
ORDINAL
(all
41
DISTRIBUTIVE
(all
declinable adjectives plural).
M'MKIt.VL ADVERBS.
octogensimws nonagensinms duodecentensimws undecentensimiis centensimws centensim%s primus
octogem
octogiens
nonagiens duodecentem duodecentiens undecenteni undecentiens

centeni
nonagem
centem
sin-
centiens centiens semel centiens

viciens
centensimws vicensi- centeni viceni HQ.US quartus quaterm ducem ducentensimw.s ducentensinitfs tri- ducem tricem censimws treceni trecentensimws quadringentensimi/5 quadringem quingeni quingentensiniM^ sesceni sescentensim^s
septingentensim?;6' octingentensimz^s
quater ducentiens ducentiens

ciens trecentiens
tri-
quadringentiens quingentiens
sescentieiis
septingeni octingeni
septingentiens octingentiens
nongent ensim MS
millensimws
nongeni
nongentiens
millions millions ducentriciens tiens
singul^ millensimw.5 ducen- singula
tensimws tricensina.ua
ducena
tri-
cem quina quinquiens quint^^ bis milliens bina millia bis millensimws quater millensim?ts quatern^ mil- quater milliens
lift
quinquiens millen- quin millia

sexiens millensimws sena millia deciens millensim?^- den milli viciens millensim?^ vicena millift
quinquiens milliens
sexiens milliens deciens milliens

viciens milliens
quinquagiens
lensimws centiensmillensimws centena
mil- qiiinquagena millia
quinquagiens
milliens
centiens milliens
42
KLKMKNTARY LATIN (iKAM.MAK

ROMAN
SICNS.
ARABIC SK^NS.
MNAI.
(adjcc.tivcs).
500,000
1,000,000
10000.
quingenta millia
deciens centum millia
ccccioooo.
(a)
The
earlier
form
of ordinals in
is'
-inms ended
in
-umus.
For -ensimus, -esimus
often found.
:
Multiplicative adjectives are formed with the suffix -plex, -fold

viz.
simplex, sescuplex (one and a half fold], duplex, triplex, quadruplex, quincuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex.
Others in -plus are generally used in neuter only, to denote a
2.
Inflwhmx
<>f
Numeral*
33.
45.
plural
Unus.
it is
For mode
of declension see
In the
used only with substantives whose plural denote* a singular, e.g. unae litterae, one epistle unae aedes, one house (set of rooms, or of hearths 1) uni mores, out' mid
;
the
same conduct
uni Suevi,
the single tribe of the Suevi (or
the Suevi alone).
Duo.
The masc. and

or
neut. are
al)l.
duorum
duos
gen.
like,
duum,
or
dat.
duobus.
:
is
also used.
The
fern, is
nom. ace. duo, gen. For the m. ace. nom. duae, ace. duas,
:
duarum
duabus. In expressions duodecim, duodeviginti, duoetvicesimus, duo is
duum,
dat. abl.
not varied.
Ambo,
both, is
similarly declined.
Nom. and
tribus.
ace. tres, n.
tria, gen.
trium,
to
dat.
and
abl.
All the other cardinal numbers

derlined
:
up
centum
are un-
so also
is
mille when used as an adjective.
As
NUMERALS
T
43
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
DISTRIBUTIVE
(all
(all
declinable adjectives plural).
quingentiens
lensimws-
mil-
quingena mil- quingentiens millia
liens
deciens centiens millensimws
deciens centena millift

of
deciens
milliens
centiens
(b)
The
later
form
numeral adverbs ended in
-ies.
These are simplus, magnitude twice, etc., as great as another. sescuplus, duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus.
Another series is bmarius, containing two, ternarius, quaternarius, quinarius, senarius, septenarius, etc.
millia (more but in the In expressingular is rarely used except in nom. or ace. sions like caesi sunt tria millia trecenti milites, we must supply militum after millia. If the name of the thing, etc., numbered precede, it is usually put in the genitive, e.g. militum (not milites) tria millia trecenti caesi sunt. The other cardinal, and all the ordinal and distributive The numbers, are declinable adjectives with o stems.
it
a substantive
correctly
has
declinable
plural
spelt milia),
millmm, millibus
genitive plural of the cardinals

in
and
distributives
e.g.
is
usually
-um
for
-orum
quingentum nummum aeris (for morum), an immediate fine of 500 pounds of senum septenumque denum annorum,
and
seventeen years of age.
(cf.
16);
multa praesens quingentorum numcopper

;
pueri
boys of sixteen
41
ELKMKNTAUY LATIN
(il,'AM.MAi;
3.
Order in
coinjnnun'lin</
\\-m\itldrtcr-n
46. In
smaller
(or
is
compound numbers,
tonineteen inclusive, ihe

c.ij.
usually prclixcd to the larger without et,
septem decem
septemdecim), Septimus decimus, septeni deni, septiens deciens but in cardinals and ordinals the order is sometimes reversed, and in cardinals et is sometimes inserted, especially if the larger come,
;
first,
e.g.
decem septem, decem
et septem,
septem
et
decem
decimus septimus From twenty-one

;
is that cither the larger should precede the smaller number without et, or the smaller precede with et so viginti quattuor, lurntii-four, or quattuor et viginti,
(Sen.) to ninety-nine the rule
j'uiir
andtwenty.
From
usually comes
a-
first
//i///(f //// mnl n/ni upwards the larger number either without or (except with distributives) with
conjunction.
USE or CLASSES OF NUMERALS

47. The ordinal, not the cardinal, year 1879
is
is
used in giving the date,
c.ij.
Li
tin:
anno millesimo octingentesimo septuagesimo nono.
The
(1)
distributives are used
To denote that the number belongs to each of several persons or things, r.tj. Caesar et Ariovistus denos comites ad colloquium
addtixerunt, took
(2)
ten
com /< nil/it* each.
In expressions of multiplication, <-.<j. bis bina ////,( I n-n
ter
novenae virgines
///.//<>:
nine
</.
n/'r/s
deciens centena millia
ten finite
/nui'frn/, f/nn/Kitud
In these expressions the distributive numerals, /'.;/. deciens centena mi/lion In I'ncli- /x'fuon, but a limn/rcil llnnisa inl millia, do not mean
ti.
a !..<,
ntr/i
uf
t,-ii
times.
is
/Ji; ///
H///I'/-
expressed
by alterni,
e.g.
alternis diebus,
second
<IKI/.
ADVERBS
45
ADVERBS
48.
Adverbs and conjunctions are indeclinable words,
and some others will be found in the tables following. Other adverbs, derived from adjectives and participles, end
(a)
chiefly oblique cases of existing or lost words. The chief pronominal adverbs of place and time
in 6, or rarely 6, as
certainly
; ;
certo,
cito,
quickly
;
raro, seldom
tuto, safely
;
merito, deservedly vero, in truth primo,

in
the
in the first place
secundo,
second place
postremo,
(b) in e, as
lastly.
aegre, hardly docte, skilfully ; doctissime, most skilplane, quite recte, rightly valde, very. fully
;
;
in e, as (c) bene, well
impunity
male, badly facile, easily paene, almost rite, duly

; ;
impune,
;
with
;
saepe,
often
forte, by chance
(d) in
quoque,
time
also.
-um,
as
primum,
time
for the
too
first
tertium, for
much.
the third time
iterum, for the second circum, round

;
nimium,
(e)
in -ter, especially from i stems, as acriter, eagerly ; breviter, shortly; durlter, hardly ; frequenter, frequently largiter, lavishly; similiter,
;
in like fashion.
(/) in -tus,
denoting from, as antiqultus, from of olcl funditus, from

;
the
bottom
pemtus, from
the interior, deeply.
46

(g)
-tim, chiefly from past participles, as
fiirtim, stealthily
partim, partly cursim, swiftly sensim, gradually statim, imn)c<linfelt/ nominatim, by name paullatim, little by little,
; ;
; ; ;
Other noticeable adverbs are
manS,
nuper,
in the
;
morning
eras, to-morrow
lately
;
heri, yesterday
while
noctu, by night hodie, to-day temperi, in good time

; ;
quotannis,
little
;
yearly
semper, always
;
paul
lately
;
lisper, for a
diu, for long
dudum,
;
demum,
at last
once] modo, only, back again; item, likewise; saltern, at least; etiam, <tl&> ita, thus ; ergo, therefore ; ideo, on thaf act-inutt ; denuo,
afresh
ri'iill-i/
; ;
prideni, some time mjo extemplo, at just now; iterum, a second time; rursus,
;
oppldo, quite ; brevi, in few words profecto, nimis, too much satis, enough vix, xcii/rc!// fortassis, fortasse, perchance ; non, not immo, at the
;
rather.
49.
The following
are the chief (pronominal) adverbs of time,
quando j I when quom, when

nunc, now tune \
turn
J
quamdiu j
\
how
lo '^
'
UN long ON
quoties i
\
htnr
c/\
ft&n ?
jtn\ n*
allquamdiu, for some toties,

Umjlli of timr,
so uf/ni
sc.rcnil
aliquoties,
then
antehac, before posthac, <ifler t/i.f.t subinde, riii-m>'<tinf>-fi/
quousque, till when? identldem, adhuc, hitherto nonnunquam thi* aliquando
sometimes,
i.e.
notwn-
quandoque
<tft,-nr<tnlx
frequently interdum, sometimes (i.e.

occasiomtllii}
nondum,
interim interea
\ J
not yet
ti an
1
alias, at another
unquam,
tives,
ever (al'lcr nega-
meanwhile
\8ometime,
J
H,.)
(of progressive
usque, emor hnrnflci-
quondam
Olim
ADVERBS
1
i
!'
'
.s
48
KLKMKNT.\I;Y LATIN CHAM.MAI;
INFLEXIONS OF VERBS
49
INFLEXIONS OF VEEBS
52. Latin verbs have inflexions to denote differences of
voice, person,
number, mood, and

voices,
tense.
1.
There are two
the Active and the Passive.
2.
Two
numbers, the singular and plural.

second, third) in each number. there is no form for the first person
3.
Three persons
(first,
In the Imperative
singular.
mood
4.
Three moods, Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.

Six
tenses,
5.
in the Indicative
mood, active voice

action
(a) Three denoting Future, and Imperfect,
incomplete
the Present,
denoting completed (b) Three Completed Future, and Pluperfect.
action;
the
Perfect,
The Subjunctive has no
future.
The Imperative has no
tense except the present and the future.
Verbs in the passive voice have in the Indicative only three simple tense-forms, those of incomplete action.
For the tenses
of complete action in the passive voice
participles in combination with certain tenses of the verb of being are used.
50
53. Certain verbal nouns are usually treated in connexion with the verb. These are
(a)
Two
the Infinitive Mood).
indeclinable substantives, called Infinitives (or They are

infinitive,
The Present The
denoting incomplete action, and
Perfect, denoting completed action.
(b) Three verbal adjectives, called Participles, the Present and Future belonging to the active voice the Past parti;
ciple belonging to the passive voice.
(c)
and
verbal substantive and adjective, called the Gerund Gerundive, usually classed, the first with the active, the
second with the passive voice.

(d) Two Supines, i.e. the accusative dative) of a verbal noun.
and ablative
(or
The forms
of the verb
;
the Finite Verb
proper are often called collectively the verbal nouns above named are some-
times called the Infinite Verb.
54. Every single word in the Latin (finite) verb is a complete sentence, the verbal stem being used not by itself,
but combined with suffixes marking the person and number of the particular form, and sometimes also the tense, mood,
and
voice.
The
same.
principles on which all verbs ;irc inflected are the The differences in detail which are found are due
chiefly to the nature or
ending of the stem.
The
order
:
inflexions are attached to the stem in the following

inflexions of tense, of mood, of person, of number, of
INFLEXIONS OF VERBS
voice.
51
The forms of the present tense, indicative mood, singular number, active voice are the simplest, containing All other only the verb stem with the sign of person. contain also of of the verb tense, mood, (usually) signs parts
Of these the signs of tense and mood number, and voice. are placed between the stem and the sign of person, and the inflexions for number and voice are placed after them.
the present tense, indicative mood, third number, active voice of a verbal stem meaning give. It is composed of da- verbal stem, and and thus is strictly give-he t sign of the third person is the English equi(she, it), for which originally give-s
is
Thus dat
person, singular
valent, but English, having lost its sense of the meaning of the final s, now prefixes in addition the pronoun he (she, it),
as a separate
word
for the like purpose.
da-r-e-m-us
subjunctive
give.
.
is
the
first
person plural, imperfect tense,
mood, active voice, of the same stem, da-, The sound r here denotes past time, e the mood of
the speaker himself, us the action thought (instead of fact), Thus darenms analysed is giveof others with the speaker.
If for -us we have -ur (daremur), the did-in-thought-I-they. speaker and others are passive instead of active.
divided into two several tenses or forms, and those which are peculiar to the particular tense.
55.
inflexions
of tense
classes, viz.
The
those which are
may be common to
The inflexions common to several tenses or forms may be referred to three forms of the verbal stem called the Present stem, the Perfect stem, and the Supine stem.
1.
The
Present
stem
is
very often the same as the

is
verbal stem, but not unfrequently
more or
less modified.
52
From this present stem are formed all the tenses ami verbal forms which express incomplete action, viz. both in Active
and Passive voices
Indicative Present, Future, Imperfect Imperative Present, Future ; Subjunctive Present, Imperfect
;
;
also the following verbal forms
Present Infinitive ; Active and Passive Present Participle ; Active (none in Passive) Gerunds and Gerundive.
;
2. The Perfect stem is sometimes identical with the verb stem and with the present stem, but usually is considerFrom this perfect stem are formed all the ably modified.
tenses
voice
denoting
completed
action,
viz.
in
the
Active
Indicative Perfect, Completed Future, Pluperfect Subjunctive Perfect, Pluperfect ;

also the Perfect Infinitive.
3. The Supine stem is always a modification of the verbal stem, and from it are formed certain verbal nouns, of which the forms called the supines, the past participle
passive, and future participle active are generally treated in connexion with the verb.
The past participle passive is used with certain tenses of the verb of beint/ to form the perfect, pluperfect and
completed future indicative, and the perfect and pluperfect
subjunctive, of the passive voice.
(See
72.)
EXAMPLES OF THE INFLEXIONS OF VERBS
53
EXAMPLES OF THE INFLEXIONS OF VERBS

56. Verbs are as regards their inflexions divided into
two
principal classes ; those whose stem ends in a consonant and those whose stem ends in a vowel. The former may
be called for shortness consonant-verbs, the latter vowel-verbs. Vowel-verbs may have a stem ending in a or i, or e or u. Of these by far the most numerous are those with stems ending in a, and this class differs most in its inIt is in the inflexions of flexions from consonant verbs. tenses formed from the present stem that these differences
are mainly found.
First will be given the system of inflected forms of a consonant stem, reg-, rule, and of a vowel stem, ama-, love.
The English which corresponds most nearly to the Latin forms of the Indicative and Imperative moods is added. The English corresponding to the Subjunctive mood varies so much with the character of the sentence in which it is used, that none can properly be given here. The quantity of the used by Latin poets.
final syllables is
marked
as actually
54
CONSONANT CONJUGATION
57.
PRESENT STEM
VOWEL CONJUGATION
55
58.
PRESENT STEM
Active Voice
Present
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing.
1.
2.
am-o am-as
am-at am-am-us
am-at-Is
I am Thou
loving or / love art loving or Thou
am-em
am-es
3.
Plur.
1.
2.
loving or He loves are loving or We love Ye are loving or Ye love
He
is
We
am-et am-em-us
am-et-Is
3.
am-ant
They are loving or They
am-ent
Sing.
1.
am-ab-o
am-ab-Is am-ab-it
2. 3.
I shall love Thou wilt love
He
will love
shall or will love
love
Plur.
1.
am-ab-Im-us
am-ab-It-Is
We
2.
Ye will
3.
am-ab-unt
They will
love
Imperfect
Sing.
Plur.
56
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Present.
VOWEL CONJUGATION
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Present.
57
Sing. Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
2.
2.
am-a
am-at-e
)
Love (thou) Love (ye)

(
2.
Future.
3 |
2. 3.
am-at-0
am-at-6t-6
T/wm
j ffe
sfta^ or
mws
Qr
F<? shall
or
am-ant-0
They
shall or
mwsi
love
Verbal
Infinitive Present
Noun-Fwms
am-ar-6
to love
Participle Present
S.
Nom.
Ace.
am-ans am-ant-em
>
loving
(m.
f.),
am-ans
(n.)
Gerund
am-and-um
60.
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE.
Sing.
1.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
am-6r
am-ar-Is
am-at-tir
I am
or
being
loved
am-6r
am-er-is
or am-er-6 am-et-ur
am
loved
2.
Thou
or
Thou
is
art being loved art loved
3.
He
being loved or He is loved

are
Plur.
1.
am-am-ur
We
or
We
being loved are loved
am-em-ur
am-em-In-1
2.
3.
am-am-In-i Ye are being loved or Ye are loved am-ant-ur They are being loved
or They are loved
am-ent-ur
58
Future
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing.
1.
rgg-ar
reg-er-Is or rgg-er-6
reg-et-tir
2.
I shall be ruled Thou wilt be ruled
3.
He
will be ruled
shall be ruled
Plur.
1.
r6g-em-tir
We
Ye
2.
reg-em-hi-I
will be ruled
be ruled
3.
reg-ent-ur
They will
Imperfect
Sing.
1.
2.
I was being ruled or I was ruled Thou wast being ruled r6g-eb-ar-Is or r6g-eb-ar-6 or Thou wast ruled
r6g-eb-ar
r6g-eb-at-ur
rgg-eb-am-tir
r6g-6r-er-Is or rSg-6r-er-6
3.
He was being ruled or He was ruled
reg-gr-et-ur
Plur.
1.
We
or
We
were being ruled were ruled
rgg-er-em-ur
r6g-6r-em-In-I
r6g-6r-ent-tir
2.
r6g-eb-am-In-i Ye were being ruled or Ye were ruled
3.
r6g-eb-ant-ur
They were being ruled or They were ruled
IMPERATIVE
Present
Sing. Plur. sing,
2. 2.
r6g-6r-6
reg-Im-In-i
Be ruled Be ye ruled
1
Future
re g -it-6r
}
27^ r;; ;;^

They
shall or
Plur. 3.
r6g-unt-6r
must
be ruled
Verbal Noun-Forms
Infinitive Present
r6g-i
to be
to
ruled
Gerundive
Sing.
Nom. m.
f.
rSg-end-tis
rule or to be ruled
r6g-end-a
n.
reg-end-um
(used adjectivally)
VOWEL CONJUGATION
Future
INDICATIVE.
Sing.
1.
59
SUBJUNCTIVE.
am-ab-6r
am-ab-er-Is
or am-ab-6r-g am-ab-It-tir am-ab-ftn-tir
shall be loved
2.
Thou
wilt be loved
3.
He
will be loved
shall be loved
Plur.
1. 2.
We
Ye
3.
am-ab-Im-In-i am-ab-unt-tir
will be loved
be loved
They will
Imperfect
Sing.
1.
am-ab-ar
am-ab-ar-Is
or am-ab-ar-6
I was being loved or I was loved

Thou wast being loved or Thou wast loved He was being loved or He was loved
am-ar-6r
am-ar-er-Is
or am-ar-er-6 am-ar-et-ur
2.
3.
am-ab-at-ur
am-ab-am-iir
Plur.
1.
We
or
ivere being loved
am-ar-em-ur
am-ar-em-In-I
We
were loved
2.
am-ab-am-In-l Ye were being loved

or
Ye were
loved
3.
am-ab-ant-ur
TJiey were being loved or They were loved
am-ar-ent-ur
IMPERATIVE
Present
Sing. Plur. Sing.
2. 2.
Future
Plur. 3.
Be (thou) loved am-ar-6 am-am-In-I Be (ye] loved Thou shalt or must be loved I am-at-6r He shall or must be loved am-ant-6r They shall or must be loved
Verbal
Noun-Forms
am-ar-I
to be
)
Infinitive Present
loved
Gerundive
Sing.
Nom. m. am-and-us
f.
am-and-a
to love
or
to be loved
n.
am-and-um
etc.
(used adjectivally)
)
60
61.
VOWEL CONJUGATION
61
62.
PERFECT STEM
Active Voice
Perfect
INDICATIVE.
Sing.
1.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amav-1
amav-isti amav-It
2.
3.
/ loved or liave loved Thou lovedst or hast loved
amav-gr-im
amav-6r-Is amav-6r-it
He
ZFie
loved or has loved loved or /z-aw
Plur.
1.
amav-im-us
amav-is-tis
&wed
amav-6r-im-us
amav-6r-it-Is
2. 3.
Ye
loved or /wive loved
amav-er-unt or amav-er-6
or
amav-6r-int
Completed Future
Sine
1.
2.
3.
Plur.
1.
amav-6r-o amav-6r-Is amav-6r-It amav-6r-im-us

amav-er-it-Is
/ shall have Thou wilt have
loved
He
will have loved

shall have loved
We
2. 3.
Ye will have loved

They will have
amav-6r-int
Sing.
1.
2. 3.
Plur.
1.
2.
3.
/ had loved Thou hadst loved amav-6r-as He had loved amav-6r-at amav-6r-am-us We had loved Ye had loved amav-6r-at-is amav-6r-ant They had loved
amav-6r-am
amav-is-sem
amav-is-ses amav-is-s6t amav-is-sem-us
amav-is-set-is
amav-is-sent
Infinitive
amav-is-s6
to
have loved
62
SUPINE STEM
Active Voice
Supine
rect-um,
to rule,
i.e.
ace. case of
i.e.
verbal
rect-u, in the ruling,

Part. Fut.
ablat. case of verbal
noun with u- stem noun with u- stem
(Sing. Norn.) rect-ur-us (m.)
rect-ur-a
(f.)
> about to rule

j
rect-ur-um
Infin. Fut.
(n.)
(Sing. Norn.) rect-ur-us, -a,
-um
,,
esse, to be about to rule
fuisse, to have been about to rule
63.
SUPINE STEM
Passive Voice
Perfect
INDICATIVE.
Sing, (m.)
1.
(f.)
SUBJUNCTIVE.
(n.)
rect-us rect-a rect-um sum / have been or am ruled
rectus, recta,
rectum sim
,,
2.
rect-us rect-a rect-um 6s
,,
sis
Thou
3.
hast been or art ruled

sit
rect-us rect-a rect-um est He (she, it) has been or is ruled
Plur.
1.
rect-1 rect-ae rect-a
sumus
rect-1, rect-ae, rect-a
slm-us
sitls
We
2.
have been or are ruled
rect-1 rect-ae rect-a estls
3.
Ye have been or are ruled rect-1 rect-ae rect-a sunt

They have been or are ruled
sint
VOWEL CONJUGATION
63
SUPINE STEM
Active Voice
Supine
amat-um
amat-u
to love
in the loving
Part. Fut. (Sing. Norn.)
amat-ur-us (m.) amat-ur-a (f.) ^ about
to love
amat-ur-um
Infin. Fut. (Sing.
(n.)
Nom.) amat-ur-us, -a, -um esse, to

fuisse,
be
to
about
to love
have been
about
to love
64.
SUPINE STEM
Passive Voice
Perfect
Sing.
1.
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amat-us,
-a,
amat-us, -a, I have been or
-um sum
-um sim
?3
am
loved
2.
amat-us, -a, -um es Thou hast been or art
SIS
loved
3.
amat-us,
-a,
-um
est
is
sit
loved
He
Plur.
1.
(she, it)
has been or
amat-I, -ae, -a
sumus
amat-i, -ae, -a
simus
sitls
We
2.
have been or are loved
amat-I, -ae, -a estis Ye have been or are loved
3.
amat-I, -ae, -a sunt They have been or are loved
sint
64
Completed Future
Sing.
l.
rect-us rect-a rect-um

.,
6ro
2-
ens
erit
I shall have been ruled Thou wilt have been ruled
3.
He
(she, it)
will have been
ruled
Hur.
1.
rect-1 rect-ae rect-a
erimus
firltfs
2. 3.
We shall have been ruled Ye will have been mini

They will have been ruled
grunt
Pluperfect
Sing.
1.
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
rect-us rect-a rect-um
gram
rect-us, -a,
-um essem
I had
2.
been ruled
rect-us rect-a rect-um 6ras
Thou hadst
3.
been ruled
rect-us rect-a rect-um 6rat
esset
He
(she, if)
had been ruled
Plur.
1.
rect-I rect-ae rect-a
dramus
gratis
rect-1,
-ae,
-a
essemus
essetls
We
2.
had been ruled

,,
rect-I rect-ae rect-a
3.
Ye had been ruled rect-I rect-ae rect-a Srant They had been ruled
essent
Participle Perfect
rect-US,
-a,
-um,
ruled.
-a,
Infinitive Perfect (Sing. been, or to be, ruled.
Nom.)
rect-us,
-um
esse,
to
have
VOWEL CONJUGATION
65
Completed Future
Sing.
1.
amat-us,
-a,
-um
gro
grls
e?t
2.
loved
3.
grit
He (s/ie,
&) will have been loved
Plur.
1.
amat-i,
-ae,
-a
grlmus
erltls
been loved
Ye will have been loved

have been loved
3.
grunt
Pluperfect
Sing.
1.
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
2.
3.
amat-us, -a, -um gram I had been loved amat-us, -a, -um 6ras Thou hadst been loved amat-us, -a, -um 6rat He (she, it} had been loved
amat-us,
-a,
-um essem
esset
Plur.
1.
amat-I, -ae, -a
gramus
loved
amat-i
-ae,
-a
essemus
essetis
We
2.
had been
amat-i, -ae, -a gratis Ye had been loved
3.
amat-i, -ae, -a grant They had been loved
55
J>
essent
Participle Perfect (Sing.

Infinitive Perfect (Sing.
been, or to be, loved.
Nom.) Nom.)
amat-us, -a, -um, loved. amat-us, -a, -um esse, to have
66
ELEMENTARY LATIN
(illAMMAl;
OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS

65. In
of the
some i-stems the i is retained throughout as part stem in others it is only found in certain parts, not
:
To the latter class belong belonging to the original stem. capio, take cupio, desire ; facio, make fodio, dig ; pario, bring forth ; rapio, seize ; sapio, have taste ; quatio, sJwt-ke ; the compounds of these verbs and of the obsolete verbs spScio (-spicio), see ; lacio (-licio), draw.
; ;
66.
PRESENT STEM
Active Voice
INDICATIVE
MOOD
Singular.
1.
Present
aud-i-0, hear
trlb-u-O, assign c&p-i-o, take trib-u-Is cap-Is 3. trib-u-It cap-It

2.
mdn-e-o, warn
aud-ls aud-It
m6n-es
Plural.
1.
trlb-u-Im-us
trlb-u-unt
cap-Im-tis
cap-It-Is
aud-Im-us
aud-lt-Is
m6n-em-us
m6n-et-Is
2. trlb-u-it-Is 3.
cap-i-unt
aud-i-unt
mdn-ent
Singular.
1.
Future
cap-i-am
cap-i-es
trlb-u-am
trlb-u-es
aud-i-am
aud-i-es
m6n-eb-o
mdn-eb-Is m6n-eb-It
2.
3.
trlb-u-6t
cap-i-6t
aud-i-6t
Plural.
1.
trlb-u-em-us
trlb-u-et-Is
cap-i-em-us
cap-i-et-Is
aud-i-em-us
aud-i-et-Is
2.
m6n-eb-Im-iis m6n-eb-It-Is
3.
trlb-u-ent
cap-i-ent
aud-i-ent
m6n-eb-unt

Singular.
1.
67
Imperfect
trlb-u-eb-am
trib-u-eb-as
cap-i-eb-am
eap-i-eb-as cap i-eb-at
aud-i-eb-am
aud-i-eb-as
mdn-eb-am
mdn-eb-as m6n-eb-at
2. 3.
trib-u-eb-at
aud-i-eb-at
Plural.
1.
2. 3.
trib-u-eb-am-us cap-i-eb-am-us aud-i-eb-am-us m6n-eb-am-us trlb-u-eb-at-Is cap-i-eb-at-is aud-i-eb-at-Is mdn-eb-at-Is trib-u-eb-ant aud-i-eb-ant m6n-eb-ant cap-i-eb-ant
IMPERATIVE MOOD
68
ELEMENTARY LATIN (JKAMMAR
69
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Singular.
2.
Present
cap-6r-S
aud-lr-6
trib-u-er-6
mdn-er-6
Plural.
2.
trib-u-imin-i
cap-imm-1
aud-lmln-i
m6n-emin-I
Singular.
Future
cap-It-6r
Urib-u-It-dr
2'
aud-lt-6r
mdn-et-6r
Plural.
3.
trib-u-unt-6r
cap-i-unt-6r
aud-i-unt-6r
m6n-ent-6r
Verbal Noun-Forms
Infin. Pres.
trlb-u-l
cap-I
aud-Ir-I
mon-er-1
Gerundive (Sing.
trib-u-end-us
Nom.)
cap-i-end-us
aud-i-end-us
m6n-end-tis
68.
PRESENT STEM
Active Voice
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Singular.
1.
trlb-u-am
trlb-u-as
2.
3.
trib-u-at
70

Imperfect
Singular.
1.
trlb-u-6r-em
trlb-u-gr-es trib-u-6r-et
cap-gr-em
cap-gr-es
aud-lr-em
aud-Ir-es
aud-lr-et
mdn-er-em
mon-er-es mdn-er-gt
2. 3.
Plural.
l.
trlb-u-gr-emtrib-u-6r-et-is
cap-6r-em-fis
cap-6r-et-Is
aud-ir-em-us
aud-ir-et-is
m6n-er-em-us
m6n-er-et-Is
2.
3.
trib-u-6r-ent
cap-6r-ent
aud-lr-ent
m6n-er-ent
Passive Voice
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Singular.
Pres&rd
cap-i-ar
cap-i-ar-is
cap-i-at-fir
L
2.
3.
trib-u-ar
trib-u-ar-is
trib-u-at-fir
aud-i-ar
aud-i-ar-is
aud-i-at-fir
m6n-e-ar
m6n-e-ar-Is m6n-e-at-fir
Plural.
1.
trlb-u-am-fir
cap-i-am-ur
cap-i-amln-l
cap-i-ant-ur
aud-i-am-tir
2.
trlb-u-amm-i
trlb-u-ant-ur
3.
aud-i-amln-l aud-i-ant-ur
m6n-e-am-ur m6n-e-amln-i
mdn-e-ant-tir
Singular.
1.
Imperfect
cap-6r-6r
cap-6r-er-Is
trib-u-6r-6r
aud-Ir-6r
aud-ir-er-is
m6n-er-6r
mdn-er-er-Is m6n-er-et-ur
2. trib-u-6r-er-Is
3.
trib-u-6r-et-ur cap-6r-et-ur
aud-ir-et-ur
Plural.
1.
trlb-u-6r-emfir
cap-6r-em-tir
aud-ir-em-tir
mdn-er-em-ur
mdn-er-emln-l
m6n-er-ent-ur
2.
tr!b-u-6remln-l
cap-6r-emln-i
cap-6r-ent-tir
aud-lr-emln-i
aud-Ir-ent-ur
3. trlb-u-gr-entfir

PERFECT STEM
Active Voice
INDICATIVE
Singular.
1.
71
MOOD
Perfect
cep-i
cep-is-tl
trlbu-I
trlbu-is-ti
audiv-1
audlv-is-tl
mdnu-1
mdnu-is-ti
2.
3.
tribu-It
cep-it
audlv-it
m6nu-it
Plural.
1.
trlbu-frn-us
trlbu-is-tls
cep-im-iis
cep-is-tis
audiv-im-us
audlv-is-tls
m6nu-Im-us
m6nu-is-tis
2.
3.
trlbu-er-unt
cep-er-unt
audiv-er-unt
m6nu-er-unt
Singular.
1. 2. 3.
Completed Future
cep-6r-o
cep-6r-is
cep-6r-it
trlbu-Sr-o
trlbu-er-is
trlbu-er-It
audlv-6r-o audlv-6r-is audlv-6r-It
m6nu-6r-o m6nu-6r-is m6nu-6r-It
Plural.
1.
trlbu-e'r-frn-us
cep-6r-Im11S
audiv-Sr-Im-
m6r.u-6r-Im-us
m6nu-6r-it-Is
US
audlv-6r-It-Is
2. 3.
trlbu-gr-it-Is
cep-er-it-Is
tribu-er-int
cep-er-int
audlv-6r-int
monu-6r-int
Singular.
1.
2.
Pluperfect
trlbu-gr-am
trlbu-6r-as tribu-er-at
cep-6r-am
cep-6r-as cep-6r-at
audiv-6r-am
audlv-6r-as audlv-6r-at
m6nu-6r-am
m6nu-6r-as m6nu-6r-at
3.
Plural.
1.
tribu-6r-am-us
tribu-6r-at-Is
cep-^r-am-
audiv-6r-am-
m6nu-gr-am-us
m6nu-6r-at-is
us
2.
3.
us
audlv-6r-ant
cep-6r-at-Is audlv-6r-at-Is
trlbu-er-ant
cep-er-ant
monu-er-ant
72

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Singular.
1.
Perfect
tribu-gr-im
trlbu-e"r-is
cep-6r-im
cep-er-is
cep-er-it
audlv-6r-im
audlv-6r-is
m6nu-6r-im
m6nu-6r-is m6nu-6r-it
2.
3.
tribu-6r-it
audiv-6r-it
Plural.
1.
trlbu-er-im-us
tribu-er-it-Is
cep-6r-lm-
audiv-er-Im-
m6nu-6r-Im-tis
us
2.
us
audiv-6r-it-is m6nu-6r-lt-Js
cep-6r-It-Is
3.
tribu-6r-int
cep-er-int
audlv-6r-int
m6nu-6r-int
Singular.
\.
Pluperfect
tribu-is-sem
tribu-is-ses
cep-is-sem
cep-is-ses
audiv-is-sem
audiv-is-ses
m6nu-is-sem
m6nu-is-ses m6nu-is-s6t
2.
3.
trlbu-is-s6t
cep-is-set
audlv-is-s6t
Plural.
1.
tribu-is-sem-us cep-is-sem- audiv-is-sem-
us
2.
us
audlv-is-sent
mdnu-is-semus
m6nu-is-sent
tribu-is-set-is
cep-is-set-Is audlv-is-set-Is m6nu-is-set-Is
3.
trlbu-is-sent
cep-is-sent
70.
SUPINE STEM
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE
MOOD
Singular.
1.
trlbut-us
capt-us
audit-us
m6nlt-us
sum
es
est
2-
3-
Plural.
1.
tribut-i
capt-i
audit
m6nlt
sumus
estis
23.
sunt

Singular.
1.
73
tribut-us
2. 3.
74
Plural.
1.
tribut-1
capt-I
audlt-i
m6nrt-I
essemfls
essetls
2. 3.
essent
DEPONENT VERBS
71. Deponent verbs have the inflexions of the passive voice with the active meanings, and have also a present and future participle active and the gerunds and supines. The following examples are given (for brevity's sake)
only in the first person singular, or other leading form sequ-, follow ; preca-, pray ; vere-, fear.
INDICATIVE
Present,
MOOD
sgquor, I follow
or
prgcor
am following
/ shall
Future,
sgquar,
follow
prgcabor
vgrebor
Imperfect.
sgquebar, I was
following or followed
prgcabar
vSrebar
I
prgcatus
Perfect.
sgcutus sum, I
followed or have
sum
v6ritus
sum
followed
Comp. Fut.
s6cutus 6ro, I
shall
prScatus 6ro
vgrltus 6ro
have
followed
Pluperfect,
s6cutus gram, / had followed
pre"catus
gram vgritus gram
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present.
sequar
secutus sim s6cutus essem
Imperfect.
Perfect.
v6rear pr6cer vgrerer pr6carer prdcatus sim vgritus sim pr6catus essem veritus essem
INFLEXIONS OF IRREGULAR VERBS

IMPERATIVE
Present.
75
MOOD
v6rer6
vgretor
sSquSrg,
(thou)
follow
prScard
prdcator
Future.
sScutor,
tlwu
shall follow
Verbal
Nouns
prgcari
vSreri veritus esse
INFINITIVE.
Present.
Perfect.
sequi,
to
to follow
s6cutus
have
lowed
esse,
fol-
precatus esse
PARTICIPLES.
Present.
sequens, following
prScans
pr^caturus
prgcatus
v6rens
vgriturus
v6rltus
Future.
Past.
s6cuturus, going
to
follow
sdcutus,
followed
having
GERUND.
sdquendum,
lowing
fol-
pr^candum
pr6candus
vgrendum
verendus
GERUNDIVE, sequendus,
followed
to
follow or to be
INFLEXIONS OF IRREGULAE VERBS

72.
The
es- whence
tenses of the verb of being are partly from a root s-um (for esum), and partly from the root fu-.
able or
Pos-sum, / am
and usually
it
can, is
compound
of
pote sum,
is
retains the t before a vowel but assimilates

-s.
to
following
The
perfect
potui
not
compound.
76
Present.

INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing.
1.
2. 3.
sum, / am e"s, Thou art

est,
pos-sum, I can pot6s, Thou canst

pdtest,
are
sim
sis
possim
possis
He
is
He
can
sit
posslt
Plur.
1.
sumus,
es-tls,
We
2. 3.
Ye are
sunt, They are
can simus sltls pdtestis, Ye can possunt, They can sint
possumus,
We
posslmus
possitis
possint
Future.
Sing.
1.
6ro,
shall be
pdt&ro,
shall be able
be able
2.
3.
6rXa,2%<mw#*&4p6t8rtS, Thou wilt

grit,
He
will be pdtgrlt,
He
will be able
Plur.
1.
grlmus,
shall be
We
p6t6rlmus,
We
shall be able
2. gritls,
3.
Ye will
be p6t6rltls,
Ye will
be
ubh
be able
grunt, They will pdt^runt, They will

be
Imperfect.
Sing.
1.
eram, I was
e"ras,
pdtSram, I
or might
could,
essem
possem
2.
Thou wad pdteras

Comp. Future.
Sing.
1.
77
fuero, / shall have been
pdtu6ro, I shall have been able
78
ELEMENTARY LATIN CKAMMAII

Like
sum
are inflected
absum adsum desum
its compounds, viz.--or afui), am dinty. abfui (pcrf. or assum (perf. adfui or affui), am
present.
(de-est, de-eram,
etc.,
pronounced dest,
;
deram, etc.), am wanting. insum, am in intersum, am among obsum, <un in the way of. praesum, am over (3d pens. sing, praeest, sonic
;
times written praest).
prosum, am for,
benefit
(prod- before a vowel
f.<j.
prod-es, prod-ero).
subsum, am
Of these
participle
under,
supersum, am
absum
and praesum alone have a present
absens, praesens.
INDICATIVE
73.
MOOD
Malo
Nolo
(Ma-volo
for mag-volo),
prefer,
Do,
Present Tense, give.
Sing. 1.
2.
3.
Volo,
be willing,
(Ne-volo),
be unwilling.
do das dat
vdlo
vis
nolo
vult
Plur.
1.
damus
datis
vdlumus
vultis
2.
3.
non vis non vult nolumus non vultis

nolunt
(not used)
malo mavis mavult
malumus
mavultis
Future Sing.
Imperf. Sing.
Perf. Sing.
1. 2.
]..
dant dabo
dabis
volunt
malunt
(not used)
vdlam
vdles
noles
males
dabam
d6di
vdlebam
vdlui
nolebam
nolui
malebam
malui
1.
SUBJUNCTIVK
Present Sing. Imperf. Sing.
1.
dem
demus darem
Plur. 1.
i.
v6lim v6limus vellem
nolim nolimus nollem
malim malimus mallem

IMPERATIVE
Present. Sing.
2.
79
da
date dato datote danto
INFINITIVE
noli
Plur.
2.
nolite nollto nolitote
Future. Sing. Plur.
2.
2. 3.
nolunto
dare velle Future, daturus esse

Present,
nolle
malle
PARTICIPLE
Present,
Future,
Perfect,
dans vdlens daturus datus
nolens
(not us
GERUND, dandum volendum GERUNDIVE, dandus

74.
Fio
Eo
(stem
i-),
(used as pas-
80

SUBJUNCTIVE
Present.
6am
eamus
Imperfect.
flam
fiamus
edam
or
fgram
f6rar
6dim 6damus or fgramus edimus

6d6rem essem
or
f6ramur
irem
flerem
ferrem
ferrer
IMPERATIVE
1
fi
6de or es
f6r
ferre
ite
fite
Ito
itote
gunto
6dlteoresteferte 6ditoorestoferto 6dltote or fertote estote 6dunto fdrunto

INFINITIVE
fdrlmlni fertor
f6runtor
ire
fieri
Iturus
factum
iri
6d6reoresse ferre esurus esse laturus

PARTICIPLE
ferri
latum
iri
lens
Gen.
edens
ferens
6untis
esurus
factus
Gerund.
laturus
latus
6undum faciendum
Gerundive.
6dendum
6dendus
ferendum
ferendus
-eundus faclendus
(in conip.)
êriuid.
Queo, nSqueo, resemble eo but have no imperative, participle, or Only the present indie, and subj. are at all frequent. Quis and quit (pres. act.) arc only used after non, as non quis,
(for
non quit
nequis,
etc.)
VERBAL STEMS
81
VERBAL STEMS
75.
Most verbs exhibit
in the present stem the regular
stem of the verb without alteration, as

reg-,
regere
etc.
caed-, caedere
ama-, amare
audi-,
audire,
In some verbs, however, there
is
one of the following
changes
(a)
Reduplication of the stem, as gen- makes gignere for gi-gen-ere.
(b)
Lengthening
fid-, fidere.
of the
stem vowel, as due-, ducere
(c)
Suffixing n, as tern-,
tem-n-gre
si-,
si-n-ere.
(d)
Inserting m or n before the
final
stem consonant, as
;
rup-,
(e)
rumpere
tag-,
tangere
fid-, findere.
;
Suffixing so or isc, as no-, no-sc-ere spleiide-sc-ere pac-, pac-isc-i.

;
splende-,
76.
The
perfect stem is in a
it is
verbal stem, but usually

(a)
(b)
(c)
few cases the same as the formed by
Reduplication, as posco,
poposci
Lengthening the stem vowel, as leg-o, legi

Suffixing
s,
as carpo, carpsi
(d) Suffixing either
or v, as trem-o,
tremui
ama-,
amavi.
77.
itself
The
supine stem
is
formed by suffixing t (the supine

is
If
ending in -turn is here usually given). the verb-stem ends in a long vowel, this
generally
retained, as
ama-, amare,
amat-um
ere-,
crescere,
cretum
acu-, acuere,
acutum. G
82
If
ELEMENTARY LATIN GlfAMMAK

the verb-stem ends in
1
;i
short \o\vrl, this vowel
is
usually changed to
or omitted, as
crepa
crepare
crepitum
mone
fugi
If
monere
fugere
monltum
fugltum
is
the verb-stem ends in a consonant, this consonant

retained, as carp-ere, carp-turn or assimilated, as reg-ere, rec-tum
either
If
the stem end in
or t or
two consonants, the
first
being a liquid, the supine ends in -sura, as

flect-ere
flexum
(for fleet-turn)
plaud-ere plausum (for plaud-tum) sparsum (for sparg-tum) sparg-ere defend-ere defensum (for defend-tum)
The same change
of -turn to
-sum
a verb-stem ends in a short vowel preceded by two consonants, as above.

fodi-o, fodere,
takes place also if d or t or
fossum
prande-, prandere, pransum mulge-, mulgere, mulsum

senti-, sentire,
sensum
and
i
78. (a) Verbs with stems in a, e,
usually have
perfect in -avi, -evi, -ivi supine in -atum, -etum,

in
-itum
-ui, (I) Verbs with stems supine in -itum. In these verbs the a or e combines with the inifi;il vowel of the suffix in tenses formed from the present stem,
or e have perfect in
so as to
show a or
e,
as
s6namus
sonare
sonui
sonitum
monemus monere monui monitum
VERBAL STEMS
83
The root-vowel is almost always short. But there are many exceptions, particularly
in
Verbs with stems in -u have perfect in -ui, supine (sometimes -uitum). Those in -ve have root-syllable lengthened and perfect in i simple, as vovere, vovi, votum. verbs whose root-syllable is short (d) Some consonant have perfect in -ui, supine in -itum, as fremo, fremui,
(c)
-utum
fremitum.
(e)
when
have perfect
Many verbs whose root-syllable is long, especially this is because it ends in more than one consonant, in -si, and supine in -turn or -sum, as
carpere
carpsi
augere sugere
sentire
79.
auxi suxi
sensi
carptum auctum suctum sensum
The following
are exceptions to (d)
jubeo
allicio
jussi
allexi
dlligo
dllexi
tego
texi
quatio
84
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAll

Exceptions to
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS

Pres.
Present.
Perfect.
85
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
aio, say
The following forms only

aiunt.
aias, aiat.
are preserved
etc.,
Pres. aio, als, aTt,
Imperf. aiebam,
The
alsi
Pres. subj. complete. participle aiens is used only as adjective.
algeo,
be cold
algere
alg-eal-
alo, nourish, raise
alui
altum
ale"re
amlcio, clothe ango, throttle, vex

apiscor, fasten
oneself, get
to
(alltum, post-Augustan) amlc-iamictum amlcire
angSre
aptus sum aptum
apisci
angap-i-
More usual
arceo,
off
inclose,
is
compound adlpiscor, adeptus sum,

(artus, adj. arcere
adlpisci.
arc-e-
keep arcui
narrow)
exerceo, exercise, exercui, exercltum, exercere. coerceo.
So
also
arcesso,/*/, sen,
J
arcessivi arcessitum arcess6re

|
arce^-
Another form (perhaps of

be on fire audeo, dare
different origin) is accerso.
ardeo,
e
_
arsi
(arsurus)
ausus
sum ausum
auctum
ardere audere
inf.
ardeaud-e-
?|T
imperat. hail, also aveto, plur. avete,
avere
aug-ebib-
augeo, increase endow (trans.),

bibo, drink
auxi
bibi
fut. part,
augere
bib6re
For supine and

cado, fall
potum, poturus
are used.
cecidi
casum
cadere
cad-
occldo, fall, occidi, occasum, occlddre.
The other com-
pounds have no supine.

caedo,/M,
cut, slay
cecidi
caesum
occido, slay, occldi, occisum, occidere.
caedcaeddre So other compounds.
86

Pres.
]'
resent.
Perfect.
;
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
-cando,
e.g.
light
only in compounds
can-
cano,
sing,
accendo, accendi, accensum, accend&re. cangre (cantus, play cScini

subst.)
(on harp, etc.)
conclno, sing together, concmui, concentum, conclne're. other compounds.
So
capesso, undertake capesslvi capessltum capessgre {

(
pe
capessi-
capio, take
cepi
captum
concipio, concepi, conceptum, conclp6re.
capere cap-ISo most other

car-e-
compounds.
careo, be in want
carui
(carlturus)
carere
carpo, nibble, pluck carpsi
carptum
carp&re
carp-
decerpo, pluck
caveo, beware, ware of
cedo,
give
yield
be-
off,
decerpsi, decerptum, decerpgre.
So other
compounds.
cavi
cessi
cautum
cessum
cavere
cedgre
cav-e-
way,
ced-
up
c6d6, give, said to be old imper. 2nd pers. sing. cette (for c6dlte) only in early dramatic poets.
-cello, strike
(?)
The
plural
only in compounds
celsus, adj. high cell-
percello, strike down, perculi, perculsus, percellere.
censeo, count, give censui

opinion
censum
censere
cens-e-
adj. sure
-,.
cre-
The meaning
decerno,
see is
decide,
confined to pros., fut, and impcrf. tenses, So decrevi, decretum, decernere.
other compounds.
civi
cltum
simple verb
;
The
stem
is
rare in the
the e stem raiv
in
the compounds.

Pres.
Present.
Perfect.
87
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
cingo, gird
cinxi
clausi
claudo, shut
cinctum clausum
cinggre claudere
cing-
claud-
concludo, shut up, conclusi, conclusum, concludere. the other compounds.

coepio, begin
Pres.
incl.
So
coepi
coeptum
coepSre
coepl-
Plautus only. Otherwise only perfect stem in use, except that coeptus and coepturus are also
subj. in
and
used.
colo, till, pay at- cdlui tention to
cultum
cdldre
c61-
consulo, consult
ctiQLUO, C ooJc
consului coxi
crgpui crevi
consultum consulere consulcoctum cdqudre cdqvcrgpltum

crdpare cresc6re cubare cud6re
cr6p-acre-
credo.
cr6po,
See do
rattle
cresco, grow
cubo, lie, lie ill cudo, hammer
cubui cudi
cretum cubltum
cub-a-
cusum
cud-
-cumbo,
lie,
only in compounds
accumbo, lie up (at table), accubui, accubltum, accumbgre. So the other compounds.
cupio, desire curro, run
cupivi cucurri
cupitum cursum
cup6re
currdre
cup-I-
curr-
The compounds sometimes retain the reduplication, e.g. accucurri, decucurri more usually drop it, e.g. accurri.
;
deleo, Uot out

dlco, say disco, learn
delevi dixi
didlci
deletum dictum
delere dic6re discere

edldici.
deledlcdie-
Compounds
divido, divide
retain reduplication,
e.g.
divisi
dlvlsum
do, (/we (see p. 78)
d6di
datum
divld^re dare
dl-vid-
da;
The half-compounds circumdo, surround venumdo, expose to satisdo, satisfy

;
pessumdo, ruin ; sale, follow do pre-
cisely.
88

believe vendo, sell and the compounds with monosyllabic prepositions have consonant -stems, e.g. credo, credidi, creditum, credere abdo, hide away, abdidi, abditum, abdere. The reduplication is usually retained in the compounds. For the passives of vendo and perdo, ruin, veneo and pe"reo
credo, entrust,
are used.
Present.
But perditus and perdendus

Pres.
Perfect.
are in use.
Stem.
Supine.
Infinitire.
ddceo, teach d61eo, be in pain ddmo, tame
ddcui ddlui
doctum
ddcere
d6c-6d61-6-
(d6llturus) ddlere
ddmui
duxi
edi
duco, draw,
account
lead,
d6mrtum ddmare ductum ducSre

esum
6d6re
ddm-aduc6d-
6do, eat
c6m6do has comesum and c6mestum.

&mo,buy(oTig.take)
emi
emptum
6m6re
6m-
So other adimo, take away, ademi, ademptum, adlm6re. compounds except (1) coSmo (coemi, coemptum), which retains e.
(2)
The
earlier compounds como, demo, promo, which make compsi, comptum, etc.
sumo,
eo, go (see p. 79)
Ivi Itum Compounds always omit V in 1st
ire
e.g.
usually in other persons
pers. perf., of perfect tenses.

is
adii
and
of
veneo,
eo.
be
for
sab', perf.
venii, no supine,
compound
See do above.
facio, fnake, do
feci
factum
fac6re
facl-
For the passive in tenses formed from present stem, fio is used. So prof icio, make progress, profeci, profectum, proflcdre.
the other compounds with prepositions. But calgfacio, make warm, trgmefacio, make
retain a.
to tr<>n>l>I<; etc.,
prdflciscor,
flcisci.
set
out (on a journey), travel,
prdfectum, pr6-

Pres.
89
Present.
Perfect.
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
fallo, deceive, elude fSfelli
falsum
failure
fall-
refello, refute, rSfelli, r6fell6re.
farcio, stuff
farsi
fartum fassum
farcire
farc-I-
rSfercio, refers!, rSfertum, refercire.
fatgor, acknowledge
fateri
fat-6-
conflteor,
profess.
confess,
confessum,
conflteri.
So profiteer,
fatisco
yawn
to be
(fessus,adj.
fatisce're
fatiscor (old) / droop
weary]
out,
\ fatisci
def Stiscor,
worn
defessum, def 6tisci.
fautum favere fav-efveo,le favourable favi fend-fendo, strike, only in compounds ward defende"re. defensum, defendo, off, guard, defend!, So also offendo, strike against.
ferio, strike
fdrlre
f6r-l-
(percussi,
percussum
(ttili)
are often used as perfect
and
supine.)
fe"ro,&mr(seep.79)
(latum)
ferre
fer-
Perfect and supine are borrowed from tollo.

affe"ro,
bring
to
attuli
allatum
afferre
auf6ro, take away

diffgro, put off
off6ro, briny to r6f6ro, bring back
abstuli distuli obtuli rettuli
ablatum dllatum oblatum relatum
auferre
differre
oflferre
referre
refert,
of importance (probably for rei fert), is used as suffgro, endure, has for perf. rarely sustuli, impersonal,
it is
usually sustinui. ferveo,

boil,
glow
(e.g.
fervere
ferv-6-
consonantal stem
fervit, fervSre) frequent in poets.
fido, trust
fisus
flsum
is
fid^re
trusted.
fld-
sum
used for
perf.,
/ have
90

Pres.
Present.
Perfect.
Sv}^
lujlnitirf.
Stem.
figo, fix
fixi
fixum
figure
fig-
Also fictus as past participle.

findo, cleave
fidi
fingo, form, invent finxi
fissum fictum
find6re
finggre
f Jen
fid-
f igfi-
f io, become (see p. 7 9)
The compound
flecto, bend
fleo,
infit, he begins,
only in this one form
(poetical).
flexi flevi
flexum
fletum
Hectare
flere
flectfle-
weep
-fligo, strike,
only in compounds
down,
afflixi,
affligo, strike against, knock
afflictum,
to rout, profli-
So the other compounds, except profllgo, put

gavi, profligatum, profligate.
fluo, flow
fluxi
;
flu6re
flugv-
(fluxus, adj. loose

ffidio, dig
fluctus, sub. a wave.}
fodi
fatur, he speaks
fossum fatum
:
f6d6re
fari
ind.
f6d-i-
fa-
The following only found

; ;
fatur fut. fabor, pres. fabitur perf. fatus est pluperf. fatus eram, erat inf. fari iinper. fare part, fantem, etc. (no nomina;
;
except in phrase fans atque infans, Plant.), fatus, fando, fandus, and fatn. In compounds we have also -famur, -famini -fabar, -farer,
tive,
;
etc.,
and
in imperat. (act.
and
dep.),
praefato, praefamino.
fdveo, keep warm, fovi

cherish
fotum
fractum
fdvere
fdv-6-
frango,
pieces
In-edk
in
fregi
frangdre
frag-
Compounds
as confringo, smash, confregi,
confractum, con-
fringfire.

Pres.
Present.
Perfect.
91
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
fr6mo,
roar, snort
frSmui
fremitum frSmere
frendere
j
fr6mfrendfric-afrlg-e-
fiendo, gnash (with the teeth)

frico, nib
fricui
frixi
Mcare
frigere
frlgeo, be cold
fruor, enjoy myself
fructum
frui
frugv-
Fut. part, fruiturus.

fbglo,
flee,
fly from fugi
fulcio, prop
fulsi fulsi
e.g.
(fugiturus) fuggre fultum fulcire
fug-Ifulc-i-
fulgeo, flash
fulgere
fulgit, fulgere,
is
fulg-e-
A
(an
consonantal stem,
found in poets.
fud-
fundo, pour, rout
fudi
fusum
functum
etc.)
fund^re
fungi
fur6re
enemy)
get quit, dis-
fungor,
fungfur-
charge myself (of a duty, furis, thou ragest
Only
gaudeo,
furis, furit, furunt, furebas, furebat, furore,
furens
are found.
be
glad
rejoiced.
gavlsum
gaudere
gavid-e-
gavisus sum, J
ge"mo, sigh, groan
ggmui
g6nui
g6ro, carry, perform gessi
ggmitum gestum
g6nitum
gressum
g6m6re
g6r6re gigndre
g6mg6sge"n-
gigno, duce
beget,
pro-
gradior, step
gradi
grad-i-
Compounds
-gruo, only in
as aggrgdior, attack,
aggressum, aggredi.
gru-
compounds
agree,
congruo,
congrui,
congru^re.
So
also
ingruo,
impend.
habeo, have
habui
habltum
habere
hab-6-
92

So the compounds cohibeo, hold in, cohibui, cohibitum, cohibere, debeo (for de-hibeo), owe, debui, debitum, debere praebeo (for praehibeo), affwd, praebui,
;
praebitum, praebere.
Pres.
Present.
Perfect.
<.
Infinit
haereo, stick, intr. haesi haurio,f//va/.(/mwhausi

(water)
haesum haustum
haerere haurlre
haer-ehaus-1-
Put. part,
later writers.
hausturus (Cic.) and hausurus The subst. is haustus.

to
(Verg.)
both in
hisco, gape, open the mouth,
spunk
hiscgre
hi-
jaceo,
lie
jacui
jeci
(jaciturus) jacere
jac-6jac-I-
jacio, cast
jactum
jac6re
ablcio (sometimes spelt abjicio), throw away, abjeci, abjectum, abicere. So the other compounds. Dissicio is
for dis-jicio.
porricio,
perf.)
offer (sacrifices), etc.,

'
porrectum, porrlc6re (without

ic-
Ico, strike
lei
is
Present
rare (fgrio
is
ictum Ic6re generally used instead).

incessSre
incesso, attack
incessi
incess-
indulgeo,
intr.
yield,
indulsi
indulgere indulg-eor
inauam, say
inquii
{
occur.
Pres.
irid.
JJJ*
inquiet.
The following forms only

inquiebat.
inquam, inguls,
inquit.
inquit, inquimus, inquiunt.

Perf.
Fut. inquies,
inquii,
inquisti,
2nd
irascor, grow angry
sing,
inque, inquito, plur. inquite.
Iratum
<nn,
Irasci
irauj>,
i.e.)
Iratus sum, 1
angry.
angry
succensui, / (fired
grew
jussi jubeo, i>ul junxi jungo, yoJff., join juvo, //'//>, itriiiiht juvi Ful. part, juvaturus.
jussum junctum
jutum Adjuvo lias
jubere junggre juvare adjuturus.
jub-e-
jungjuv-a-
LIST OF
IRREGULAR VERBS
Pres.
93
Present.
Perfect.
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
labor,
slip, glide
lapsum
lacesslvi
labi
lab<
lacesso, provoke
lacessitum lacessSre
-lacio, draw, only in
compounds
allexi, allectum, allicere.
laci-
alllcio,
draw
to, entice,
So
illicio,
pelllcio.
ellcio,
draw
out, elicui,
ellcltum, ellcSre.
laedo,
strike (rare), laesi
laesum
laedere
laed-
hurt.
collldo, dash together, colllsi, collisum, collidSre.

etc.
So allldo,
lambo,
lick
Iambi
lavi
(once)
(
lavo, wash
<
(
lambSre lavatum lautum lavare lotum

is
lamblav-a-
consonantal stem
poets.
(e.g.
For compounds
lavit, Iav6re, etc.) see luo.
frequent in
I6go, pick up, choose, legi read

colllgo,
collect,
:
lectum
I6g6re
I6g-
collegi, collectum, colllggre.
So compounds
generally Except that (1) alle"gO, choose besides ; perlggo, read through ; praelggo, read to others ; relSgO, read again ; sublggo,
(2)
intelligo,
pick up, substitute, retain e understand neglSgO,

;
neglect,
retain
e and
have
perf.
neglegi.)
neglexi. (Rarely dlllgo, esteem, has dilexi.

-xi,
e.g.
in
intellegi,
Only used in 3rd pers. sing. Also participle libens. stem vowel was in early times u e.g. lubet.
;
The
94
ELKMKNTAIIY LATIN CKAMMAU

Pret.
1
1'ii'j'ict.
Slij'iin
Jiljiin'
liceo, be on sale llceor, bid for

llcet,
it
is
per-
Hcui Hcltus Hcuit

3rd
licltum
licere
liceri
llc-6lic-fi-
sum
mitted
licltum est
Barely in plural.
Liceto, licens,
Only used
lino, besmear
pers. llCltus, also found.
in
levi
litum
linere
linio,
II-
In post-Augustan writers, we have Hnire.

linquo, leave
llqui
llnlvi,
Hnitum,
Iinqu6re
rSlictum, rdlinquere,
is
The compound, r61inquo,

more
llqueo,
fluid
be
usual.
dear,
Hcui
llquere
liqui
Hqu-6-
liquor, melt, intr.
Hqu16quluc-e-
Idquor, speak
luceo, be
light,
Idcutum
beam luxi
lusi
Idqui lucere
ludo, sport lugeo, mourn.,

trans.
lusum
(luctus,
subs.)
Iud6re
lugere Iu6re
ludlug-elu-
luxi
lui
luo, pay, expiate
Compounds
and
retain the original meaning, wash (luo lavo), have past part. e.y. dlluo, dilui, dilutum, dlludre.
mando, cJiew mandi(once) mansum mansum maneo, remain, mansi

await
mand^re manere
sujiine).
mandman-6-
emlneo,
project,
emlnui, emlnere (no
permaneo
mgdeor,
retains a.
be a remedy -m6niscor, only in compounds
mSderi
m6d-6-
m&n-
Only perfect stem (with present meaning) in use. M&mlni, I remember. Imperative memento, mementote. So also commlniscor, devise, commentum, comminisci.
rdmlniscor,
call to
mind.
95
Present.
1'i-rjh-l.
Sv.pinc.
mgreo, earn mergo, sink,
trans,
m6rui mersi
metier, measure
m6to, mow
(messem
feci)
mStuo, fear
m6tui
mico, quiver, flash micui
emico, emicui, fut. part, emlcaturus. dlmico, dimicavi (dimicui twice in Ovid), dimicatum.
inixtum mistuni j mlsgritum

)
misertum rare
96
ELEMENTARY LATIN
I'n
I'crfni.
Sttpl
CKA.M.MAli
Pres.
l/(tinitiri:
Stem.
necto, link together
nexi
nexum
nect6re
is
nect-
nexui
neo, spin
is
probably from nexo, nex6re, which
an early form.
ne-
ngqueo.
nevi See queo and

;
netum(Ulp.) nere 74
niti
:
nitor, lean, strive
gnict
:
Originally gnictor, kneel

BO also
ing,
g6nu,
knee.
compounds.
striving.
Nixus
Fut. part, nisurus generally in sense of lean-
nisus,
Conitor,
adnitor,. enitor,
have
both forms frequently

enixa).
-niveo, only in
(in sense of bearing children
always
compound
the eyes,
nigv-
comvi, conixi (both rare), conivere. n6c-6ndceo, be hurtful ndcui (ndclturus) nocere noscdre gnonosco, get to know novi,Iknow notum
coniveo, shut
notus only
agnosco,
as adj.
known
fut. part, is
not used.
recognise,
;
cognosce,
learn,
cognitum
(as
ignosco, forgive,
have supines agnltum, ignotum.
nubo, put on a veil nupsi

a bride), be married
nuptum nub6re
Part, nupta, married
:
nub-
-nuo, nod, only in
compounds annuo, annul, annugre.

(orig. cover
but nutus is used as subst. nuabnuo has fut. part, abnulturus.
obllviscor
with
oblitum
obllvisci
ob-llv-i-
black), forget
occulo, conceal
occului
odi, perf.,
occultum occuldre / hate (osurus)
ob-cul-
6d-
exosus, perosus are used with an active meaning as participles, and with sum, etc., as perfect.
-6leo, grow, intrans.,
is
only used in compounds, and
is
a different
word from
61eo, smell.
abSleo, destroy, abdlevi, abdlltum, abdlere. abolesco, decay, abdlevi, no supine, abolesc6re. Indlesco.
So
adj.
also
addlesco, grow up, addlevi, adolescgre, adultus,

up.
grown

Pres.
97
Present.
Perfect.
Supine.
.
Infinitive.
Stem.
x-
adoleo
(increase
i),
offer (in sacrifice),
burn
adolevi j ad6lui
/
adultum
a(i61ere
obs6lesco, wear out,

adj.
intr.
obsdlevi, obsolescere, obs61etus,
worn
out.
So
also exolesco.
6leo, smell (intr.) dportet, it behoves
olui
6portu.it
pers. sing.
dlere
61-6-
6portere
6port-6-
Only used in 3rd

opperior.
6rior, rise
See -pgrio
ordior, begin (trans.)
orsum ortum
;
ordlri
6rlri
ord-16r-I-
Fut. part. 6rlturus
from.
Pres. ind. orgris, 6ritur,
orlrer, or6rer. ind. ad6rlris, ad6rltur.
gerundive 6riundus used as adj. sprung 6rimur, imperf. subj. The compound adorior has in pres.
paciscor, bargain
pgplgi
pactum
lias
pacisci
pacor
compaciscor or comp6ciscor tum.

paenltet,
it
compactum
compec-
repents
paenltuit
paenltere paenIt-6is
Rarely personal,
spread out '
paenitendum
also found,
paenitens
as adj. penitent.
pandi
passum
pand6re
dispando has dispansum, dispessum. sum.

pegi
Expando, expan-
pang.re
compingo, compegi, compactum, compinggre. So impingo. Depango, reoppango, oppegi, oppactum, oppangdre. pango, also retain a.
parco, le sparing
pgperci
(parsurus) parcere
pare-
Sometimes parsi in early writers. comperco, compersi, compercgre.
98

Pres.
Present.
Supine.
Infinitive.
X/v,.
pareo, appear,
obedient.
be
parui
p6p6ri
(parlturus) parere
par-6par-I-
pario,
forth
get,
bring
partum
pargre
Fut. part, parlturus. par ens, a parent, is an old participle of this verb.
compe'rio
ascertain,
compSri, compertum, comr6pe"rire.
comp6rior
(rare)
pgrire.
r6pe"rio, find, repperi,
rgpertum,
p&sco, pasture, feed pavi
pastum
feeding.
pasce"re
pas-
pascor is used of the animals depasco follows pasco.
compesco
patior, suffer
(lit.
pasture together?), confine, compescui,
com-
pesce"re (no supine).
passum
pati
pat-I-
perp6tior, perpessus sum, perpeti.
paveo, quake with pavi

fear
pavere
pav-epectpell-
pecto, comb
pello, push, drive back
pexi(once)
pexum
pulsum
pectSre
pellgre
pgpuli
of a
appello
(esp.
ship,
16re.
So the other compounds.
put in\ appuli, appulsum, appelRgpello always has
reppuli or repuli.
pendeo, hang, intr. pgpendi pendo, weigh, pay, pgpendi

value
pensum pensum
pendere pendSre
up.
pend-e-
pend-
Originally hang, trans.
So suspendo, hang
-pSrio, only in compounds, except perltus, skilled
p6r-i-
ap6rio (ab perio ?), uncover, open, ap6rui, apertum, ap6rire. expSrior, try, expertum, exp6riri. 6p6rio (ob perio ?), cover, 6p6rui, 6pertum, 6p6rlre. opperior, wait for, oppertum and opperitum, oppdriri.

Pres.
Present.
Perfect.
99
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
pgto,
seek,
aim
at
^^
p6tltum
p6t6re
|
j^
are
Only used in 3rd

also found.
pers. sing.
The gerund and gerundive

pictum
Pfe-
pingo, paint
pinxi
J
ping&r
(
) pinsui p l 7 / } jpinsi planxi plango, beat (esp. the breast in grief)
pinso
piso
pinsitum
Ipistum planctum
plausum
pinsgre pisdre plangSre
pinspis-
plang-
plaudo, dap (the

hands,
etc.)
plausi
plauddre
plaud-
explode (hiss off, i.e. drive away by hissing}, explosi, explosum, explodere. So the other compounds.
plecto,
strike,
punish (rare except in passive)
plectgre
-plectSre
plectplect-
-plecto, twine
plexum
Only in part. perf. Compounds are always of deponent form. amplector, twine oneself round, embrace, amplexum, amSo complector, embrace. plecti.
-pleo,
fill,
only in compounds
as
pie-
Compounds
pllco, fold
compleo, complevi, completion, complere.
plicatum
pllcare
pllc-a-
appllco, apply, put ( appllcavi, appllcatum \ aT1Tl1f Sre a in (to shore) \ applicui, applicltum / So the other compounds the prae- Augustan writers used
:
almost always -avi, -atum.

used.
The simple verb

pluSre
is
rarely
pluo, rain
<
^.^
..
pluv-
pono, place
pdsui
pdsitum
poslvi often in Plautus.

often in poetry.
po-sipon6re postum (simple and compound)
100
ELEMENTARY LATIN GUAM MA

Perfect.
It
Prc.-M
Supl
Injlultirc.
posco, demand
pdposci
as
poscgre
posc-
Conipounds retain reduplication,

possideo.
depdposci, expdposci.
See sSdeo
possum,
In
be able
potui
(see
72)
posse
p6tiri
;
potesp6t-i
pdtior, be master
pres.
pdtltum
so
ind.
almost always p&tltur, potlmur
imp. subj.
pot6rer or potirer, and

poto, drink
throughout the tense.
potavi
potum
;
potare
pot-a-
Fut. part, potaturus and poturus drunk.
part. perf. potus, havimj
prandere prand-epransum prandeo, breakfast prandi pransus, having breakfasted. prShendo, lay hold prehendi prehensum prShen- prehendd6re of
Often contracted into prendo,
etc.
pr6mo,
press
press!
pressum
pr6m6re pr6m-
comprlmo, compress, compress!, compressum, comprimdre. So the other compounds.

prof iciscor.
pudet,
it
See facio
shames
j
^^^
pupugi
egt
(puditurum) pudere pud-6-
Only
found.
in 3rd pers. sing., but gerund and gerundive are also Pudens as adj. inuik-*t.
pungo, prick
punctum
pungere
Compounds have for perfect -punxi.
conqulro, conquisivi, other compounds.

pers.
conquisltum, conc[ulr6re.
So the
quaeso, quaesumus, prythee, are old colloquial forms of 1st

Pres.
101
Present.
Perfect.
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
quatio, shake, trans.
quassum
quate"re
quat-i-
concutio, concussi, concussum, concutSre.
So the other
qul-
compounds.
queo, be able (7 4} qulvi quSror, complain quievi quiesco, rest rasi rado, scrape rapio, snatch, hurry rapui
aivay, trans.
qultum questum quietum rasum raptum
quire quSri
quiesce're
qu6rqui-e-
radgre
rapere
radrap-i-
arripio,
seize,
arripui, arreptum, arrlpgre.
So the other
compounds.
refert.
See f6ro
rego, keep straight, rexi

rule
rectum
r6gere
r6g-
Compounds as arrlgo, raise, arrexi, arrectum, arrig6re. So pergo, continue, perrexi, perrectum, perg6re, whence expergiscor (begin to stretch myself out), awake
myself, experrectum. surgo (sub-rego), rise, surrexi, surrectum, surg^re.
reor, think
ratum
repsi
reri
ra-
reor has no present part.

repo, creep
reptum
risum
rideo, smile, laugh risi rosi rodo, gnaw
repere ridere
reprid-e-
rumpo,
break
ruo, tumble, dash
rupi rui
rosum ruptum
-rutum
rod^re
rod-
rumpdre
ruere
rupru-
Generally intrans.
saepio, hedge in salio )
7
Fut. part. (post-Augustan) ruiturus.
saepsi
j
saeptum
salitum
(saltus
subst.)
saepire
_
fl11
saep-iI
x rp
sal-i-
tsalsum
salio, leap
sall-
salui
salire
sal-i-
desilio, leap down, desilui, deslllre.
So the other compounds.

fat.
salve, hail
also
salvete
inf.
salvere and
salvebis
102

Pres.
Perfect.
Present.
Swpine.
Injhntlre.
Stem.
sancio, hallow, ordain
sanxi
sanctum
sanclre
sanc-i-
sancltum
(rarely)
sapio, have a savour saplvi of, be wise
sap6re
sap-I-
desipio, he foolish, no perf. or sup., desipgre.
rSsipisco, recover senses, rSsIpui and rSsiplvi, r6slpisc6re.

sarcio, patch sario, hoe
sarsi
sartum
sarclre
sarlre
sarc-isar-i-
sarui (once) saritum
Also written sarrio.

scalpo, scrape scando, climb
Perf. also sarrlvi.
scalpsi
scandi
ascendi,
scldi
scansum
scalptum scalpgre scandgre
scalp-
scand-
ascendo,
ascensum, ascend6re.
scissum scitum
scind^re
sciscdre
So the other
compounds.
scindo,
scrlbo,
tear, cut
scldsci-
scisco, enact
ivrite
scivi
scrips!
sculpo, carve (in

stone, etc.)
sculpsi
scriptum scrlbere sculptum sculp6re
scrlb-
sculps6c-a-
s6co, cut
s6deo,
sit
secui sedi
sectum sessum
s6care s6dere
s6d-6-
So the possldeo, occupy, possedi, possessum, possldere. other compounds, except supersedeo, refrain, circumsedeo, sit around, which do not change the e.
sentio,
feel,
think
sensi
sensum
sum,
is
sentire
as
sent-I-
assentior, assensus
assentio).
sSpSlio, bury
used
deponent (besides
s6p6l-I-
s6p6llvi
s6quor, follow s6ro, sow, plant s6ro, put in rows
sevi
s6pultum sSpglire s^cutum s6qui s6r6re satum
s6qusas6r-
(serta, garlands) s6r6re
Compounds as consfiro, join, cons&rui, consertum, cons6r6re. serpserptum serpdre serpsi serpo, crawl
sido,
M-ftli-,
iuir.
sldi
sid6re
sid-
103
sedi and sessum from sSdeo are the usual perfect and supine, and so in the compounds.
Pres.
Present.
Perfect.
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
slno, put, leave off
sivi
situm
sin&re
sl-
In subj. perf. sirim,

desino, desii
(2,
slris, slrit, sirint.
desigram, perf. desitum, desmdre. (Cicero and Caesar generally use destiti from desisto for perf.)
desisti, 3, desiit, pluperf.
subj. desiSrim),
sisto,
set,
stay,tT&ns. stiti(rare)
off,
statum
sistSre
sta-
desisto, leave
pounds,
retained.
all
So the comdestiti, destltum, desistere. The reduplication is being intransitive.
sdleo, be
wont
sdlitum
sdlere
s6l-6-
sum, / was accustomed. solvi sdlutum solvgre solvo, loose, pay Perf. often solui in poets, and so in compounds. sdnui sonitum sonare s6no, sound
Perf. sdlitus
solv-
sdn-a-
Fut. part, sdnaturus
(once in Hor.)
In prae-Augustan poets
sometimes son6re, sonit, sonunt.

sorbeo, sup up, suck in
sorbui
(sorbitio,
subst.)
sorbere
sorb-6-
absorbeo,
absorbui,
absorbere.
So
other
compounds.
(Rarely absorpsi, exsorpsi.)
spargo,
scatter, be-
sparsi
sparsum
spargere
sparg-
sprinkle
Compounds
as
conspergo, conspersi,
conspersum,
con-
sperg6re.
sp6cio
(or spicio
1)
look,
only in Plautus
sp6c-i-
asplcio, aspexi, aspectum, aspicere.
So the other com-
pounds.
104
Present.

Pres.
Perfect.
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
spondeo,
oneself
spdpondi
statui
throw
sponsum
spondere
spond-estatu-
statuo,
(with oneself)
statutum statu6re
stratum
stertgre
sterno,
the
on
stravi
stertui
stamp,
ground, cover
(rare),
sterto, snore
stert-
stinguo
stingu&re
stingu-
exstinguo, exstinxi, other compounds.

sto, stand
exstinctum,
exstingue're.
So the
stSti
be superior,
statum
stare
sta-
praesto,
warrant, render, praestlti, praestatum The other compounds (also praestltum), praestare. have fut. part, -staturus (constaturus, Luc. Mart.), but
:
no supine those with disyllabic prepositions retain e in the perf. (e.g. circumstgti). str6pstrgpui strgpitum strgpSre strSpo, make a din stridere strld-estrideo, hiss, screech stridi
consonantal form
(e.g.
stridunt, Strid6re)
is
found in
Augustan
poets.
strinxi
sir VLO, heap up, build struxi suadep, recommend suasi
strictum stringgre
strlg-
string-
structum struere suasum suadere
strugusuad-esue-
suesco, accustom
oneself
suevi
suetum
suctum
taciturn est
suesc6re
sugo, suck taceo, be silent
suxi tacui
sugdre tacere
sugtac-e-
taedet,
it
wearieth
taesum
taed-e-
For
perf. the
tango, touch
compound pertaesum est is more common. tactum tangere tagt6t!gi

S>
ili'
attingo, attlgi, attactum, atting&re.
riher com-
pounds.
LIST OF IRREGUULR VERBS

r
105
Pres.
Perfect.
Present.
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
tectum te"g6re -temptum temnSre -tempsi temno, despise (only in the compound contemno) tendSre tentum tendo, stretch, tend tStendi
cover
texi
tSg-
temtend-
t6neo, hold
Compounds have -tensum occasionally. tentum (rare) tenere tSnui

detineo, detinui, detentum, detlnere.
tSn-e"-
So the other com-
pounds.
tergeo, wipe
tersi
(e.g.
tersum
tergit,
tergere
terg-eis
consonantal stem
terguntur)
also
found
sometimes.
tero, rub
trlvi
tritum
territum
terrere
tertri-
terreo, frighten
terrui
texiii
terr-6-
texo, weave
textum
texere
tex-
tingo tinguo
tollo,
dip, dye
/
tinxi
(sustuli)
tingu-
lift
up, re-
(sublatum) tol!6re
toll-
tiili (in
prae-August. poets tetuli) and latum (for tlatum) but as these are taken are the proper perf. and supine by fgro, tollo takes the perf. and supine of its compound
:
sustollo.
The compounds have no

tondeo, shear
perf. or supine.
tdtondi
106
tutus, adj.

safe.
;
tutatus sum (from tutor) is generally used as perfect tutus or tuitus sum are rare. There is also a present with stem in -u (e.rj. tuimur, contuor, etc.)
Pres.
Present.
Perfect.
Supine,
Infinlt
tundo, thump
tutudi
tundgre
tud-
contundo, contudi, contusum, contundere.

turgeo, swell
tursi (very rare)
So pertundo.
turg-e-
turgere
vado, go invado, invasi, invasum, invadere.

valeo, be strong
vad6re
vad-
So other compounds.
val-6-
v6ho, carry
Pres. part,
valui vexi
(vallturus) valere
vectum
v6here
v6h-
and gerund
also used intransitively, riding.
vello, pull, pluck velli
vulsum
vell6re
is
vell-
VUlsi, both in simple and compounds,
sometimes found.
vSndo, veneo,
vSreor,
sell.
be sold.
See do See eo
vSnio, come
be
veni
at
ventum
v6rltum
v6mre
v6reri
v6n-iv6r-e-
awed
vergo, incline verro, 'brush verto, turn
verri(rare) verti
versum versum
vergdre verr6re vert6re
vergverr-
vert-
So the compounds generally, but divertor, put up (at an inn), divert!

divert!
(inf.)
(pcrf.),
diversum,
(inf.),
rSvertor, return, perf. revert!, reversus, having returned.
reversum, revert!
praevertor, attend
to first, is
entirely deponent.
vescor, feed oneself v6tui v&to, forbid
vesci
vescvet-a-
vfitltum
v6tare
Persius has a perfect v6tavi.

Pres.
107
Present.
Perfect.
Supine.
Infinitive.
Stem.
Video,
see
vldi
visum
videre
vid-e-
vldeor, visum, vlderi, very

vieo, plait (twigs, etc.)
Part, vietus shrivelled.
common
in sense of seem.
vietum
viere
vi-e-
vincio, bind
vinxi
vici
visi
vinco, conquer
viso, visit
vinctum vietum
vietum ultum
vincire
vinc-I-
vincSre
vls6re
vive"re ulcisci
vlcvis-
vivo,
live
vixi
oneself
on,
vigvulc-
ulciscor, avenge
avenge
lingo
grease
unxi
vdlui
velle
;
unguo
So
volvo,
unguvdl-
v6lo, will
its
compounds nolo, malo

volvi
see
73.
roll
vdlutum
volvere
perf. -vdlui.
volv-
involvo and evolvo sometimes have
v6mo, vomit
vdveo, vow
vdmui
vovi
vdmltum vdme're votum vdvere

ustum
urgere ur6re
vdmvdv-eurg-eus-
urgeo, push, press ursi ussi uro, burn
amb-uro, ambussi, ambustum, ambur6re, whence perhaps by a wrong division comburo, and bustum. Other compounds (exuro, etc.) follow the usual form,
utor, avail
oneself,
make use
usum
uti
ut-
81.
deponents
The following verbs (with many others) are used but some of them are also used, especially
;
:
as
in
the past participle, as passive

adsentiri, assent
apisci, get arbitrari, fudge
;
also passive
aucupari, catch at augurari, take omens blandiri, play the coax
108
commlnisci,
comitari, accompany; also passive ludif icari, make sport of devise medicari, npi>ln comperiri, find out usually usually medicare rneditatus meditari, meditate passive
;
contemplari, contcmplnt,
criminari, accuse
also passive
tell
mentiri, also passive cunctari, delay dignari, think worthy, dignatus mereri, deserve,
also passive
lie
mentitus
;
earn
rnerere
dommari, play
execrari, curse
the lord
;
more usually carii rule moderari,

;
moderatus
;
execratus
also
also passive
passive exordiri, commence speaking expertus also experiri, try passive effatus also passive far!, speak
; ;
modular!, modulate
modulatus
also passive obllvisci, forget opinari, be of opinion
pacisci,
bargain
;
pactus
also
fateri, confess fenerari, lend

sive
money
;
frustrari, disappoint
gloriari, boast
also pas-
passive also partire partiri, share also popular!, lay waste

;
popu-
lare
puniri, punish sectari, follow
;
usually punire
gravari, take ill hortari, exhort

imitari, imitate ; imitatus also passive inter interpretari, interpret pretatus, also passive
;
sortiri, cast lots
testif icari, testari, drdarr, cull to witness ; also passive in participle
tutari,
to
defend
make gifts lucrari, make gain

largiri,
venerari,
ulcisci, avenge
luctari, struggle
if
Some past participles are used with an active sense as deponents, though the usual form of the verb is active.
osus, exosus, perosus, adultus, groini up hated cenatus, having dined jurat us, having sworn conjura- placitus, having plr^<J tus, having conspired potus, h-aviitg drunk pransus, han'ti;/ lm<lfuxf<-<l nupta, mar n't'il occasus, of the sun quietus, at /v.s/ sunk suetus, accustomed
;
tacitus,
s!l<'
nt
SYNTAX
109
SYNTAX
82.
When we
Names
speak
we
either
name
a person or thing,
or
we
1.
declare something of a person or thing.

of persons or things are in
Grammar
called
Nouns.
There are many kinds of objects, and therefore many kinds of nouns, as rex, king ; Roma, Rome ; flos, flower ; terra, land ; exercitus, army ; mens, mind justitia,
justice.
One noun
added, as
city
object which
often not enough to mark out the particular we have in mind. Another noun is then rex Romulus, King Romulus urbs Roma, the
is
Rome.
to the first noun,
Such an additional noun (or name) is called an attribute which in this use is called a Substantive.
Some nouns are generally used as such additional names, and are therefore called Adjectives. They describe an object by some particular quality or appearance which it has, as albus flos, white flower ; magnus exercitus, great
army.
Adjectives in Latin having inflexions for gender as well
number can be used by themselves, like other nouns, as Thus albus is white Tie alba, white she substantives. album, white thing albi, white males albae, white females
as
;
;
Other nouns, i.e. substantives, are alba, white things. treated as having usually only one gender.
110
83. 2. Naming an object is generally not enough. AVe wish to say something about it. Every complete saying
(called in
(a)
Grammar
a sentence} contains at least two ideas

or thing of which
The person
Subject.
we
speak, called the
(b)
Our
declaration respecting
is
it,
called the Predicate.
A
by a
complete thought
verb, or
(b)
expressed most simply either
(a)
by two nouns.
in its
it)
A verb contains in its personal suffixes the subject, stem the predicate, as curr-o, / run ; curr-it, he (she, runs-, ama-mus, we love; ama-tis, ye love; splende-nt,
(a)
they shine.
first and second person require no further definibut the third person is very vague. The name of the person or thing intended is usually added in the nominative
The
tion,
case, as
run-he)
equus currit, (the) horse runs (literally horse-he flores splendent, flowers shine.
the thought
is
(b)
When
expressed by two nouns, one
is
is predicate. But subject, the other usually an adjective to make it clear that the adjective (or other noun) is not an
attribute,
but
is
a predicate, some part of the verb
sum
is
Thus equus albus may mean white ln>w, equus est albus shows that albus is So Julius est consul, predicate, not attribute of equus. Julius is consul; exercitus erat magnus, the army was Roma fuit urbs, Home was a city, or the city was large
generally used. or horse is white
;
Rome.
If the subject of a verb is expressed, the verb has (usually) the same number and person as the subject, c.<j. ego amo, / lo've ; flores rubent, flowers are red ; vos
fugitis, you are flying.
PRINCIPAL USE OF CASES
111
PRINCIPAL USE OF CASES

84.
as
The
nominative denotes the subject of the sentence,

reigns.
Julius regnat, Julius
The
accusative, dative,
and ablative are principally used
with verbs.
The
accusative
denotes the direct
object of
a verb's
action, e.g'
Julius regit urbem, Julius
rules the city.
Carpo florem, I pluck a flower. Arant terrain, They plough the
land.
The dative denotes the indirect object, i.e. the person or transitive thing indirectly affected by the verb's action. verb has often such an indirect object besides the direct object; an intransitive verb has such an indirect object
only, as
Carpo florem tibi, I pluck Arant terrain hostibus,

the enemies.
the flower for thee.
They plough
the land for
Flos splendet tibi, The flower shines for Pater sum tibi, / am father to you.
thee.
The ablative denotes the instrument or cause or other attendant circumstances of the verb's action, as
Carpo florem manu, I pluck the flower Perit timore, He perishes from fright.
with
my
hand.
112
The genitive is used with nouns rather than with verbs, and denotes the possessor or object or class of a person or
thing, as
Marci servus, Marcus's slave. Floris splendor, The floiver's Timor periculi, Fear of risk.
Portissimus militum,
brightness.
Bravest (he) of the
soldiers.
All these cases have other uses as well as those named.

(See below.)
The
same
case of a declinable attribute or predicate
is
the
as that of the substantive or subject.
The gender and number of an adjective is usually the same as that of the substantive of which it is attribute or
predicate.
NOMINATIVE
85.
1
.
The NOMINATIVE
is
used to express
the subject of the sentence
Person or thing spoken
of, i.e.
Dixit Claudius, Claudius spoke. Crescit amor, Love grows.

2.
Person or thing spoken to
Musa
veni, Come,
muse.
Listen, ye llomans.
Audite Romani,
In o stems the shorter form called the VOCATIVE
is
used
Marce cave, Marcus, beware. Quid ais, Claudi ? What sayest
than,
Claw/ in*
'/
ACCUSATIVE
113
ACCUSATIVE
86.
The ACCUSATIVE
is
used to express-
1.
Direct object of a transitive verb
Fer opem, Bring
help.
Urit flamma domos, Flame burns the houses. Aquilas fugiunt columbae, Doves flee eagles.
2.
Place towards which
Mitto vos domum, / send you
home.
Romam
veniunt, They come
to
Home.
3.
Space over which
Pedem unum
processit,
alta,
He
stepped
forward
deep.
(a
distance of) one foot.
Nix quattuor pedes

4.
Snow four feet
Time during which
Diem totum
stertebat,
He was
snoring a whole day.
Vixerant viginti annos,

">.
Tliey lived twenty years.
Extent of action
Nos
aliquid Rutulos juvimus,
We
have helped the
JKutulians somewhat.
Tremit artus, He
trembles all over his limbs.
Often with a substantive of like meaning to the verb
Cur non eosdem cursus cucurrerunt ? Why

they not
have
run
the
same
courses ?
Itque reditque viam, He

I
goes
and returns
the road.
114
ELEMENTARY LATIN
(i
HAM MA
I;
DATIVE
87.
1.
Person to or for
tibi facio,
whom
(indirect object)
Hoc
do this for you.
Dat librum illi, lie gives him the book. Nocet aqua saxis, Jf'afer i* hurtful to flic Omnibus mors divitias aufert, Death
riches (for, i.e.)
rocks.
takes
away
from
all.
2.
This dative is frequently used with the verb esse to denote the possessor or the agent
Possessor
Est mihi pater,

hure a father.
There
is
a father for me,
i.e.
Longae regibus sunt manus,

1
Kings have long
lands.
Agent
Haec mihi sunt

things spoken,
i.e.
dicta, These thhit/s are for I have said this.

Caesar had
me
Hoc
Caesari fuit agendum, This mi* for

to do, i.e.
In </o this.
Caesar a thing
3.
Purpose for which (adjectival or predicative dative). An indirect object is often used in same sentence
Hoc mihi curae

disgraceful.
est, This
?'x
a nmffe,- of
an.rirfi/ to
me.
Paupertatem probro habent,
The// freat ô/r/1// as
Equitatum auxilio Caesari mittunt,

cavalri/ us
J/e//>
They send the

-mal-fs
<i
In
Caesar.
//>
Rem
publicam quaestui habet,
trad<-
of politics.
ABLATIVE
115
ABLATIVE
88.
1.
Instrument or price
ferit,
Gladio regem
sword.
He
strikes
the
king
with
Cornibus
tauri, apri dentibus, niorsu leones se tutantur, Bulls defend themselves with horns, boars
with tusks, lions by biting.
This
Vendidit hie auro patriam,

country for gold.
2.
man
sold
his
Cause
Maerore et lacrimis senescebat, He

grief
grew old from

all
and
ille
tears.
Paene
collapsed
timore, ego risu corrui, He from fear, I from laughter.
but
3.
Part concerned
Aeger pedibus,
III in the feet.
Mancipiis locuples, Rich

4.
in slaves.
Manner and circumstances
usually with an attribute
Nullis impedimentis ibat, He was marching without

baggage.
Aequo animo hoc

The
ablative
tuli,
/ bore
this
with an even mind.
Latin
of circumstances is very common in with a participle, especially in the passive
voice, as
Regibus exactis consules creati sunt, When

kings had been driven out, consuls were elected.
the
116
5.
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMA1!
Quality or description
Qua
facie fuit? (Of what face was he?) win it

in the face
?
vx he
like
Agesilaus statura fuit humili et corpore exiguo,

Agesilaus was of low stature and small body (or low in *t it lure and small in body).
6.
With comparatives
comparison and
(a)
(b)
it
expresses both (a) the standard of the measure
Quid durius
What
is
harder than stone
est saxo ? quid mollius unda ? ? what softer than water ?

fuit, So
(b)
Tanto major caedes

the slaughter.
much
the greater
was
7.
Place whence
Roma
8.
fugit,
Senex rure
Place where
stems,
He fled from Rome. venit, The old man comes from
the country.
is expressed by the locative and by the ablative in others
in -o
and -a
Rhodi negotiatur, He is trading Est Capuae, He is at Capua.
at
Rhodus.
But sometimes an ablative is used, as Romae Tibur amo, Tibure Romam, At Rome I
love
I love Rome. Bellum terra marique comparat, He

Tihur, at Tibur
is
preparing
war by land and

9.
sea.
Time when
or within which
est, 77/r
t
Aedes Kalendis vota

the Kalends.
cm pie in is rowed on
tJnrr
Tribus horis
ri'iii'licil.
Romam
pervenit, In
hours he
Rani'-.
GENITIVE
117
GENITIVE
89.
1.
Person or thing possessing or causing (possessive

Crassus's son.
genitive)
Crassi films,
Hectoris Andromache,
Hector's (wife) Andromache.
Cornua mnae, The

2.
Moon's horns.
Divided whole (partitive genitive)
Portissimus G-raecorum,
Bravest of Greeks.
(of) prudence.
Parum
3.
prudentiae, But
little
Quality or description
Fossa centum pedum,

length).
hundred-foot ditch
(i.e.
in
Vir consili magni,

4.
man
of great policy.
Object of action, after nouns
Vir tenax propositi, Timor nostrum, Fear

5.
man firm of purpose. of the enemies.
Secondary object to certain verbs of accusing, remembering, pitying, filling, etc.
Admonuit
ilium sceleris, He reminded him of
his
Accusat Marcum furti, He accuses Marcus of theft. Taedet me vitae, I am weary of life (lit. it irks me
of
life).
Implent fossam sanguinis, They

Hood.
fill
the ditch with
118
ELEMENTAKY LATIN GUAM MAR
INFINITIVE
The infinitive is an indeclinable verbal substantive, used in some respects as a verb, in other respects as a noun. It is found chiefly as
90.
is
and
1.
Object to a verb, especially verbs of will, power, duty, custom, etc. (The subject of the infinitive is usually the same as the subject of the verb.)
Debeo venire, I ought to come. Loqui didicerat, He had learnt to talk. Vincere scis, Hannibal victoria uti
; nescis, You understand winning, Hannibal ; you do not understand a victory.
2.
With a
subject in the accusative, the two together being the object of a verb. (In English that with a finite verb is often used.)
'
'
Scio te loqui, / know of your talking. Dicit se abire, He says he is going away.
3.
Subject to a verb, either by itself or with an accusative Certum est mihi dicer e, / am determined to speak.
Te venire pergratum
est, It is very pleasant that you are coming, or your coming is very pleasant to me.
GERUNDS, GEEUNDIVE, SUPINE

91.
1. The oblique cases of the gerund are used as if they were the genitive, dative, and ablative of the infinitive. The accusative is used only with prepositions
Avidus loquendi, Greedy of talk. Hi scribendo adfuerunt, These

writing.
were present at the
GERUNDS, GERUNDIVE, SUPINE
119
Caesar dando, Cato nihil largiendo gloriam adeptus est, Caesar gained glory by giving, Cato by
making no
largesses.
Haec ad judicandum sunt

are very easy to judge.
2.
facillima, These matters
The gerundive is used often in place of the gerund, when the gerund would have a direct object. The
object is then attracted into the case of the gerund, and the gerundive put in the gender and number of this
object
Consilium inibant urbis delendae et civium
trucidandorum
for
urbem
delendi et cives
trucidandi, They were forming a, plan for destroying the city and butchering the citizens.
Decemviros litibus judicandis creavit,^ appointed

a commission of
3.
ten for
judging
suits.
In the nominative the gerund is used as subject to est; the gerundive is used as predicate to what would otherwise have been object to the gerund
Est mihi ambulandum, / must walk

for me).
(lit.
Walking
is
Haec sunt agenda

things
for
Haec
est
agendum,
These
must
be done.
Urbs defendenda
urbem, The
4.
city
est for Defendendum must be defended.
est
The accusative of verbal substantives
in -us (i.e. the supine in -um) is used after a verb of motion, and often has itself an object
Haec risum
these things.
veni, Come and
(lit.
to)
have a laugh at
Questum
wrongs.
injurias eo, /
am
going
to
complain of the
120
KLKMKNTAKY LATIX
CKA.M.MAl;
PARTICIPLES
92.
The
and indirect
are active
;
Participles are verbal adjectives, and take direct objects. The present and future participles
the past participle
is
passive unless the verb
be a deponent, in which case times either active or passive
it is
usually active, some-
Venio agros visurus, / am coming to sec the lands. Vidit consulem exercitui imperantem, He saw
the consul
commanding
lie
the
army.
est,
Consule interfecto, haec looutus

being killed, spoke thus.
On
the consul
INDECLINABLE WORDS
93. Adverbs are used with verbs and adjectives
Bene dicit, He says well. Valde Justus, Very just (man). Res acute dictae, Sharp sayings (lit. things sharply said). Some adverbs are also used as prepositions.
94.
and with nouns
Prepositions are used with verbs in composition, in the accusative and ablative cases.
"With verbs, as
venio, / come. devenio, / come down. advenio, / cm in

1
.
/<>.
subvenio, / come vp. pervenio, / come through. evenio, / come out, etc.
The
principal prepositions
With
ad,
accusative case only are

to.
clam,
towards.
before.
?/y//wv/v/
to.
adversus,
ante,
erga, Inirnnh.
ob, on a muni I
<>/'.
apud, at, circum, r<nnn/.
penes,
in
power
of.
per, through.
INDECLINABLE WORDS
post, behind.
.
121
ultra, beyond.
prope,
near.
extra,
outside.
following. inter, between.
secundum,
intra, within.
praeter, beside. propter, near. trans, across. citra, on this side
contra, against. supra, above.

infra, below.
juxta,
of.
near.
With
ablative case only

a,
ab or cum,
ex
from.
with.
prae, in front pro, for.

sine, without.
of.
de, down from. or e, out of.
With accusative and ablative

sub, subter, under super, above is used when motion towards is implied, the ablative when rest at is implied In jus ducere, To lead into court. In jure res est, The matter is in court. Sub montem ibat, He was coming to the foot of the
in, in
; ;
:
The
accusative
mountain.
Sub monte
mountain.
95.
consedit,
He
sat
down
at the foot of the
atque
yet
;
et, -que (appended to a word), Conjunctions sed, at, but ; autem, however tamen, aut, vel, -ve (appended to a word), or ; seu, whether, or.
or ac, and
Negative particles
neither,
non, baud, not; nee or neque,

;
nor
ne,
not, lest
ni, nisi, unless.
Interrogative simple question ; answer no utrum

;
ne (appended to another word) puts a nonne expects answer yes num expects
;
.
.
an, whether
is
or.
An
etc.
;
affirmative
answer
given by etiam, ita, vero,
a negative
by non, minime.
122
ELEMENTARY LATIN
(IK A
MM Alt
USE OF VERB INFLEXIONS. OF VOICE
INFLEXIONS
96. VERBS with ACTIVE inflexions are of two classes, TRANSITIVE and INTRANSITIVE. Some verbs belong to both.
TRANSITIVE verbs express an action conceived in conupon which it is exercised, e.g. amo, / love moneo, / warn ; audio, / hear 6do, / eat', pello, I push rego, / guide ; tolero, / bear uro, / bum
nexion with an object
; ; ; ;
;
laedo,
I wound.
it is
not necessary that the object should be actually edo, / eat, does not cease to be a transitive verb because no food is specified.
expressed,
e.g.
But
INTRANSITIVE (or NEUTER) verbs express a state of being, or an action not conceived in connexion with any object,
as thereby affected,
gaudeo, / rejoice
am
on fire
e.g. curro, / run; horreo, / shiver; praesum, / am at the head ardeo, 7 noceo, / am hurtful.
;
;
Such a state or action may affect other persons or things indirectly, and this indirect object may be expressed in an oblique case, usually the dative, just as a similarly indirect object may be expressed with a transitive verb,
e.g.
mihi gaudeo, non

you;
tibi,
for
praesum
exercitui,
/ rejoice / am at
for
the
myself,
not
the
head of
army.
97. Verbs with PASSIVE inflexions are of two classes, verbs which have also an active voice, and verbs which
viz.
have no (corresponding) active voice. DEPONENTS. (See list on p. 107.)
The
latter are called
In verbs which have also an active voice, passive inflexions are used principally to bring into prominence either the object of the action by making it the subject of
the sentence,
or the
occurrence of the
action,
without
INFLEXIONS OF VOICE
123
Thus vincit Gallos, lie conquers the specifying the agent. Gauls ; G-alli vincuntur, the Gauls are conquered ; vincitur,
a
victory is gained.
If the object of the action be a person or thing, i.e. if the verb be transitive, the passive may be used in both numbers and all three persons. Thus, laedo, I wound, may
have for object me, te, eum (earn, id), nos, vos, eos (eas, ea). Consequently in the passive we may have (ego) laedor, (tu) laederis, (is, ea, id) laeditur, (nos) laedimur, (vos) laedimini, (ei, eae, ea) laeduntur, / am (being)
wounded, thou art wounded,
If
etc.
the verb be intransitive, and therefore express merely the existence or occurrence of an action, the passive is used in the third person singular only. Thus noceo, / am
hurtful,
done
I do hurt nocetur, hurtfulness exists, / go itur, going takes place, is suadebo, / will give advice suadebitur,
;
;
hurt
is
(being)
eo,
',
(being) done ; advice will be
given.
98. Besides the more usual case, in which the subject is acted on by others, passive inflexions are sometimes used in speaking: (1) of an action done by the subject to him-
and more frequently (2) of an action experienced ; without any specified external agency, e.g.
self
(1)
up
cingor, accingor, I gird myself; dedor, give myself erigor, raise myself ; exerceor, exercise myself.
in
(2) corresponding
English to verbs used intransi; ;
tively
alor,
split
;
flndor,
I feed; corrumpor, spoil delector, delight; lavor, bathe ; moveor, move inutor, change.
of the passive inflexions is the same in all these cases, viz. that the subject is also the object of the action.
The simple import
DEPONENTS have passive inflexions, but the meaning and construction of verbs with active inflexions. Some
124
ELEMENTARY LATIN CKAMMAK

confess
;
transitive,
deponents are transitive, e.g. fateor, / e.g. epulor, / banquet.

99. In the
some
in-
CONSTRUCTION of passive verbs several points
require notice.
If
a transitive verb be changed from the active to the
passive voice, the following additional changes are required. if the sentence is to express the same fact as it expressed with the active form.
(a) The object of the active verb becomes subject to the passive verb.
(b) Any word containing a fuller description of the object (a secondary predicate) changes from the accusative to the nominative.
The agent (subject of the active verb) (c) ablative with the prep. ab.
f
is
put in the
laedit
Lucius eg Marcum
Druso adjutorem ded t consulem esse

.
gave Marcus
says
is
to
Drum*
as a helper.
,.
.,
Marcus
b<'iii</
is consul.
["
vnintd-'il
!j
laeditur
|
Lucius.
,,
ls J
Marcus a Lucio
J 1
Druso adjutor
datus est consul esse dicitur
was given by Luc lux In Drusus as a In Iper. is beiv</ lj L w I a

/
/'//
to be
con xii I.
An intransitive verb is not used in the passive except impersonally, and no further change is required, except usually the omission of the agent. (If the agent is expressed, it will be usually in the ablative with ab as above.)
Persuasum
they came
est homini
:
factum est
ventum
,
est
vincimur; duxit, Themamvas

we are
pcwnnl<'<l
itivas done;
beaten ; he took (his wife).
INFLEXIONS OF PERSON AND NUMBER
125
USE OF VERBAL INFLEXIONS OF PERSON
AND NUMBER
finite verb contains both subject and predithe personal inflexions expressing the subject, and the stem expressing the predicate.
100.
The
cate in
itself,
Hence, whenever in English an unemphatic pronoun is denote the subject without risk of mistake, the finite verb in Latin requires no addition for this purpose. This is so with the verb
sufficient to
1.
In the
first
or second person.
run,
Thus curro, /
currimus,
persons speaking; curris, curritis, the person or persons spoken to.
refer to the person or curre, currite, to
But the pronouns may be added

or contrast.
for the sake of emphasis
Quod ego
hodie
fui
es.
ad Trasumennum, ad Cannas, id tu
was
at
What I (Liv.) at Cannae, that you are to-day.
Trasumennus (and)
Negat cuncta
(Cic.)
Italia,
negat senatus, negatis vos.

(it),
All Italy denies
the Senate denies
it,
you
deny
2.
it.
In the third person, when it is the same as the subject verb of the same number and person, provided it is suited to the sense. (Very frequent.)
of the last preceding
Venit Verres in aedem Castoris considerat templum versat se quaerit, quid agat. (Cic.) Verres
; ; ;
comes into the temple of Castor; he examines the sanctuary ; lie turns about ; he asks what he is to do.
126
3. In certain verbs in the third person singular, where the fact of the action, state, or feeling is the prominent Such verbs are called point and the doer is left indefinite.
IMPERSONALS, and
(a)
it
may
be
classified as follows
it
The verbs miseret,
pities;
piget,
it
vexes;
e.g.
shames; paenitet, it repents; ta,edei,itivearies: facti pudet. Miseret aliorum.
pudet, Ipsius
me
(b)
Intransitive verbs are sometimes so used, generally

99).
in the passive voice (see
Dicto paretur.
to the
Cui parci potuit ? Obedience is rendered To whom could mercy be shown ? bidding.
inflexions, the
definition.
the finite verb always contains its own subject in its personal separate word, usually called its subject, is, strictly speaking, in apposition to these inflexions for the purpose of closer
As
101. When the subject is expressed by a separate word, the finite verb is in the same number and person as its
subject.
Te aerumnae premunt omnes, qui

putas.
(Cic.)
All
troubles pi-ess
te florentem upon you who think
yourself prosperous.
Exceptions
(a) If the subject be a substantive in the singular number, but denotes more than one person, the verb is sometimes in the plural.
Diffugmnt
alii
ad naves
pars scandunt rursus

fly
scattered
to
equum.
(Verg.)
Some
the
ships;
part climb again the horse.
INFLEXIONS OF PERSON AND NUMBER

(b)
127
The
it
forms to
verb, if it follows a predicate, sometimes conin number. (This is rare, except where either
substantive might be considered the subject.)
Amantium irae amoris integratio est.

of lovers are a renewal of
love.
(Ter. )
Quarrels
Contentum rebus suis maeque divitiae.

own
esse
(Cic.)
maximae sunt
certissione's
possessions is the greatest
To be satisfied with and surest wealth.
102. When the subject is composed of two or more substantives, denoting different persons or things, but regarded as in connexion with each other, the verb is put
in the plural in the first person plural, if the subject contain the first person ; and in the second person plural, if the
:
subject contain the second person and not the
first.
Si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus. If ymi and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.
(Cic.)
When two
cate,
or
more subjects require the same
predi-
but are not represented as acting together, the predicate is usually expressed only once, and is put in the
subject nearest to
it
number and person required by the

the sentence.
in
Vir bonus et sapiens dici delector ego ac

delighted
you.
to
tu,
/ am
so are
be catted
a good and wise man, and
128
THE INDICATIVE MOOD AND TENSES

103. The Indicative Mood is the primary and ordinary form of the finite verb, and is therefore used wherever there is no special reason for employing the imperative or subjunctive. Not only facts but suppositions and commands can be put in the indicative mood, but only when the writer or speaker relies on the context, or evident sense, to guard against misapprehension, and does not care to mark the supposition or the command by the form of the expression.
The
tenses of the Latin verb in the indicative

(i)
mood
according to the time to which they relate, or (ii) according to the completeness or incompleteness of the action spoken of.
may
be divided either
104.
i.
Time
to
which the tenses relate
According to the time to which they relate, the tenses are either primary or secondary.
The primary
over, or
still
tenses
mark a
state or action as going on,
in the future at the time at
which we are
that
speaking, or at some time at which are present and watching events.
we assume
we
secondary tenses mark a state or action as going on, still in the future at some other time of which we are speaking, and which we affirm (by the use of secondary
The
over, or
tenses) to be past.
INDICATIVE
MOOD AND TENSES
129
ACTIVE VOICE
PRIMARY.
Contemporary.
Subsequent.
SECONDARY.
Imperfect;
Present
dico,
dicebam,
/ said
/ am
Future
say.
;
saying.
ivas saying.
;
dicam,
(you, he will}
Aorist
(i.e.
dixi,
I shall
Subsequent
to
something had happened).
after
time present but antecedent

to
Completed dixero,
Future
shall
(you, he will)
have
some future
Perfect; dixi, / have said.
event.
Antecedent.
Pluperfect;
dixeram,
I had
said.
PASSIVE VOICE
PRIMARY.
f
SECONDARY.
Contemporary.
Pres.
(
am
being
being loved.
amabor,
I
Aor.
amatus
sum, I
loved.
Subsequent.
Fut.
(
shall (you, he will) be loved.

;
<
(
Subsequent
to
Completed Future
time present but antecedent

to
amatus ero
(or
some future
fuero), I shall (you, he will) have been

loved.
(
event.
amatus
sum, / am
(or have been) loved.
Antecedent.
Perf
amatus eram
fueram),
had
'
Plup
L
(or
beenloved.
'50
ELEMENTARY LATIN CKAMMAi;

105.
Completeness or incompleteness of the <u1in
ii.
The present, future, and imperfect tenses express incomplete action (and hence are sometimes called respectively present imperfect, future imperfect, past imperfect).
e.g.
laedo, laedor, /
laedam, laedar, I
bam, laedebar, / The perfect, completed
wounding, am lei//;/ 'vaumlcil wound, shall be wounded laedewas wounding, was being wounded.
;
am
shall
future,
and pluperfect express
completed action (and hence are sometimes called respectively present perfect, future perfect, past perfect).
e.g.
laesi,
laesus sum, I have wounded, have

shall have
been wounded-.
wounded, shall have been wounded- laeseram, laesus eram, I had wounded, had been
laesero, laesus ero, /
The use of a tense of incomplete action rather than of complete action implies
1.
Continuance of an action contrasted with

dico, /
its
con-
clusion.
e.g.
am
speaking
dixi,
have done
my
speech.
2.
Continuance of an action contrasted with a single

at; vidi,
;
act.
ic<i* e.g. videbam, I looking poteram, I had it in my power
caught sight of;

able.
potui, I proved
3.
Purpose or attempt contrasted with actual perform-
ance.
e.g.
servabam,
dabat, he
tried
to
save
servavi, 1
oclnallij
saved
4.
offered
dedit, he gave.
The
action itself contrasted with the resulting con-
dition.
e.g.
shall die
venio, I am on ; periero, /
my way;
veni, /
<nn
here
peribo,
shall be dam/.
INDICATIVE
106. The
1.
MOOD AND TENSES
131
PRESENT
tense expresses
An
action at the time of speaking.

(Cic.)
Hie ego Servium exspecto.

Servius.
Here I
am awaiting
Nunc,
2.
cum vos
intueor,
Romanes
I see
Now when I look
on you,
that there are
esse video. (Liv.) Romans.
An
be present.
present.)
action in past time, but rhetorically assumed to This is frequent in vivid narrations. (Historic
Archagatho negotium
:
dedit, ut
argentum ad mare
Ascendit in oppidum Archadeportaretur. gathus jubet omnis proferre quod haberent. Metus erat summus. (Cic.) He gave A. the duty of seeing that the silver was brought down to the He orders all to sea. A. goes up into the town. There was the greatest alarm. bring out what they had. Vix ea fatus eram tremere omnia visa repente summissi petimus terram et vox fertur ad auris. (Verg.) / had hardly spoken ; everything seemed suddenly to be trembling ; sinking down we drop to the ground, and a voice is borne to our ears.
: ;
107. The FUTURE denotes an action taking place, or (in verbs signifying a state) a state existing, in future time.
Subordinate sentences, qualifying a principal future sentence (whether such future sentence is expressed in indicative or imperative, or subjunctive of command, etc.), and referring to the same time, have regularly and usually
the future.
(In English the present
si
is
generally found.)
shall
Naturam
mus.
sequemur ducem, nunquam aberrabiIf we follow Nature as our guide, we
(Cic.)
never go astray.
132
108.
1.
ELEMENTARY LATIN (JRAMMAR

The IMPERFECT
tense expresses
continuous action action or time referred to.
contemporaneous with past
Turn Postremam Romanorum aciem invadimt. Marius apud primes agebat, quod ibi Jugurtha
cum
plurimis erat, They
attack the rear rank

the
lln
Romans.
At
it
the time
Marius was busy in
//'////,
because Jugurtha
2.
was
there with most of his
men.
In letters
often denotes an action at the time of
writing as being past

letter.
when
the correspondent receives the
Haec ego scribebam hora noctis nona. Milo campum jam tenebat Marcellus candidatus ita stertebat, ut ego vicinus audirem, / am writing
:
this at
the ninth hour of the night.
Milo
is
already in
possession of the field ; Marcellus a candidate is snoring so loud that I can hear him next door.
3.
Habitual or repeated action in past time.
Dicebat melius
4.
quam
scripsit
Hortensius,
Ifortcn-
sius used to speak better than he has written.
An
action commenced, or attempted, or proposed in
past time.
Consistit
utrumque agmen,
et
ad proelium sese
takes
expediebant. (Liv.) and they begin to make ready for

109.
past time.
Each army
up
its position,
battle.
The PERFECT tense expresses an action done in As contrasted with the imperfect, it denotes a
;
single act, not a continued state
As
is
contrasted with the present,
it
a fact, not a description. denotes that the action
already completed.
An action which 1. AURIST or HISTORICAL PERFECT. took place in past time, either singly or in succession to So usually in a continued narrative. other actions.
INDICATIVE
MOOD AND TENSES
133
Postremo Catilma in senatum venit. Turn M. Tullius consul orationem habuit quam postea
scriptam
Senate.
speech,
edidit,
Finally
Catilina
the
came
into
the
Then Marcus
Tullius
consul
delivered
which he afterwards wrote down and published.
Veni, vidi,
L.
vici, / came, I saw, I conquered. Lucullus per multos annos Asiae provinciae
praefuit, L. Lucullus governed
the province of
Asia for
many
years.
2. PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT. An action already completed before the present time, so that the result, rather than the action itself, is present to the mind.
Membris utimur prius quam didicimus, cujus ea utilitatis causa habeamus, We use our limbs
before ice have learnt
for the sake of what advantage we
possess them.
110. The COMPLETED future denotes an action in future time completed at some point in future time.
Cum
tu haec leges, ego ilium fortasse convenero, When you read this, I shall perhaps have met him. Eum cum videro, Arpmum pergam, When I have seen him, I will proceed to Arpmum.
The PLUPERFECT denotes an

before another past action.
action in past time, done
Prius omnia pati decrevit quam bellum sumere, quia temptatum antea secus cesserat. (Sail.)
He
war, because (when) attempted before
resolved to endure everything rather than engage in it had turned out ill.
Hanno cum
eis, qui postremi jam profligato proelio advenerant, vivus capitur. (Liv.) Hanno, with those who had come last, when the battle was already
decided, is taken alive.
134
Future participle
active with the verb
sum
111. In order to denote what a person purposes, or is destined to do in future time, especially if regarded from a point in the past or future, the future participle active is
used with the different tenses of the verb

PRIMARY.
Contemporary.
sum
thus
SECONDARY.
dicturus sum, I am about to (or mean to

or
dicturus
was
to (or
eram,
to
at the time about
am
to) say.
/ meant
fui,
or
was
Subsequent.
Antecedent.
to) saij.
dicturus ero, / shall

be about to say.
dicturus
I was
1
(once) about to say.
dicturus fueram,
had meant
to sail.
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

112.
The Imperative Mood
is
used to express a
command
or request.
The PRESENT is used of the present time, or without any implied reference to a defined future time. The FUTURE is used with express reference to the time following, or to some particular case that may occur, and
therefore
is
frequent in legal forms.
Cura ut
well.
valeas.
Cogite oves, pueri, Take
care to
ke<>]>
Collect the sheep,
Cum
my
bat/*.
haec confessus
eris,
negate turn sane,

1
si voles,
iiilmiUctl
te
this,
pecuniam
then
by
all
accepisse, When you linn mc<nx d?Hi/, if you />/<'.',
ilmi
you
money.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
135
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

113.
indicative
The subjunctive mood is by expressing an action
distinguished from the or event as thought or
distinction
This general supposed, rather than as done or narrated. is modified in different kinds of sentences.
In simple or principal sentences the subjunctive
is
used
to express
(A)
(C)
supposition, or
desire, as
;
/ should wish but volo, / wish. Videres, You would have seen ; videbas, You saw. (C) Vivas, May you live ; vivis, You live. Amemus patriam, Let us love our country. Amamus patriam, We (do) love our country.
(A) Velim,
114. In dependent or subordinate sentences the sub-
junctive is used chiefly after relatives (qui,quae, quod) and the following conjunctions (all of which are also frequently used with the indicative mood)
nisi (B) ut, quin, dura (D, E)
si,
cum
quod
1
(F)
(G)
15.
The usages
of the subjunctive
eight heads, the
first
may be classed under two of which may conveniently be
taken together. If the principal sentence (A, B) Conditional sentences. has the subjunctive, the subordinate sentence containing The case is put as the condition has the subjunctive also. one not actual.
136
KLKMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR

Jo.
Si jubeas, faciam, If I/OH- diovld. conn/mud, I xhotdd Si jusseris, faciam or fecerim, Jf you should Imn-
hidden,
should do or should hure dune.
Si juberes, facer em, If you should have been bidding, I should have been doing (or Were, you lidding, 1 wen
doing).
Si jussisses, fecissem, If you had hidden, I should hnre done.
Sometimes the conditional
particle
is
not expressed
should MI/. I dwiild hare
Roges me, dicam, Should you Rogasses me, dicerem, Had

been saijlmj.
ask me,
you
<i*kcd -me,
For distinction's sake we may call the subjunctive the principal sentence a HYPOTHETICAL subjunctive that in the subordinate sentence a CONDITIONAL subN.B.
in
;
junctive.
116. The hypothetical subjunctive (A) without the condition being expressed, as
is
often used
Velim, videres
(as above).
Quis dicat ? Who would say ? Illius impulsu moenia mota forent,
him
So
with
(i.e.
fit/
a blow from
been
if he
had
struck then/)
?n///x
iconld linn-
stirred.
si,
also the conditional clause (B) is sometimes but without any principal clause expressed.
found
si ille
adesset, if he had been present / (How would things have been if).
different
Frequently in sentences quasi, tamquam, etc.
of comparison with ut,
si,
Scipio privatus, ut
^
si
consul esset, haec

lire//
a private -muit,
(i.e.
<ix
if he Inid
jussit, Scipio, ennxnl, (jure fltete order*
as he would have done

difficile sit
xjH-nh
r/x
if,
!
etc.)
Quasi hoc mihi

to nir (i.e.
A*
if
1his
xjit'tik
would
ij\
he dij/irtdf
}'i>n
f/nii.
irun-ld
etc.)
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
117. (C) Optative and jussive sentences. Wish, or duty are often expressed by the subjunctive
137
command,
Valeant cives mei, sint beati, May my fare well, happy may they be.
Often with utinam, as
fellow -citizens
Utinam populus Romanus unam cervicem haberet

(Caligula),
that the
JTJiat
Roman people had

?
but one neck !
Quid
faciat ?
must he do
In prohibitions addressed to individuals the perfect (not the present) second person is used, as
Ne
transieris
the
Iberum,
ne quid
rei
tibi
sit
to
cum
Saguntinis, Cross
not the Ebro, hare nothing
do with
men
of Saguntum.
118. Frequently this subjunctive of command is in apparent dependence on another verb of willing or bidding,
as
Nolo me videat senex, I do not want the old man to see me. Cave putes hoc ita esse, Beware of thinking this to be so. Nuntiavit patribus urbem munirent, He took the message
to the
Fathers that they were
to
fortify the
is
city.
by qui (quae, quod)
119. (D) Final sentences. purpose the subjunctive after ut, ne, quin,
dum
often expressed and the relative
Mitto legatum qui

say.
dicat,
send an ambassador who

that he
is to
Mitto
eum
ut dicat, /
send
him
may
sat/,
or send
should
him
to sa;i.
Esse oportet ut vivas, non vivere ut edas, You

eat to live, not live to eat.
Scribebat Aelius orationes quas

used
to
alii
dicer ent, Aelius
write speeches for others to deliver.
138

special use occurs after verbs of fearing.
The English
vice versa, as
use a negative, where the Latins do not, and
Timeo ut Timeo ne
dicas,
dicas,
I fear that you will not say it. I fear your saying it, or lest yon,
puer, ut sis vitalis metiio, Boy, I fear you long-lived (lit. how you are to le long-lived).
lest
shmild w// if. will not be
Timeo ne non impetrem, I fear

mark
should not get
it.
120. (E) Consecutive sentences express actions which or naturally follow. This use is most common with relatives or with ///.
a negative
is
When
Sunt
required,
ut non, not ne,
is
used.
In
qui putent, There are people who think (such ax
think}.
Saepe fit ut ei qui debent non respondeant ad tempus, It often happens (in such a way) tlntt dchfors
do not answer the claims punctual///.
Sometimes
in concessions
and indignant questions

decepi, Support'
I
Ut
erraverim, legentes non

erred,
Junr
have not deceived readers.
Quamquam quid
ut
unquam
loquor ? te ut ulla res frangat ? tu te corrigas? And yd -n-lntl <nn 1 wit/ing?

uretiL:
(Can it be) that anything should should ever correct yourself !

121.
y<m, ?
flint
yini.
stances
(F) Sentences expressing the <itlen<l<tnt circumchiefly with relative qui and cum, in ordiiiiirv historical narration. The English translation often requires a participle or the adverb since or
ulthn-injli.
Peccavi qui a te discesserim,

(since I left
'//on).
waned
///
Irnrlug i/mi
Zenonem, cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter,

Iti'hnj al
tttht'iix,
I ollcinli'il
'/ji'inix
Icctnrr^ fri'/jiinitl i/.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
139
Epaminondas cum
vicisset Lacedaemonios, quae-
sivit salvusiie esset clipeus, E. having conquered the Lacedaemonians asked if his shield was safe.
Pylades
cum
sis,
(seeing that Orestes ?
dices te esse Orestem ? Being Pylades you are Pylades), will you say that you are
122.
(G) The
subjunctive
is
often
used
of
reported
reasons or definitions
and
reported (or indirect) questions
Laudat Africanum, quod
fuerit abstinens, He praises Africanus for being abstinent. (The being abstinent is the reason given by him for praising Africanus.)
Magna
He
proponit
offers great
iis
reioards to
qui regem occiderint praemia, any who should have slain the
is
king,
(qui
regem occiderint
a definition included
in the proclamation.)
Ubi nunc sim nescio, / know not where I am now. (Ubi nunc sum? nescio, Where am I noiv? I know not.)
Rogitant me ut valeam, quid agam, They me how I am in health, what I am doing.
keep asking
123. (H) The subjunctive is often used in sentences dependent on another subjunctive, or on an infinitive, to show that the action is not spoken of as a fact in itself, but only as part of a thought.
Thus, a direct sentence has the indicative
Romulus ut natus
soon as he
is born.
est exponitur, Romulus
is
exposed as
But
in a reported sentence
Romulum
Romulus
Si
ut
is
natus
sit
exponi dicunt,
They say
Romulus
exposed as soon as he is born. ut natus sit exponatur ferant di

is
opem,
If Romulus should be exposed as soon as he gods would bring help.
born, the
140
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAi;
CONTRASTED USES OF THE INDICATIVE

124.
The
indicative
mood
in
conditional
sentences
its
assumes a
truth (cp.
fact,
without making any implication as to
115).
Si
veneno
wished
te t oiler e volui, cur te iratum feci ?

to
take
you
off
by poison,
If I why did I wake you
angry? Si deus es, tribuere mortalibus beneficia debes,

(r/x
//OIL
.w//)
you arc a god, you ought
to
c<>nf<
benefits
// on
men. 125.
fact
The
(cp.
indicative
is
used after a relative to express a
or
a definition without
119).
any
signification
either
of
purpose
Misi
quendam qui dixit, / sent a certain man, who Scribebat Aelius orationes quas alii dicebant,
'/!.<c<l
suit/.
Ad inn
to
write speeches, which other* delivered.
Or
of quality (cp.
120).
aliis
fm-f)
a fliers
Sunt multi qui eripiunt

Tli firflic
quod
1aJ:e
aliis largiaiitur,
in
are
many who
(us
it to
from, some
purpose of giving
Quem
126.
'limn
multi timent, necesse est multos timeat, whom many fear, m/ixl needs fear
Dum
is
used with the indicative for
while, to l<m<i
as, until,
when no purpose is implied (cp. Hoc feci dum licuit, / did this as Jan;/ a*
119).
I
/(v/x
allowed.
Dum veniunt amici, solus inambulavit,

were arriving he widkal
HJ>
Jllrilr ///X/'/'/VWx
<nnl
<Imr,i,
nloue. // wllf be
Mihi curae
erit
In me.
dum
sciero quid egeris,
mi
unlit / Inirr h'unit wJnif i/<m I/ore done.
CONTRASTED USES OF THE INDICATIVE

127.
time at
sort of
141
The
indicative
is
used with
cum
to denote the
which anything happened, without implying any

connexion
(cp.
121).
Cum Placentiam consul

At
the time
venit,
jam abierat Hannibal,

Hannibal
when
the consul reached Placentm,
had already gone away.
Hannibal subibat muros cum repente erumpunt Romani, H. was coming up to the walls, when the Romans
suddenly sally
out.
Sometimes
cum
with the indicative means whenever.

have
Cum
ad villam veni hoc me delectat, Whenever I come to my country home, this delights me.
The
indicative
is
128.
quando, own (cp.

are
to express a reason
used with quod, quia, quoniam, which the speaker gives as his
122).
Iratus es
quod eum defendo quern tu accusas, You angry because I am defending the man whom you are
te in jure conspicio
prosecuting.
Quando
hoc dicam,
Since
I see
you
in court,
I will
say
this.
129. Relative clauses, which contain definitions of the
must be carefully distinguished from dependent questions which are themselves the object of a
object of a verb,
verb.
Scio quod quaeris, / know (the thing) which you i.e. the answer to your question.
Scio quid quaeras, / know what you your question is.
are asking,
are asking,
i.e.
what
H2
KI.KMKNTAKY LATIN C
OF REPORTED SPEECH
130.
When
a statement
is
directly made, a question
directly put, or a supposition directly expressed, the fmit/inii/c is said to be direct (oratio recta). So also in a report
which preserves the independent form in which the speech, as Caesar said I am about to march,' etc., was delivered
'
etc.
in a
a statement, question, or supposition is reported it dependent in construction on some such word as said, the language is said to be oblique
When
form which makes
was about
or indirect (oratio obliqua) to march.'
'
thus,
Caesar said that he
131. (A)
infinitive
The MOODS used
in the oratio
and subjunctive, never
(unless
obliqua are the by an irregularity)
the indicative.
statements in principal sentences in the inin the oratio recta become infinitives in Those relative sentences in which the oratio obliqua. qui = et is or nam is, cum = et turn, etc. (being not
1.
All
dicative
mood
really subordinate sentences), are properly in the infinitive.

2.
and usually put
are, if closely
if
Questions in the indicative mood in oratio recta dependent on a verb of asking, put in the
subjunctive, being in fact ordinary indirect questions ; but, they are part of the continuous report of a speech, they are put in the infinitive if of the first or third person
in the subjunctive if of the second person.
facio ? becomes quid (se) facere ? quid (ille) faceret ? facit ? becomes quid (ilium) facere ? (But rogavit, quid (ipse, ille, etc.) faceret for
<'.(j.
Quid Quid Quid
facis ? becomes
all
alike.)
OF REPORTED SPEECH
143
3. All subordinate sentences, as also all sentences in the subjunctive and imperative moods in oratio recta, are put in the subjunctive.
Darius, qui rex
Persarum
est,
advenit, Darius,
:
ivho is
the king of the Persians, is approaching,
becomes in a reported sentence
Darium, qui rex Persarum

was approaching.
esset,
advenire dixerunt,
They said that Darius, who was
the king of the Persians,
But in the apodosis to a conditional sentence the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are (in oratio obliqua)
expressed in the active voice by the future participle with fuisse in the passive, by using the periphrasis futurum fuisse ut. The future participle with esse is used also for the present (and sometimes for the imperfect) subjunctive
:
and fore or futurum esse ut for the present ; (and sometimes for the imperfect) subjunctive passive. becomes dixit se daturum e.g. Si habeam, dem
active
essesihaberet
Si haberem,
darem
becomes
dixit se daturum fuisse si ha-
beret or habuisset
Si mansissem, inter- becomes dixit futurum fectus essem, fuisse ut inter-
ficeretur, mansisset.
132.
(B)
1.
si
The
tenses of
the
infinitive
are present, or
perfect, or future according as the time
would have been
present, past, or future in the oratio recta.
The tenses of the subjunctive are usually secondary, imperfect and pluperfect, especially in commands or questions ; but the present and perfect are sometimes used, especially if the verb on which the whole oratio obliqua depends be in the present.
2.
viz.
KLKMKNTAKY LATIN GRAMMAB

pe.wni,
133. (C) In ordinary historical accounts no other than the third can in general be used. Thus
1.
Instead of pronouns of the first person, the pronouns suus, ipse, and instead of pronouns of the second person, is, ille, are used in the requisite cases.
se,
The pronouns
hie, this iiear
-uif,
and
iste, that near
//<>u,
are rarely found in oratio obliqua. (Nos and noster are sometimes used
by Caesar of the
Roman
2.
people or
Roman army
generally.)
All finite verbs are put in the third person.
134.
The following tabular statement
of
the above
may
be useful
(A)
MOOD
PRINCIPAL SENTENCES.
Oratio Recta. Oratio Obliqua.
Infinitive.
Indicative
In
nclive,
future
]>art.
with fuisse, or sometimes (for present or imperfect) esse.

Statements
Subjunctive (hypothesis)
In passive
futurum
etc.,
fuisse ut, sometimes (for

or imperfect)
or
present.
fore or
etc.
futurum esse ut,

,
,.
rt
. ,
Indicative
,.
flst& 3rd pers. Infinitive

-'
.
Questions
(2nd
Imperative
pers.
(Subjunctive
Subjunctive Subjunctive
Subjunctive
Command*
or
|
j
]'!( ihibitions
Subjunctive
SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.
Indicative
)
Subjunctive
Subjunctive
J
OF REPORTED SPEKCII
(B) TENSE.
Subjunctive.
145
Present
[
j
Future
Perfect
Imperfect, Present
Pluperfect, Perfect
sometimes sometimes
Completed Future
Imperfect
p,
Imperfect
ordinary
Pluperfect
participle
ft/
|
hypothetical Future
with
fuerim
Infinitive.
Present
Present
Fut. part, with
Future
Completed Future
Perfect
)
Imperfect
Pluperfect
>
j
Perfect
(C) PERSON.
ego, meus, nos, noster, tu, tuus, vos, vester, iste, is, ille.
hie,
se, suus, ipse (usually), of the subject of the
sentence
is,
ille,
of
what
ject.
ille,
is
not the sub-
nunc,
often
by
turn,
tune
135.
The above
rules will be best illustrated
by the
following extracts
ORATIO RECTA.
(Is
ORATIO OBLIQUA.
Si paegit)
:
ita cum Si pacem
Caesare populus
Helvetiis
cem
populus
Helvetiis
Romanus
fa,ciet,
Romanus cum
cum
in
earn partem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi tu eos constituem atque esse voluerzs; sin bello persequi
in earn partem faceret, ituros atque ibi futures Helvetios, ubi eos Caesar constituisset
sin
atque esse volubello persequi
146
ELEMENTARY LATIX GRAMMAR

ORATIO RECTA.
ORATIO OBLIQUA.
perseveraref, TemiwBceretur et veteris incommodi populi Bomani et pristinae virtutis Helveti-
persevera&is, reminiscitor et
veteris
incommodi populi
et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod
Bomani
improviso unum pagum adortus es, cum ii qui flumen trausierant suis auxilium ferre non poterant, ne ob earn rem aut
tuae
orum.
Quod improviso
unum pagum adortus esset, cum ii qui flumen transissent
suis auxilium ferre
magnopere
aut
nos
virtuti
non -possent, ne ob earn rem aut suae magnopere

virtuti
tribuere*
:
tribueris
despezms. Nos ita a patribus majori-
despice?-ef
se
ita
aut ipsos a patribus
busque nostris didicmws ut magis virtute, quam dolo

contendawws aut
nitamwr.
jniseris
insidiis
Quare ne comut
hie
majoribusque suis didict'sse, ut magis virtute, quam dolo contender^ aut insidiis uiterentnr. Quare ne
commiê?-e^ ut
coustitissent
is
locus
ubi
locus ubi
constitimMs ex calamitate
ex calamitate
populi Bomani et internecione exercitus nomen

capiai aut Aat (Caes.)
populi Bomani et internecione exercitus nomen

capered
cieret.
memoriam
pro-
aut memoriam pro-
Eo
mihi
minus dubitationis dafatr, quod eas res quas vos

(legati Helvetii)
(His Caesar ita reEo sibi minus spondit) dubitationis dan', quod eas res quas legati Hel:
moTamstis
commememoria teneo,
qui
si
atque eo gravius fero quo minus merito populi Bom.

accidenwf
;
vetii commemorassm^ memoria tenerei, atque eo gravius ferre quo minus
alicujus
injuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuit difficile ca-
acqui si alicujus injuriae sibi conscius fuiscitiLissent

:
merito populi Bom.
set,
non
;
fuissc
difficile
vere
sed eo deceptus
est,
cavere
sed eo deceptu?,
quare
ti-
quod neque commissum a

se intellegeia^ quare timeneque sine causa ret,
quod neque commissum

a se
intellegerei
meret, neque sine causa
OF REPORTED SPEECH
ORATIO OBLTQUA.
147
ORATIO RECTA.
timendum puta&a.
si
Quod
timendum
si
putaref.
Quod
contumeliae veteris oblivisci voZo, num etiarn recentium injuriarum, quod me invito iter per
contumeliae veteris oblivisci vellct, num etiam
recentium
quod
eo l
injuriarum, invito iter per
vim per provinciam tempt ash's, quod Aeduos, quod Ambarros, quod Allobrogas vexasfo's,niemoriam deponere possum ? Quod
victoria tam insolenter gloriemini, quodque tam diu vos impune in2 jurias tulisse admiramm*,
vestra
provinciam per vim temquod Aeduos, quod Ambarros, quod Allobrogas vexassen^, memoriam deponere posse ?
ptassewi,
Quod
sua
victoria
tam
insolenter
gloriarentur,
quodque tam diu se impune injurias tulisse adm.irarentur, eodem pertinere. ea ita sint, tamen
eodem
ita
pertinet.
vobis
Cum
si
haec
sint,
tamen
ob-
Cum
si
mihi dabuntur, uti ea quae pollicemini facturos intellegam, et si
sides a
obsides
ab
eis
sibi
dentur, uti ea quae polliceantur facturos intellegaf,
Aeduis de
tulistis,
injuriis,
quas
in-
ipsis sociisque
eorum
item
si
Allobrogivobiscum.
Aeduis de injuriis, quas ipsis sociisque eorum intulermf, item si Alloet si
bus
satisfacie^s,
brogibus
satisfaciawf,
sese
pacem
faciam.
cum
turum.
iis
pacem
esse
fac-
(Caes.)
(Tribuni militum nihil
Quid
est
aut turpius quam auctore hoste de summis rebus capere conlevius
temere agendum existimabant) Quid esse levius

:
silium ?
1
aut turpius quam auctore hoste de summis rebus capere consilium ? (Caes.)
eo
clause in
2
is used for se because it does not refer to the subject of the which it occurs. 'Have carried off scot-free,' i.e. 'have not been punished far.'
148
KLKMENTAltY LATIN C.KAMMAR
O RATIO
RECTA.
OllATIO OBLIQUA.
(Litteras
ad senatum
Deorum immortalium
nignitate,
weis
be-
misit,)
deum immortalium
consiliis,
militum, Veii jam erunt in potestate populi Bomani quid de

patientia
:
benignitate, .SUM consiliis, patientia militum, Veio* jam/ore in potestate populi
Romani
quid de praeda
censerent?
(Liv.)
praeda faciendum
censeti* ?
faciendum
136. When an indicative mood is found in the midst of oratio obliqua, it expresses an assertion of the narrator, not of the person whose speech is being reported, as
Caesar per exploratores certior factus

parte
vici,
est,
ex ea
quam
Gallis
(Caes.)
concesserat,
omnes
Caesar's
noctu discessisse.
(The clause
quam
Gallis
concesserat
:
is
explanation for the benefit of his readers describe it to him otherwise.)
the scouts would
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES

137. A simple sentence contains only one assertion. cumpound sentence contains two or more assertions, one hv the side of the other (co-ordinate), usually connected ]>y a conjunction, or a relative, as
Rem
A
cognoscit et sententiam
dicit, J/c limr*
flic
case
tuul gives his opinion.
which one
tfn.l>ni'di.n(ite
complex sentence contains two or more sentences, of is jn-inri./>(il, and the others si/hon/f/nifc to it.
verbial,
sentences arc xiil>x1tintlntL f/d/rr/in/J, or <nlaccording as they tako iht- pbiro of a, subst.-mtive, an adjective, or an adverb.
138.
tivc, in
Sllbstmtivdl
flic
sontonces
may
roprosonf,
ive case,
;is
;i
sn])sl,an-
nominative or the
;ic.<-us;i,t
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES

(</.)
149
Gratum
est
literally that
(b)
(c)
Scio eum know him to have come. Scio cur venerit, / know literally / know why he came
quod venisti, Your arrival is welcome, you have come is welcome. venisse, / know of his arrival, literally /
the
;
purpose of his coming, a dependent question.
(d)
Peto ut omnes poenas dent, / *k for the punishment of all, literally / ask that all may pay penalties.
Such 'sentences
as the last are
properly sentences of
purpose or
result.
139. Adjectival sentences are always introduced relative adjective or adverb.
by a
Hie est quern quaerimus,

Adverbial
sentences
This
is the
man we
are seeking.
qualify verbs or adjectives, and are introduced by a conjunction or a relative adverb. The following are the chief ideas denoted by such sentences
:
1.
Place,
where, whence, whither.

etc.
(Local) with ubi,
unde, quo,
2.
Time,
as.
when, during which,

(Temporal) with
as,
until,
after,
before,
as
often
etc.
cum,
ut,
dum, postquam,
with
ut,
3. Manner, quasi, velut. 4.
as
though.
lest.
(Comparative)
(Final)
Purpose, in order that,

Result, so that.
with ut, ne,
ut ne.
5.
6.
(Consecutive}
with ut, ut non.

if
Condition,
si,
if,
provided that,
with
7.
dum,
dum
only.
(Conditional)
modo.
since.
Cause, because,
etc.
(Causal) with
(Concessive)
quod, cum,
quia,
8.
Concession, although.
with etsi,
quam-
quam,
ut, etc.
150
ELEMENTARY LATIN (J1IAMMAK
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
140. In subordinate sentences the time
is
determined
Hence the present by the time of the principal sentence. and perfect subjunctive are used in sentences dependent on primary tenses, the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive in sentences dependent on secondary tenses. (The historical present, 106, 2, is treated sometimes as primary, sometimes as secondary.)
1.
In dependent interrogative sentences

(perf.)"!
;
we have
(a)
Vidi
Video Videbo
(b)
(c)
/ have quid facias I see I shall
seen]
Ywhat you are doing

see
)
(d)
what you Imee done quid feceris what you will do quid facturus sis / had seen Videram Videbam /quidfaceres I was seeing Ywhat you were doing I saw Vidi(aor.)J
"\
"j
(e)
(/)
quid fecisses quid facturus esses
irhtif- //<>u
liad
dmn-
what you were going

in
do
2. In consecutive sentences the sequence is the same, except that sometimes the perfect subjunctive is used after a secondary tense to denote a distinct historical fact, as
Inde factum est ut Galli urbem ceperint

ent), Hence
3.
it
//(/jîcucd that the
(not caperGauls took the town.
after
In final and jussive sentences the present is used primary tenses, the imperfect after secondary tenses.
lie ha* sJntf
lh<>
Occlusit portas ut hostes excludat,

<J<df* In
I'ci'ft
oilt
tf/C.
C/n
/ii/f.
Occlusit portas ut hostes excluderet,

to
ITc
dud
the ijufex
hep
out the enemy.
NOTES ON SOME USES OF THE CASES
151

141. Some transitive verbs take two accusatives, one marking the person, the other the thing affected these are doceo, teach celo, hide posco, flagito, demand ;
: :
rogo, ask
oro, pray, as
Pacem
The
verb, as
te
omnes oramus, We
all
latter accusative is retained
pray you for peace. even after a passive
Rogatus est sententiam, He was

142.
as
asked his opinion.
An
accusative
(a)
verb to denote
is used by the poets after a passive a part of the body, (b) a thing worn,
Tunica inducitur artus, His limbs are clothed with a Vestes induta recinctas, Clad in high-girt robes.
143. (a) The dative is very common pounded with a preposition, as
tunic.
after verbs com-
Imponimus onera jumentis, We place

But
proper
in prose the preposition
case.
is
burdens on
beasts.
often repeated with
its
(b) The following verbs may be translated by a transitive verb in English, but in Latin they denote a state, rather than a direct action, and are therefore followed by the
dative
adversor,
blandior,
diflldo,
am
opposed.
rival.
aemulor, am
am coaxing. am distrustful. displiceo, am displeasing. faveo, am favourable. fido, am trustful (so confldo). irascor, am growing angry.
152
ELEMENTARY LATIN
medeor, am
healing,
CiKA.M.MAl;
noceo, din hurtful. nubo, take the veil, i.e. marry parco, am sparing. pareo, am obedient. place o, am pleasing. praesto, am superior.
satisfacio, do enough for. servio, am a slave to.
(of a
woman).
studeo, am
supplico,
zealous.
am tempero, am
of
suppliant
sparing.
:
to.
And compounds obsum, am prosum, am

(c)
sum
the
such
e.
as,
in
way
of,
i.
of;
adsum, am beetle praesum, am over',

to.
on behalf
of use
Other verbs take a dative of the person and :m

is
accusative of the thing, which latter replaced by a substantival clause, as
often omitted, or
credo, trust. ignosco, overlook, pardon.
impero,
order.
invideo, grudge.
minor, threaten. persuadeo, persuade. suadeo, advise.
As hoc
tibi credo, I entrust thi*
to
you; tibi credo,
believe you-,
wealth;
Crasso invideo Crasso invideo, /
divitias,
ciinj
grudge, C. Ins
('nixxux;
imperat
flic
Gallis
frumentum,
he
orders
corn
of
<!<iii/s
imperat servo ut redeat,
he orders the slave
to
rcfuni.
<lative of the agent is used in prose only with gn-undivo, and sometimes passive |>;irticiples, and adjec-
tives in -bilis.

144. Prepositions are required with the ablative
1.
153
To denote an agent
with a sword.
rather than an instrument, as

est,
A
as
Caesare gladio occisus

2.
He was
with,
slain by Caesar
When
with
means
in
company
not
lij
means
of,
Venit
cum
due-bus servis, He came with two

is
slaves,
3. To express manner, when no epithet (except in a few adverbial expressions), as
employed,
Dixit
4.
cum
prudentia, He
spoke with foresight.
To denote
place ivhere, with a

of a
common noun,
as
or the
interior or
neighbourhood
;
town or country,
In castris, in the camp ad Hispania, in Spain. But with medius and totus in
5.
Romam,
is
near
Rome
in
usually omitted.
Usually
to
denote place
whence,
under the same
conditions, as
Ex
Italia
De saxo
pulsus est, He was banished from Italy. dejectus est, He was thrown down from the
rock.
145. The following verbs are followed by an ablative, which originally denoted the instrument utor, use (lit. vescor, feed on (lit. feed myself) employ myself) fungor, discharge (lit. busy myself); fruor, enjoy (lit.
:
enjoy myself) ; nitor, lean on (lit. support myself) ; So also opus potior, master (lit. make myself powerful). usus est, est, there is work to be done with, i.e. I need
;
there is employment,
i.e.
want.
Oculi suo
munere funguntur,
The eyes discharge
their
function.
Luce fruimur, We enjoy the light. Opus est nobis animis, We require
count ye.
154
146. (a) The genitive case is not used, as often in English, where a part of a thing, not really divided, is denoted by an adjective, as
Aversa The (I) following impersonal verbs denoting mental emotion are followed by an accusative of the person and a genitive of the object or source of the emotion (me)
:
Summus mons, The Tota urbs, The whole
top of the mountain.
of the city. chart a, The lack of the paper.
miseret,
discontent
;
(/) feel pity
pudet,
;
feel
;
shame
paenitet,
feel
;
piget, feel annoyance
so
also
miserate,
misereor, / feel pity which takes an accusative
taedet, feel weariness but not miseror, / com:
as
lot.
Paenitet te fortunae. You
are discontented with your
USE OF PRONOUNS
147.
Hie
is
the demonstrative pronoun of
the
ille of
first
person, iste of the second, ille of the third. " " is used of the nearer, sometimes the latter
Hence hie
;
the
more remote, sometimes "the former"; (ille is also used of a well-known person or thing :) iste of something
despised or disliked. Is denotes some person or thing named in the context, where mere reference without emphasis is required.
148. Se, suus are used with reference to the subject sentence ; sometimes we should use himself, them-
of the
selves,
his own, their own, in English, but by no means Thus Caesar Catoni dixit verba ejus sibi always. displicere, Caesar told Cato that his (Cato's) words (//*/i/<'<i*n/ if a him (Caesar). Ipse is an adjective of emphasis
:
pronoun
it
of the first or second person is not is understood to refer to the third person.
expressed,
Neque
sane, quid ipse sentiret, ostendit, did he show ivhat he thought himself.
Nor
indeed
USE OF PRONOUNS
149.
">;")
The
are
"
;
indefinite
quidam
"
used
in
some one quis is and after cum, si, nisi, ne, num.
sense requires
also,
it,
pronouns quis, quispiam, aliquis, affirmative sentences to denote used thus only in relative sentences,
but this
is
Sometimes, if the they can be used in negative sentences rarely the case except with quis.
Si quis aliquando quidpiam dixerit, If some one has at some time or other said something.
(subst.) and ullus (adj.), only in negative sentences and such as quivis and quilibet, any you please, imply a negative may be used in affirmative or, if the sense requires it, in
The pronouns quisquam

used
:
any, are
negative sentences.
that
Compare
Non puto quemquam hoc

any one
facere posse, / do not think with Non puto quemvis hoc facere posse, / do not think that any one you please (i.e. every one) can do this.
at all can do this,
150. Uterque, each, is used of two only, quisque, each, more than two. In the plural uterque and quisque are used of two sets or groups, and of more than two
of
Quisque is often used with groups respectively. se or suus, or with a superlative or an ordinal as pro se quisque dixit, each spoke for himself ; optimus quisque, all the best people; decimus quisque occisus est, every tenth man was killed. Quisquis, quicunque, as quiwhoever, are properly used as indefinite relatives
sets or
:
:
cunque hoc
more
errat, whoever says this, is mistaken. But they are sometimes used when quivis, etc., would be
dicit,
exact. Alius is other generally ; alter, the other of alius is one two, or the second; ceteri, the rest. Alius the other; unus et alter another ; alter alter, the one
is
one or two.
If
translated different
alius is repeated in the same clause it is alius aliud videt, different men see
:
15(1
ELK.MKNTAKY LATIN (iKAM.MAK
151.
singular
The
first
person
plural
is
often
used for
*
the
Excurremus
missioner
legati
to
ad Pisoneni,
plural
"
is
/ duill
<j<>
p//"
a com-
Piso.
The second person

For the
(1)
never used for the singular.

dicas, one
indefinite
"
one
we
find such expressions as

:
The second person

say.
singular subjunctive
would
(2) (3)
quis or aliquis
:
si
quis dicat,
if one si wild M/I.

</d.
an impersonal non licet ire, one n/n// //<>f is qui dicit, one who (4) a relative with is
:
USE OF CONJUNCTIONS
Et simply connects words and sentences ; atque -que something on which more stress i,s laid generally adds something of less importance to complete
152.
adds
the idea.
As
a rule,
is
if
there are three co-ordinate \vords a conelse
junction
used twice, or
not at
all
Summa fide, constantia, justitia, or Summa fide et constantia et justitia.

Not
as in English.
153. Sed, verum, ceterum, autem, vero, at, and sometimes quod, are used as adversative conjunction
contrast the meaning while connecting sentences and vero are never placed first in a clause.
;
autem
154. Aut,
vel,
or,
or, is
used where the

:
(lill'riviice is
important,
or,
where it is slight hence aut aut, either gest that two statements are mutually exclusive, vel
either
sug-
vel,
or that />fc<i*>\ that, lutth may ho tni<\ sive (seu), Sive (seu) unimportant. arc used when it is uncertain or indifferent trhrfhrr t>r, which alternative should Le taken.
or (if yon
is
the
choice
INTERROGATIONS
157
INTERROGATIONS
the
155. In simple questions -ne suggests nothing as to answer; videsne ? do you see? nonne suggests an
affirmative
answer
nonne vides ?
:
suggests a negative answer
num vides?
do you not see ? you do not
num
see,
do
utrum ? whether ? is often premember, but sometimes -ne is used and sometimes no particle is employed the second is introduced by an. Utriim hoc nescis an parvi facis? Do you not know do you care little for it ? this, or (Or nescisne
In alternative questions
fixed to the first
;
an ...
9)
Sometimes an introduces a simple question, when it is asked in consequence of something previously said. An putas me hoc dixisse ? Do you think, then, that I
said this
?
In dependent simple questions an force, and is only introductory

;
num
is
loses its special similarly used, but
less
commonly.
Rogavit
num
puer
/ do
abiisset,
not
He
asked whether the boy

is here.
had gone away.
Nescio an
In
adsit,
know whether he
dependent alternative questions common than annon for " or not."
necne
is
more
APPENDIX
A.
ROMAN MONEY
Rome was
chief coin
of
THE
earliest
coinage at
lead.
copper
(aes),
alloyed
with tin and
The
was the
as,
which was
supposed to weigh a pound, though no extant pieces quite reach

this weight. It was divided into 12 imciae ; and coins were struck for the half-pound (semis), four ounces (triens), three
ounces (quadrans), two ounces (sextans), and ounce (uncia). degrees the as was reduced in weight, until in B.C. 217 it weighed only one uncia, and afterwards only half an uncia. In B.C. 269 silver coins were first struck, the denarius =10
By
= 5 asses, and the sestertius = 2 J asses. = semis tertius, a half -as the third, i.e. 2|" asses.) (Sestertius After B.C. 217 16 asses went to the denarius, and therefore four to the sestertius and the value of the denarius was reduced to that of *T of a pound of silver. For the time of the Republic the value of the sestertius was nearly 2d., that of the denarius about 8jd. Julius Caesar struck a gold coin
asses, the quinarius
;
25 denarii. In reckoning money the sestertius was commonly used. Up to 2000 cardinal numbers are prefixed, e.g. ducentos But when milia sestertios accepit, he received 200 sesterces. would have been used, instead of milia sestertium, it was usual to say sestertia, the genitive plural being taken as a neuter singular and declined e.g. septem sestertia misit, he sent 7000 sesterces. Forms like sestertium sexagena milia, In the case of 60,000 sesterces, are, however, also found.
called aureus, equal to
:
160
ELEMENTARY LATIN CJJAMMAI!
tium = vicies centum milia sestertium, 2,000,000 sesterces. Witli such numbers sestertium was again declined, but only in
the singular
estate
:
amounts requiring the use of centum milia, numeral adverbs were prefixed and as the use of these always implied centum thus vicies sestermilia, these words were usually omitted
;
:
e.g. sestertio decies fundum emi, / Imuuht Hie. Mille sestertium = 8 10s. for a million (sesterces). nearly decies sestertium = 8500 nearly. (Translate Accepi
;
vicies ducenta triginta quinque milia quadringentos decem et septem nummos. Cic.) Interest was in early times at the rate of -^. T of the capital for a year of ten months (equal to 10 per cent for twelve Afterwards interest was calmonths), or fenus unciarium.
culated, as in Greece, by the month, and the legal rate was ^n> of the capital (sors) each month, i.e. 12 per cent. This was Lower rates were denoted by names derived called centesima.
,
from the fractions of the

cent
:
as,
e.rj.
higher rates by distributive numerals, tesimae = 60 per cent.
usurae quadrantes = .. per e.y. quinae cen-
The most common measures were Weight libra = | of a pound Troy. Length pes =11-6 English inches passus =
:
Surface:
jugemm = about | of an English acre. Capacity: sextarius = nearly a pint; modius = nearly
peck.
B.
5 pedes.
ROMAN RECKONING OF TIME
The year was generally described by the names of the two consuls who held office din-ing it. .It was commonly dated l>y the number of years that had elapsed since, the. foundation of the city, attributed to B.C. 753. Thus "in B.C. (53" would be expressed anno urbis conditae sexcentesimo nonagesimo primo M. Tullio Cicerone et C. Antonio consulibus. The year was originally divider! into ten months, beginning with March the, names were mensis Martius (//" month <>f Mar*\ Aprilis (of opniin<j\ Maius (of ifmii-tli\ Junius (of
:
thriving
ty,
Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October,
Novem-
APPENDIX
her,
161
December
To
months}.
B.C.
(the ffth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth these were afterwards added Januarius (the month
farm work}, and Februarius (of cleansing}. After 153 the year was held to begin with January 1st. In B.C. 44, after the murder of Julius Caesar, the month Quin tills was called Julius in his honour, and in B.C. 8 the month Sextilis received the name Augustus in honour of the Emperor
of beginning
Augustus.
The days
each,
of the
month were computed from
three days in
The called respectively Kalendae, Nonae, and Idus. name of the month was added to these as an adjective in agreeThe Kalends were the first days of each month, on ment.
which
it
was the custom
to proclaim (calare) to the people the
name and
The Ides were probably the The Nones days of the shining (root id) of the full moon. were nine days (according to the inclusive reckoning of the
divisions of the month.
Romans) before the
Ides.
the Calendar by Julius Caesar in B.C. 45, four months March, May, July, and October had 31 days, seven had 29, and one, February, had 28. Every other year an intercalated month of 22 or 23 days was inserted after February 23rd. After the reform the months were made of the same length as at present, i.e. two days were
Up
to
the time of the reform of
added
to January,
(the sixth
August, and December, and February 24th day before March 1st) was reckoned twice over in
every fourth year, hence called annus bissextilis.
In the four months originally long the Ides fell on the 15th, and the Nones consequently on the 7th in all the others the Ides fell on the 13th and the Nones on the 5th. The days of each month were counted backwards from the next chief day, the days between the Kalends and the Nones from the Nones, those between the Nones and the Ides from the Ides, and those between the Ides and the Kalends of the next month from the Kalends. The day before was denoted by pridie, followed by an accusative. In all other cases the reckoning was inclusive: thus January 13th was "the third " day before the Ides," March 25th the eighth day before the Kalends of April." There were two ways of expressing the
;
162
:
date in Latin either the preposition ante was omitted altogether, although the case remained the accusative, as if it were present: e.g. tertio (die ante) Idus Januarias, or it was
transposed, and by an attraction put the ordinal numeral also into the accusative: e.g. ante diem octavum Kalendas
Apriles,
commonly written
Sometimes such a phrase

preposition, as
as the last is
ex a.d. iii from June 3rd to August 31st. The civil day began at midnight and extended But the natural day was from sunrise to sunset. was divided into twelve hours (horae) of equal
Sept.,
a.d. viii Kal. Apr. governed by another Non. Jim. usque ad prid. Kal.
iii
Id. Jan.,
to midnight.
This period
length.
At
;
the day in midwinter is rather less than nine hours long at midsummer it is rather more than fifteen hours. Hence a
Rome
hora in winter was equal
to about forty-five of our minutes, in
The seventh hour always began The night was divided for military purposes into midday. four watches (vigiliae) of equal length.
to about seventy-five.
at
summer
The following table gives the days of the months for the Before that date, the dates in January, period after B.C. 45. August, and December would answer to those in April, etc.
JANUARY
(so
Aug. and
MARCH
(so
May,
Dec.)
1.
Kal. Jan.
a.d. iv
2.
3.
4.
a.d.
5. 6.
7.
8.
Non. Jan. Non. Jan. Prid. Non. Jan. Non. Jan.

iii
a.d. viii Id. Jan.
a.d. vii Id. Jan.

a.d. vi Id.
Jan.
12.
Prid. Id. Jan.

Id. Jan.
13. 14.
15.
a.d. xix Kal. Feb.

a.d. xviii Kal. Feb.
16.
a.d. xvii Kal.

a.d.
iii
l'Vl>.
30.
31.
Kal. Feb. Prid. Kal. Feb.
February is like April, except that Feb. 14th is a.d. xvi Kal. Mart, and so on to Feb. 28th, which is Prid. Kal. Mart.
APPENDIX
163
C.
RELATIONS B? BLOOD AND MARRIAGE
1.
164
A.

Aulus.
Mam.
N. or Num.
P.
App.
C.
Appius.
Gaius.
Mamercus. Numerius.
Publius.
Cn. D.
Gnaeus.
Deciinus.
Q. S. or Sex.
Ser.
Quintus. Sextus.
Servius.
K.
L.
Kaeso.
Lucius.
M.
M'.
Marcus. Manius.
Sp. T.
Ti.
Spurius.
Titus.
Tiberius.
alike
:
In old Latin C was used for C and tention to denote Gaius and Gnaeus.
E.
hence
its re-
ROMAN WRITERS
remembered
The following dates of Roman writers are to be T. Maccius Plautus, B.C. 254-184; comedies. P. Terentius Afer, B.C. 185-159; comedies.
M. Tullius Cicero, B.C. 106-43 sophy and rhetoric, letters. C. Julius Caesar, B.C. 101-44
;
speeches, treatises
on philo-
history of his wars (other
writings not preserved). Cornelius Nepos (rather later) ; lives of famous men. T. Lucretius Cams, B.C. 90-55 ; philosophical poem. C. Valerius Catullus, B.C. 87-54 ; poetry of various kinds.
87-34 history. 70-19 rural and epic poems. Q. Horatius Flaccus, B.C. 65-8 ; lyrical, satirical, and moral
C. Sallustius Crispus, B.C.
P. Vergilius
;
Maro,
B.C.
poems.
T. Livius, B.C. 59
A.D.
16
Albius Tibullus,
P.
B.C.
Sex. Propertius, B.C.
Ovidius Naso,
B.C.
54 50 43
B.C.
history of Rome. 19 ; love poetry.
after B.C.
A.D.
;
16
love poetry.
17
poetry of various kinds.
Phaedrus (about
this time)
fables in verse.
Of
Seneca
Silius,
;
later writers the
most noteworthy are the philosopher,

;
the
satirist,
;
and Statins
Persius the epic poets, Lucan, Valerius, the learned Pliny, and his nephew Pliny
left
the Younger,
who
has
many
letters
;
Quintilian,
who wrote
satirist.
on rhetoric
Tacitus, the historian
and Juvenal, the
APPENDIX
PROSODY AND METRE
165
F.
1. Metre in Latin verse consists in a regular succession of long and short syllables, and is not determined by accent, as in English verse.
by position. Diphthongs, and vowels resulting from by nature, as aurum, cogo (for cdlgo).
2. syllable nature, or (2) long
is
long, if the
vowel
is
either (1) long
by
contraction, are long
3. Vowels are made long by position, if they are followed by two consonants, whether in the same word or in two different But if the vowel was words, as pater est, but pater dat.
originally short, the short quantity mute (p, 6, c, g, t, d) or /, followed
may
be retained before a
a liquid
(r,
I)
same word,
as aper,
aprum
or
by aprum.
in the
4. Vowels are short which come before another vowel, or h followed by a vowel, in the same word, as deus, traho. Long vowels and diphthongs are shortened before another
vowel in composition, as pra~eustus. Except sometimes in the genitives of pronouns in

the genitive of e-stems in Greek words.
5.
-ei,
-lus, in
in fio (except before -er), and in
In words of more than one syllable, a final a and e are short, except that a is long in
(a)
(6)
(c)
ablative of a-stems,
mensa
is
imperative of a-verbs, ama ; indeclinable words, contra (but ita, quia). long in
of e-stems, facie
;
(a) cases
(6)
imperative of e- verbs, mone from o-stems, docte (but be'ne', male), (c) adverbs i is long, except in quasi and nisi ; it is common in mihi, tlbi, sibi, ubi, Ibi. o is long, except in Sg6, citd, dud, mdd5. (In later poetry some other words have o common.)
;
is
long.
166
6.
Final syllables ending in a single consonant, except s, But in compounds of par this is long, as dispar and also in illuc, istuc ; in lllic, istic (nom.) it is common.
are short.
;
7.
Of
final syllables in s as, 6S, OS, are long ; is, US, are short.
But
nominative
the genitive ends in -6tis, -Itis, -Idis, the e"S, as milSs, obsgs ; with the exception of abies, aries, paries.
(1)
is
when
(2) abe"s, etc.,
from absum, compds, imp6s.

in
(a)
etc.,
pone's (preposition), exds,

plur., as
(3)
is
accusative, dat.,
and abL
omnis,
mensis.
(6)
(c)
2nd sing. pres. ind. of i-verbs, as audis. velis, nolis, mails, possis (and other compounds of sum).
2nd
pers. sing. fut. perf.
(d)
and
perf.
subj., as
(4)
us in
(a)
(6)
amavSris, where it is common. gen. sing, and nom. and ace. plur. of u-stems. nom. sing, of nouns where the stem lias
long u, as
tutis.
palus, paludis
virtus, vir-
[There are many Greek words used in Latin poetry to which these rules do not apply and some exceptions, not often occurring, have been omitted.] In monosyllables the following exceptions to the above rules are to be noted die, hie (adverb), hie (proe, me, te, se, ne far, sal, sol en, quin, sin, non noun), sic, hoc, hue, due
;
:
par, ver, cur, fur ; 6s, glis, vis, lis but 6s (oris). also 6s (ossis),
lar,
8.
grus, sus.
Notice
When
followed
vowel or
a word ending in a vowel or diphthong was by another beginning with a vowel or h, the fin.il diphthong of the former word was omitted or slunv.l
over in pronunciation, so as not to count as a syllable in the verse. This is called elision. final ra was pronounced so lightly as not to prevent elision. Thus ilium habet, ipse adest, vive hodie are read
as equal to ill-abet, ips-adest, viv-odie.
APPENDIX
).
167
The metres most usual
in Latin verse are (1) Hexameters,
(2)
The hexameter
dactyl or a spondee.
verse consists of six measures, each either a In a dactyl, one long syllable is followed
(-
by two short ones

syllables ( to a spondee.
).
^)
dactyl
is
in a spondee there are two long therefore equal in metrical length
In a hexameter the first four measures or feet may be dactyls or spondees at pleasure ; the fifth is always (with rare excep(The last syllable of a tions) a dactyl, the sixth a spondee.
line, if
is
not long by nature, is counted so for the metre.) There always a caesura, i.e. a place where a word ends in the middle of a foot, either in the third foot, or in the fourth, or
commonly
in both.
e.y.
Pellibus| mcubu|itl|stra|tis
som nosque
pe|tivit.
Elegiac couplets consist of a hexameter, followed by a The pentameter consists of two parts, each answerpentameter. ing to the first two feet and a half of the hexameter, except
10.
that in the latter half spondees are not admitted.
Thus
e.g.
Optima cum
|
ca|ra[|
matre re|hcta
sor|or.
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GRAMMAR

ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR

HENRY JOHN EOBY

All rights reserved

intended to be used as an introduction

in Latin grammars, but

engaged with the

elements of the language.

book have been reproduced with

occasional simplifications of language, other parts have

more advanced work, and that Jie

useful suggestions have been received from

of Christ Church, Oxford.

The Latin Language

10-12. Inflexions in general 13-32. Inflexions of Nouns

Comparison of Adjectives Numerals Adverbs Inflexions of Verbs

Deponent Verbs (71)

List of Irregular Verbs

ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR

Principal Use of Cases

(86) Dative (87) Ablative (88) Genitive (89)

Gerunds, Gerundive, Supine

117 118 118 120 120

Use of Verb Inflexions

120 122 122

Mood and Imperative Mood Subjunctive Mood

124-129. Contrasted Uses of the Indicative

130-136. Reported Speech 137-139. Different Kinds of Sentences

140 142 148 150

147-151. Use of Pronouns

152-154. Use of Conjunctions

Roman Money Roman Reckoning

Relations by Blood and Marriage

.160 .163 .163

ELEMENTARY LATIN GEAMMAE

LATIN was the language spoken by the inhabitants

the language of their writings which

especially treated of in this

Such sounds are called nasal. and was always followed by a

followed by u, and qu (pronounced as in English) regarded in prosody as a single consonant.

merely written for cs.

The following Table shows the

ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR

The vowels one to another.

be arranged thus, so as to suggest the relation of

Vowels are either lony by nature,

long, the vowel

syllable in every Latin

Many words underwent

were sometimes omitted, as vene

the middle one

omitted, as fulmen, lightning (for fulgmen), from fulgere,

partially to the latter,

as (1) ces-si for ced-si,

as ille, illic unde, undique ; but e remains before r, as piper, piper-is,

The quantity of vowels

thus short vowels

are lengthened (1) When a consonant is omitted, as

from jugum, a yoke

word, as calcar for calcare,

when the syllable becomes amator compared with

ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR