June 7, 2001 16:36 WSPC/146-MPLA 00410

Modern Physics Letters A, Vol. 16, No. 16 (2001) 1049–1059

c World Scientific Publishing Company

HER X-1: A QUARK DIQUARK STAR?

R. SHARMA∗ and S. MUKHERJEE†

Department of Physics, North Bengal University, Dist: Darjeeling 734430, India

Received 20 January 2001

Using a general solution to the Vaidya–Tikekar model for a spherically symmetric super-
dense star, we show that the equation of state (EOS) of a star with values of mass and
radius within the experimental ranges for Her X-1 (a compact X-ray binary pulsar),
agrees accurately with the EOS obtained by Horvath et al.,1 who considered a quark–
diquark mixture in equilibrium. Nevertheless, we note that the boundary condition
chosen for bosonic (diquark) component in Ref. 1 is not appropriate and the identi-
fication of Her X-1 as a quark–diquark star remains inconclusive.

1. Introduction
Internal composition of highly compact objects like neutron stars has become a
subject of considerable interest in recent years. The density inside the core of these
compact objects are greater than normal nuclear matter density (ρnuc ≈ 2.8 ×
1014 g cm−3 ) and hence many exotic phases may exist inside such stars. It is now
believed that hadronic matter at high enough supernuclear densities may undergo a
transition to a deconfined state of quarks and gluons. Schertler et al.2 showed that
quark phases soften the equation of state (EOS) of neutron star matter at high
densities leading to a more compact equilibrium configuration. One of the most
interesing features of such a compact star is its mass to radius ratio. The X-ray
pulsar Her X-1 is one such compact object whose estimated mass and radius are
0.98 ± 0.12M and 6.7 ± 1.2 km, respectively. If this semi-empirical mass–radius
relation for Her X-1, derived by Li et al.,3 is correct, the question of the composition
of Her X-1 becomes very interesing since standard neutron star EOS cannot give
this compactness. Considering MIT bag model to describe the quark phases, Li
et al.3 suggested that Her X-1 might be a strange star. But Masden4 pointed out
that strange matter is unstable for a bag constant B 1/4 above 164 MeV, considered
by Li et al.,3 Horvath et al.1 in a recent paper have made the suggestion that
Her X-1 might be a mixture of free quarks and diquarks, the latter having a self-
interaction described by an effective Λ4 |Φ|4 potential. They made use of the results of

∗ E-mail: ranjan@nbu.ernet.in
† E-mail: sailom@nbu.ernet.in

1049
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1050 R. Sharma & S. Mukherjee

Ruffini and Bonazzola5 and Colpi et al.,6 who studied the equilibrium configuration
of a system of massive scalar field. Henriques et al.7 have found an equilibrium
configuration for stellar objects made of both bosons and fermions and analyzed
their stability conditions. The possible existence of a diquark at densities slightly
above the deconfinement stage has been pointed out by Donogue and Sateesh.8
Kastor et al.9 computed an approximate EOS for a quark–diquark mixture and
showed that at comparatively low density this has the form of a polytrope p(ρ) =
KρΓ , with adiabatic index Γ = 2, where p and ρ denote pressure and energy density
of the star and K is a dimensional quantity. Her X-1, however, is a more compact
object. Considering all these aspects, the suggestion of Horvath et al.1 merits a
detailed investigation.
In this letter, we have studied the problem of Her X-1 from a different angle.
The standard method to describe a spherically symmetric, non-rotating, static star
having an interior metric (we take 8πG = c = 1)

ds2 = −e2γ(r) dt2 + e2µ(r) dr2 + r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θ dφ2 ) , (1)

where r is the radial coordinate, is to solve the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff

(TOV) equations

dp 2m(r) + pr3
= −(ρ + p) , (2)
dr r2 (1 − 2m(r)
r )

dm 1
= ρr2 . (3)
dr 2
If the equation of state p = p(ρ) is known, all the macroscopic properties of the star
such as mass, radius etc. can be given in terms of a single parameter, e.g. the central
density ρc . One integrates the TOV equations numerically, using the boundary
conditions (i) M (0) = 0, (ii) p(0) = p(ρc ), (iii) p(b) = 0 and (iv) e2ν(b) = 1 − 2M(b)
b ,
where b is the radius of the star. Since the physics of the matter content inside the
core of a very compact star like Her X-1 is very poorly understood, we will make a
departure from this standard method and use an alternative approach.

2. The Solution
The model we consider here was studied first by Vaidya and Tikekar10 and also by
others.11 – 16 It has been designed to be useful in cases where the equation of state is
not known. In contrast to the procedure based on TOV equations, outlined above,
one prescribes here a given geometry and then looks for a suitable matter that can
support this geometry. This may be looked upon as complementary to the method
based on TOV equations. The general solution of the Vaidya–Tikekar model has
been given by Maharaj and Leach15 as well as by Mukherjee et al.16 We give below
an outline of the model, which will be used later.
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Her X-1: A Quark–Diquark Star? 1051

In this model one starts with the line element (1) with an ansatz

1 + λr2 /R2
e2µ = , (4)
1 − r2 /R2
where λ and R are two parameters, which measure the spheroidal characters of
the {t = constant} hypersurface (which is spheroidal when embedded in a four-
Euclidean space). Assuming that the matter is a perfect fluid, the Einstein’s field
equations for the metric (1) can be written as

(1 − e−2µ ) 2µ0 e−2µ

ρ= + , (5)
r2 r

2γ 0 e−2µ (1 − e−2µ )
p= − , (6)
r r2
 
−2µ 00 02 0 0 γ0 µ0
p=e γ +γ −γ µ + − , (7)
r r

where primes denote differentiation with respect to r. In (5)–(7), ρ represents the

energy density and p, the isotropic pressure.
Combining Eqs. (6) and (7), we get

γ0 µ0 (1 − e2µ )
γ 00 + γ 0 − γ 0 µ0 −
2
− − = 0. (8)
r r r2
If we write

ψ = eγ , (9)
r2
x2 = 1 − , (10)
R2
 1/2
λ
z= x, (11)
λ+1

the equation of pressure isotropy (8) takes the form

(1 − z 2 )ψzz + zψz + (λ + 1)ψ = 0 . (12)

This admits the general solution16

 
cos[(n + 1)ζ + ν] cos[(n − 1)ζ + ν]
ψ(z) = eγ = A − , (13)
n+1 n−1

where ζ = cos−1 z, and A and ν are constants, to be determined by matching the

solution with the exterior Schwarzschild solution,
   −1
2M 2M
ds2 = − 1 − dt2 + 1 − dr2 + r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θ dφ2 ) (14)
r r
June 7, 2001 16:36 WSPC/146-MPLA 00410

1052 R. Sharma & S. Mukherjee

at the boundary, r = b, i.e.

2M
e2γ(b) = 1 − , (15)
b
 −1
2M
e2µ(b) = 1− . (16)
b

In this model the energy density and pressure are given, respectively, by
 
1 2
ρ= 2 1 + , (17)
R (1 − z 2 ) (λ + 1)(1 − z 2 )
 
1 2zψz
p=− 1 + . (18)
R2 (1 − z 2 ) (λ + 1)ψ

The mass of the star of radius b in this model is given by

(1 + λ)b3 /R2
M= . (19)
2(1 + λb2 /R2 )

The radius may be determined from the condition that the pressure should vanish
at the boundary, r = b, which gives

ψ 0 (zb ) (λ + 1)
=− . (20)
ψ(zb ) 2zb

The model has four parameters: λ, R, A and ν. If the values of mass and radius
are given, we have two free parameters, one of which is utilized to match with the
exterior Schwarzschild metric. Thus we are left with one parameter, say λ, which
may be used to characterize the relevant equation of state. Thus the model describes
a one-parameter family of stars for given M and b. It will, however, be a happy
coincidence if such stars occur in nature.
The model, though exceedingly simple, satisfies the physical constraints of a
realistic star, if λ ≥ 3/17.16 Following the method developed by Chandrasekhar,17
Knutsen18 showed that Vaidya–Tikekar10 model is stable with respect to infinitesi-
mal radial pulsation for λ = 2. Similar stability calculation was also done by Tikekar
et al.19 for the same value of λ, i.e. λ = 2. The general solution (13) permits us
to study the stability for any value of λ. We have checked that the model remains
stable against radial perturbations for a large λ, in particular for λ = 100, which
will be relevant for our calculations. The model has recently been generalized to
the case of charged matter.20
The expressions (17) and (18) for ρ and p provide the EOS required to be
satisfied by the matter content. In the following sections we will show that if Her
X-1 is assumed to contain a mixture of deconfined quarks and diquarks, the relevant
equation of state, given by Horvath et al.,1 agrees very well with the implicit relation
given by ρ and p of this model for a large λ ≈ 100.
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Her X-1: A Quark–Diquark Star? 1053

3. Quark Diquark EOS

The possibility of diquarks was first mentioned by Gell-Mann.21 Ida and
Kobayashi22 and Lichtenberg and Tassie23 introduced diquarks in order to describe
a baryon as a composite state of two particles, a quark and a diquark. Quarks are
color-triplet, spin-1/2 objects. The possible states of a pair of quarks are thus given
by (M, J) = (3̄, 0), (3̄, 1), (6, 0) and (6, 1), where M and J denote the color SU(3)
quantum number and spin, respectively. Of these, (3̄, 0) state gives the maximum
binding energy. Henceforth by the term diquark we will mean only this (3̄, 0) state.
The Lagrangian for this bosonic diquark field may be chosen as
1 Λ
Leff = (∂µ Φ∗ ∂ µ Φ − m2D Φ∗ Φ) − (Φ∗ Φ)2 . (21)
2 4
Here, mD is the diquark mass whose value was found to be23 575 MeV and the
value of the dimensionless coupling constant Λ = 111.2,24 as determined by the
observed ∆ − N mass splitting.
Energy–momentum tensor for the diquark field has the form
 
1 ∗ ∗ 1 ρσ ∗ 1
Tµγ (Φ) = (Φµ Φγ + Φµ Φγ ) − gµγ g Φρ Φσ + mD |Φ| + Λ|Φ| .
2 2 4
(22)
2 2 2
Energy–momentum tensor for the fermionic field can be written as

Tµγ (f ) = (ρf + pf )uµ uγ + gµγ pf (23)

where uµ is the four-velocity of the fluid.

So energy–momentum tensor for a mixture of quarks and diquarks is

τµγ = Tµγ (Φ) + Tµγ (f ) . (24)

The form of the scalar field, giving a static matter distribution, is assumed to be

Φ(r, t) = φ(r)e−iωt . (25)

For the line element (1), the field equations now lead to (introducing 8πG)
 
(1 − e−2µ ) 2µ0 e−2µ 2 −2γ 2 2 0 2 −2µ 1 4
+ = 4πG 2ρ f + (ω e + m D )φ + φ e + Λφ , (26)
r2 r 2
 
2γ 0 e−2µ (1 − e−2µ ) 2 −2γ 0 2 −2µ 1 4
− = 4πG 2pf + (ω e − mD )φ + φ e
2 2
− Λφ , (27)
r r2 2

 
γ0 µ0
e−2µ γ 00 + γ 0 − γ 0 µ0 +
2
−
r r
 
1
= 4πG 2pf + (ω 2 e−2γ − m2D )φ2 − φ0 e−2µ − Λφ4 .
2
(28)
2
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1054 R. Sharma & S. Mukherjee

The scalar wave equation

Φµ Φµ + m2D Φ + Λ|Φ|2 Φ = 0 (29)

now takes the form

 
2
φ00 + + γ 0 − µ0 φ0 + [(ω 2 e−2γ − m2D ) − Λφ2 ]e2µ φ = 0 . (30)
r

From Eqs. (27) and (28), we find that the pressure is not isotropic. But if φ0 is
very small, we can regain Eq. (8) which will lead us to the solution of Mukherjee
et al.16 Thus if the scalar field is almost homogeneous, the Vaidya–Tikekar10 type of
model may be used to study the stellar structure. It so happens that the scalar field
is essentially homogeneous inside the star. To see this we rescale our parameters as
Λ rmD
Λ∗ = , r∗ = √ ,
4πGm2D Λ∗
√ 4πGΛ∗ ρf
σ= Λ∗ φ , ρf ∗ = ,
m2D
4πGΛ∗ pf ω
pf ∗ = , Ω= .
m2D mD

In the case under consideration, Λ∗ turns out to be very large ∼ 1039 . We

may neglect terms of O(Λ−1 ∗ ) and rewrite Eqs. (26)–(28) and (30) in terms of
dimensionless quantities as
 
(1 − e−2µ ) 2µ0 e−2µ 2 −2γ 2 1 4
+ = 2ρ f∗ + (Ω e + 1)σ + σ , (31)
r∗2 r∗ 2
 
2γ 0 e−2µ (1 − e−2µ ) 2 −2γ 1 4
− = 2pf ∗ + (Ω e − 1)σ − σ ,
2
(32)
r∗ r∗2 2
   
γ0 µ0 1
e−2µ γ 00 + γ 0 − γ 0 µ0 + = 2pf ∗ + (Ω2 e−2γ − 1)σ 2 − σ 4 ,
2
− (33)
r∗ r∗ 2

[(Ω2 e−2γ − 1) − σ 2 ]e2µ σ = 0 . (34)

Here a prime denotes differentiation w.r.t. r∗ . Obviously, Eqs. (32) and (33) would
lead us to the solution (13).
The scalar wave equation (34) has two solutions:

(i) σ(r∗ ) = 0, which we choose as the exterior solution.

(ii) σ 2 = (Ω2 e−2γ(r∗ ) − 1), which gives the interior solution.

At the boundary of the star, we must have σ = 0 which determines the value of Ω.
June 7, 2001 16:36 WSPC/146-MPLA 00410

Her X-1: A Quark–Diquark Star? 1055

Going back to the coordinate variable r and substituting σ in Eqs. (31) and (32)
we get,
 
(1 − e−2µ ) 2µ0 e−2µ m4D 2 −2γ 2 −2γ
+ = 8πG ρ f + (Ω e − 1)(3Ω e + 1) , (35)
r2 r 4Λ
 
2γ 0 e−2µ (1 − e−2µ ) m4D 2 −2γ
− = 8πG pf + (Ω e − 1) .
2
(36)
r r2 4Λ

From Eqs. (35) and (36), we can write

ρ T = ρf + ρD , (37)

pT = pf + pD , (38)

where diquark energy density and pressure are given, respectively,6 as

m4D 2 −2γ
ρD = (Ω e − 1)(3Ω2 e−2γ + 1) , (39)
4Λ
m4D 2 −2γ
pD = (Ω e − 1)2 . (40)
4Λ
If we consider the star to be a bag containing up and down quarks and diquarks,
following Ref. 1 we can write,

3 π 4/3 ~2 5/3 5/3

ρT = mq (nu + nd ) + (nu + nd ) + ρD + B , (41)
10 mq

1 π 4/3 ~2 5/3 5/3

pT = (nu + nd ) + pD − B , (42)
5 mq

where nu , nd and nD give the respective number densities. B is the vacuum energy
density. Following Ref. 1 we take, B = 57 MeV fm−3 , mq ≈ 360 MeV and mD =
575 MeV, where mq is the light quark mass. Baryon number density is given by

2 1
nB = nD + (nu + nd ) . (43)
3 3
Also, the mixture has to be electrically neutral, which gives the condition,
1 2 1
nD + nu − nd = 0 . (44)
3 3 3
The above set of equations will have to be solved to get the number densities of
quarks and diquarks in equilibrium. The value of Ω, however, depends on the choice
of the boundary condition for φ(r), and as will be discussed in the next section, our
choice will differ from that of some earlier work.1,7
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1056 R. Sharma & S. Mukherjee

4. Results
For a given geometry, if we consider the solution (13), then ρT and pT in Eqs. (41)
and (42) become determined through Eqs. (17) and (18). Thus for a given mass
and radius and for a particular choice of the parameter λ, total energy density ρT
and pressure pT can be calculated using the model discussed in Sec. 2. To illustrate
the method, we consider a star whose mass and radius are given by 0.88M and
7.7 km, respectively (values within the experimental ranges of mass and radius of
Her X-1). Values of related parameters for different choices of the parameter λ are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Values of various parameters for a star of mass M = 0.88M , and b = 7.7 km, for
different values of λ (ρc and ρb denote central and surface density of the star, respectively).

λ R (km) ν A ρc (GeV fm−3 ) ρb (GeV fm−3 )

2 20.2238 2.2337 0.9333 0.6637 0.4374

5 27.5447 2.4153 1.6913 0.7156 0.4182
10 36.6273 2.4974 2.9926 0.7419 0.4094
20 50.0726 2.5445 5.6114 0.7579 0.4044
50 77.4878 2.5751 13.4818 0.7686 0.4012
100 108.7790 2.5858 26.6039 0.7723 0.4000
200 153.2640 2.5912 52.8501 0.7743 0.3994

In Ref. 1 the surface density of a quark–diquark mixture at the boundary is

0.4 GeV fm−3 . From Table 1, we find that for λ = 100, the energy-density at the
boundary is 0.4 GeV fm−3 and the EOS obtained in this model agrees accurately
with the EOS obtained by Ref. 1 for a quark–diquark mixture as shown in Fig. 1.
The predicted EOS is almost linear in both cases. The variation of dp/dρ with
different λ in our model is shown in Table 2. While the agreement is spectacular, one
should not conclude immediately that Her X-1 is a quark–diquark star. It should be
pointed out that the boundary conditions play an important role here. In Ref. 1 at
nB ≈ 0.36 fm−3 pressure p goes to zero, but diquark energy or pressure contribution
is not zero at that point. Actually, most of the boson star calculations25 – 29 are based
on the boundary condition, σ(∞) → 0 and the total mass of a pure boson star is
defined as M = limr→∞ M (r), where e2µ(r) = 1− 2M(r) r . But in the case where there
is a fermionic component, which has an almost classical distribution, the reasonable
boundary condition should be σ(r = b) = 0, where b is the radius of the star.
Imposition of this boundary condition may not allow a large contribution to the
energy density by the bosonic component. In our calculation, energy density of the
quark–diquark star at the boundary is ∼ 0.4 GeV fm−3 . If one uses the boundary
condition, σ(b) = 0, almost all the contribution comes from the fermionic part.
The diquark contribution vanishes at the boundary, while at the center of the star
June 7, 2001 16:36 WSPC/146-MPLA 00410

Her X-1: A Quark–Diquark Star? 1057

0.15

0.125

0.1

0.075
Pressure

0.05

0.025

0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Energy-density

Fig. 1. EOS of the quark–diquark mixture obtained by Horvath et al.1 (longer line) and EOS
given by our model for λ = 100 for a star with M = 0.88M and b = 7.7 km (shorter line).
Energy-density and pressure are expressed in GeV fm−3 .

Table 2. Variation of dp/dρ for different values of λ for a star of M = 0.88M and b = 7.7 km.

 
dp  dp 
λ  
dρ  dρ 
r=b r=0

2 0.3518 0.3418
5 0.2847 0.2714
10 0.2634 0.2479
20 0.2513 0.2362
50 0.2446 0.2292
100 0.2424 0.2268
200 0.2413 0.2256

(r = 0), ρD ≈ 0.055 GeV fm−3 , pD ≈ 0.004 GeV fm−3 where ρT ≈ 0.77 GeV fm−3
and pT ≈ 0.088 GeV fm−3 . Furthermore, to be realistic, one should consider a
core-envelope model, where one considers a core region containing a quark–diquark
mixture while the envelope is made of normal neutron matter. This is necessary
because in our model ρ(b) ≈ 0.4 GeV fm−3 , which is less than the density required
for deconfinement, viz. ρdc ≈ 0.6 GeV fm−3 .30 The junction of the core-envelope
region may now be thought of as a layer where the transition from quark phase to
the confined hadronic phase occurs. In our model, the matching of the core and the
envelope can be achieved easily by choosing for the two regions appropriate values
of λ and R. This, of course, presumes that the matter content in both regions can
be described by this model with appropriate values of λ. We are presently looking
into this possibility and the results will be presented elsewhere.31
June 7, 2001 16:36 WSPC/146-MPLA 00410

1058 R. Sharma & S. Mukherjee

To summarize, we have found that for a large value of λ, our model provides a
simple description of a class of compact stars like Her X-1. The EOS in this model
agrees very well with the EOS obtained in Ref. 1 for a quark–diquark mixture.
However, a correct imposition of the boundary condition may require a modification
of the parameters given in Ref. 1 and hence whether Her X-1 is a quark–diquark star
still remains inconclusive. It may be noted that we have not considered a possible
rotation of Her X-1. Li et al.3 have pointed out thatpthe rotation of Her X-1 is very
slow compared to the critical angular velocity ωc = GM/b3 , and hence the effect
of this rotation on the M − b relation will be negligible. Finally, we have shown32
that our model has an interesting scaling property, which permits us to determine
a sequence of bound states of the same compactness.

Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Govt. of India, New Delhi
for financial support and to IUCAA, Pune and IUCAA Reference Center, North
Bengal University, for facilities. The authors also acknowledge useful discussions
with N. K. Dadhich, S. D. Maharaj and E. P. J. van den Heuvel.

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