Chapter 14 Vibrations

The loading of a structure could be static or dynamic. In the case of static

loading, the load does not vary with time, and this implies that the
deformations of the structure stays constant. In the case of dynamic
loading, the loading varies with time. In that case it often happens that
the movements of the structure become that large and that rapid that mass
inertia of the structure cannot be neglected.
Depending on how rapid the load variations are, different dynamic
phenomena may occur. At a very rapid load variation, wave propagation
may occur. At other types of loading, vibrations or oscillations may
appear. At a slow load variation, almost no dynamic effects will appear.
In that case the loading may be approximated to a static loading, and the
loading is called quasi-static.
In this chapter vibrations will be treated (thus, wave propagation is
omitted). Phenomena as eigenfrequencies, resonance, and critical speed
will be treated. Stationary and transient vibrations will be dealt with, as
well as damping of vibrations. The system investigated are in most cases
discrete systems (composed of rigid masses, springs and dampers). Those
systems may have one or several degrees-of-freedom. A short review of
continuous systems will also be given.
14.1 Discrete system, one degree-of-freedom
Study a mass/spring system according to Figure 1.
The system consists of one rigid body with mass M
and one body that can undergo deformation, a
flexible, body, a spring, with spring stiffness k. The
mass of the spring is assumed to be that small that
it can be neglected when compared with the mass M
of the rigid body. This system is called discrete
because all the mass of the system has been
Figure 1 A discrete system collected into the rigid body (the body may also be
consisting of one rigid body considered infinitesimally small, i.e. small as a
with mass M and one spring point) and the flexibility of the body has been
(massless) with stiffness k collected into one single massless spring. In a
M
k
F t ( )
Chapter 14 1 2004-01-23/TD
general case, a system is called discrete when all
mass is collected in rigid bodies (that may be small
as points), and all deformation is collected in
(massless) spring elements. In many cases real
structures may be approximated to discrete systems.
Generally, a rigid body may move, translate, in three perpendicular
directions and rotate around three perpendicular axes. The motion of the
body can thus be described by six independent coordinates; three linear
coordinates for defining the position of its centre of mass and another
three angles defining rotation around the bodys centre of mass. The
body is said to have six degrees-of-freedom. If the movement of the
spring/mass system in Figure 1 is limited so that it can move (translate)
in one direction only (upwards and downwards), one says that the system
is a discrete one-degree-of-freedom system.
The displacement x of the mass M due to some load
F(t) will now be investigated. The displacement x =
x(t) of the mass is set to zero at the static
equilibrium position the mass has before the force
F(t) is applied on the structure (this means that we
need not bother about the influence of gravity). The
mass is loaded by a force F(t) that varies with time
t. When the force F(t) is loading the mass, the mass
will start to move and the spring will be tensioned
(or compressed) to give a force on the mass. The
force from the spring will try to pull back (or push
Figure 2 The mass M has been back) the mass to its equilibrium position. To study
separated from the spring and the motion of the mass, we shall separate
a reaction force S between (disconnect) the mass from the spring, and enter the
mass and spring has been reaction force S = S(t) on the spring and on the
entered mass, see Figure 2. The force-deformation relation
for the spring and the equation of movement for the
mass become
and
Here a dot (over x) is used to indicate time differentiation, i.e.
and . If the force S is eliminated from (1a) and (1b) one
obtains the equation of movement
M
k
x
S
S
t F( )
static
equilibrium
S kx (1a)
M x F(t ) S (1b)
x dx / dt
x d
2
x / dt
2
M x + k x F(t ) (2a)
Chapter 14 2
This differential equation determines the displacement x of the mass M
when the mass is loaded by the force F(t). The solution to (2a) is
composed of two parts; the particular solution x
part
, that depends on the
right hand side F(t), and the homogeneous solution x
hom
, that is the
solution to equation (2a) when the right hand side is zero, i.e., solution to
the homogeneous equation
The complete solution to (2a) is obtained as x = x
part
+ x
hom
.
First the homogeneous solution x
hom
to equation (2b) will be investigated.
This solution is the displacement x the mass will obtain if the mass is
given some disturbance and then is left to move freely. As will be seen,
this motion is an oscillation, or a vibration, and the movement is named
free vibration.
14.2 Free vibration
The homogeneous solution to equation (2a) is the solution obtained when
F(t) = 0, i.e. the solution to (2b). Assume that the homogeneous solution
can be written
Here the same thing has been written in two different ways in (3a) and
(3b). Both expressions contain two constants; A and B, and C and ,
respectively ( = = Greek letter small phi). It is noted that the assumed
solution (3) describes an oscillation. The angular frequency of the
oscillation is (omega). The (angular) frequency is measured in
radians per second (to be distinguished from cyclic frequency f, that is
measured in hertz (Hz), and is number of oscillations per second). The
constant C in (3b) gives the amplitude of the oscillation and the constant
(= ) gives the phase. The constants are determined by the initial
conditions. To determine the constants one has to know the position x of
the mass and its velocity at time t = 0 (for simplicity, it is assumed that
the oscillation is started at time t = 0).
If the term x
hom
from (3b) is entered into equation (2b),
one obtains
M x + k x 0 (2b)
x
hom
Asin (t ) + Bcos (t ) Ccos (t ) (3a,b)

x
Ccos (t )
C ( M
2
+ k) cos (t ) 0 (4)
Chapter 14 3
To obtain the homogeneous solution to equation (2) on the form given in
relation (3b) with a vibration amplitude C 0, the expression in
parenthesis in (4) must be zero. The system in Figure 1 has a solution on
the form (3b), with C 0, only when the angular frequency attains the
value =
e
= . This angular frequency is named the (angular)
eigenfrequency of the system, and it is denoted
e
. Is has the unit radians
per second (rad/s).
1
One may conclude, thus, that if the system in Figure 1 is disturbed in one
way or another, and then left to perform free vibrations (with F(t) = 0),
then it will oscillate with one single and unique angular frequency
e
.
This frequency, the eigenfrequency, is given by the system itself. In the
case studied here, the frequency
e
is given by the parameters M and k,
i.e. the mass M of the system and the spring stiffness k.
To summarize this discussion, one may conclude that at free vibrations
the system in Figure 1 will itself provide the frequency at which it will
oscillate. The homogeneous solution x
hom
to the equation (2a) thus is
where
e
= and the constants A and B, or alternatively, C and ,
are determined by the initial conditions. The complete solution to (2a) is
x = x
part
+ x
hom
, where x
part
is determined by the loading F(t) on right hand
side in equation (2a).

k/M
x
hom
Asin (
e
t ) + Bcos (
e
t ) Ccos (
e
t ) (5a,b)

k/M
1
Compare the condition that the expression in parenthesis in
relation (4) must be zero with the stability condition (4) in Chapter
13. There one had (kL P) = 0. In the case of (in-)stability, the
structure itself provided the critical load P
crit
(the parameters k and L
in 13/(4) gave P
crit
). In the case of vibration, structural parameters
(here k and M) give the eigenfrequencies. Both P
crit
and
e
are
named eigenvalues to the equations. Thus, both when the critical
load and when the eigenfrequencies are determined, so-called
eigenvalue problems are solved.

Chapter 14 4
From the angular eigenfrequency
e
= other
The system in Figure 1 has quantities describing the oscillating movement can
angular eigenfrequency be deduced. The circular eigenfrequency f
e
is
(rad/s), circular defined f
e
=
e
/2, and f
e
has the unit cycles per
eigenfrequency second, i.e. hertz (Hz). The (eigen-)period T
e
is the
f
e
=
e
/

2 (Hz) time (in seconds) it takes for the system to fulfil
and the period (time) one single vibration cycle. The period (time) T
e
is T
e
T
e
= 1

/

f
e
(s) = 1

/f
e
.
14.3 Example: eigenfrequency
Example 14/1 The theory given above will be applied to a
practical example. A cantilever beam, length L and
bending stiffness EI, carries a mass M, see figure.
The mass of the beam is small compared to M.
Therefore, the mass of the beam can be neglected.
The extension (the size) of the mass M is also very
small (it is a so-called material point; a point mass),
so rotational inertia of the mass can be neglected.
The system is at rest at times t < 0. At time t = 0,
the mass M is given a speed v
0
perpendicular to the
longitudinal direction of the beam. The initial
conditions thus are x(0) = 0 and .
Problem: Determine the angular frequency the
system will oscillate with, and find the solution x
hom
to the differential equation (2) (with F(t) = 0).
Solution: The displacement of the mass M is denoted x. This is also the
deflection of the beam at the mass. Disconnect the mass from the beam
and enter the reaction force S between the mass and the beam. For the
beam one obtains the deformation relation (a) and for the mass one
obtains the equation of movement (b), where
Eliminate S. It gives

k/M

k/M
L, EI M
L, EI
M
S
S
x
x(0) v
0
x
SL
3
3EI
and M x S (a,b)
M x +
3EI
L
3
x 0 (c)
Chapter 14 5
The similarity with equation (2) (with F(t) = 0) is easily seen. The spring
stiffness k here corresponds to the stiffness 3EI

/L
3
of the beam. The
eigenfrequency (the angular frequency the system will oscillate with at
free oscillations) of the mass/beam system becomes
From this the circular eigenfrequency f
e
=
e
/

2 and the period T
e
= 1

/

f
e
can be calculated.
The solution to (c) is given by relationship (5a). The initial conditions
give the constants A and B. The condition x(0) = 0 gives B = 0 and the
condition gives A = v
0
/

e
. Thus, one obtains
The reaction force S between beam and mass is obtained from (a) and
(e). It becomes
In (e), and also (f), it looks that when the motion has once been started, it
will continue for ever. This is what the numerical model gives, equation
(c). In practice, however, the motion will not continue for ever due to
damping in the system. The damping will subtract (take away) energy
from the system and, for example, transform it into heat. The vibration
amplitude will then attenuate and after a while the system will stop.
Damping, and damped vibration, will be studied in Section 14.10.
Example 14/2 Determine the angular eigenfrequency of the
mass/beam system according to the figure. The
beam performs bending vibration.
Solution: The displacement of the mass is denoted
x, and this is also the deflection of the beam at the
point where the mass is mounted. Disconnect the
mass from the beam and enter the reaction force S
between the mass and the beam. For the beam one
obtains the deformation x according to relation (a)
and for the mass one obtains the equation of
movement according to (b). Thus

3EI
ML
3
(d)
x(0) v
0
x
hom

v
0

e
sin (
e
t ) (e)
S
3EI
L
3
x
3EI
L
3
v
0

e
sin (
e
t ) (f)
M L/2 L/2 , EI
L, EI
M
S
S
x
Chapter 14 6
Eliminate S from (a) and (b). It gives
The angular eigenfrequency for the compound mass/beam system
becomes
Thus, here the beam acts as a spring with stiffness k = 48EI

/L
3
.
14.4 Stationary (forced) vibrations
Study once again the system in Figure 1. The oscillations of the system
due to a loading force F(t) will be investigated, The force F(t) varies
sinusoidally with time, so that F(t) = F
0
sin

(

t). The equation (2) then
reads
The solution to this equation is composed of two parts: the homogeneous
part, relation (5a,b), and the particular solution. Here the particular
solution x
part
will be focused at. As the excitation of the system contains
the factor sin

(

t), the particular solution should contain the same
sinusoidal factor. Assume x
part
= X
0
sin

(

t) and enter x
part
into equation
(6). Solve for X
0
and enter X
0
into x
part
. It gives
Here
e
= has been introduced. It is seen that when is small, i.e.
when <<
e
, then the denominator will be approximately 1, and the
amplitude of the mass displacement will be, approximately, F
0
/k = x
stat
.
This is the displacement the mass would have obtained if the load had
been static (i.e., if the load had been F
0
= constant). It is concluded that if
<<
e
, then it suffices to calculate the solution to the static problem,
and the dynamic contribution to the solution can be neglected. Such a
problem, where the dynamic contributions can be neglected, is named
quasi-static.
x
SL
3
48EI
and M x S (a,b)
M x +
48EI
L
3
x 0 (c)

48EI
ML
3
(d)
M x + kx F
0
sin (t ) (6)
x
part

F
0
/k
1 (/
e
)
2
sin (t )
1
1 (/
e
)
2
x
stat
sin (t ) (7a,b)

k/M
Chapter 14 7
If the angular frequency of the excitation is of the order of
e
(i.e.
), then the denominator in (7) will be very small, and the amplitude
of the mass oscillation will be very large. One has got resonance
vibration in the system. In such a case a very small force exciting the
structure may create a tremendous vibration of the structure. Therefore, it
is important to know the eigenfrequency (or eigenfrequencies) of a
structure so that one can avoid exciting the structure at such a frequency.
The factor in front of x
stat
in (7b) is called the dynamic impact factor, and
as seen, this factor can be very large.
14.5 Example: stationary vibration
Example 14/3 A bar, length L, modulus of elasticity E, and
cross-sectional area A, carries a mass M, see figure
(a). The mass of the bar is small compared to the
mass M implying that the mass of the bar can be
neglected. The mass is loaded with a sinusoidally
varying force F(t) = F
0
sin

(

t) in the longitudinal
direction of the bar, see figure (b). Determine the
amplitude of the mass vibration.
Solution: Introduce the coordinate x (in the
longitudinal direction of the bar) to describe the
displacement of the mass M. The elongation of the
bar will then also be x. Disconnect the mass from
the bar and enter the reaction force S between the
mass and the bar, see figure (c). For the bar one
obtains
and for the mass one has
Eliminate S. It gives
The particular solution x
part
becomes, using
e
= ,

e
M L, EA
F t ( )
x
(a)
(b)
M
L, EA S
x
S F t ( )
(c)
x
SL
EA
(a)
M x F
0
sin (t ) S (b)
M x +
EA
L
x F
0
sin (t ) (c)

EA/ML
x
part

F
0
L/EA
1 (/
e
)
2
sin (t ) (d)
Chapter 14 8
It is noted that resonance vibration may arise also when the mass is
oscillating in the longitudinal direction of the bar. The angular
eigenfrequency at vibrations in the longitudinal direction has already
been introduced, namely
e
= .
The reaction force S between mass and bar is obtained from (a). It
becomes
At resonance vibration (when the excitation frequency is close to or
coincides with the eigenfrequency
e
) the reaction force S will be very
large. The stress in the bar will then easily reach the ultimate strength of
the bar material and the bar will break.
One-degree-of-freedom systems
In this section some examples of physical systems that can be modelled
by one-degree-of-freedom systems will be given. Such systems could be
The pendulum (a swing)
The Helmholtz resonator, see Pedro and Pahud, page 22
Wobbling
and so on

EA/ML
S
EA
L
x
F
0
1 (/
e
)
2
sin (t ) (e)
Chapter 14 9
14.6 Critical speed
Investigate the axle in Figure 3(a). The axle has
length L and bending stiffness EI. At the mid-point
of the axle a rigid body with mass M is mounted
(for example a flywheel). The geometric centre of
the mass is situated a distance e (e for eccentricity)
from the centre line of the axle. When the axle
rotates with angular speed , Figure 3(b), the mass
will react on the axle with a force S that is
In relation (8) the deformation x of the axle due to
Figure 3 An axle carries a the force S has been introduced. The deflection x of
mass M that is excentrically the beam is (can be obtained by use of elementary
mounted case)
(a) the axle does not rotate, i.e.
= 0,
(b) at rotation with angular
speed the axle obtains a Solve for S, enter S into (8) and solve for x. It gives
deflection x at the mass
Here
e
= has been entered. (It is noted
Conclusion: that
e
is the eigenfrequency of the beam/mass
The critical speed (in radians system when the beam performs bending vibration.)
per second) equals the angular It is seen in (10) that the deflection x of the axle
eigenfrequency at bending increases rapidly when the rotational speed
vibration approaches the critical speed
e
.
It is seen that the critical speed
e
is the same as the angular
eigenfrequency of the system when it performs bending vibration, see
Example 14/2. It has thus been found here (for this case) that the critical
speed coincides with the eigenfrequency in bending of the beam. Even if
this is shown here in an example, it can be demonstrated that it is a
general property that the critical speed coincides with the eigenfrequency
in bending.
e
(a)
L , EI /2 /2 L
e
x
(b)
L , EI /2 /2 L
S M(e + x)
2
(8)
x
SL
3
48EI
(9)
x
e (/
e
)
2
1 (/
e
)
2
(10)

48EI/ML
3
Chapter 14 10
If, for a rotating axle, the mass/beam reaction force
S is projected on a plane (a vertical plane in the
plane of Figure 3, for example) the projection of the
force will vary according to sin

(

t), i.e. exactly as
the reaction force between the beam and the mass
when the beam performs bending vibrations;
compare with Example 14/1, the relation (f). It can
be concluded that there is an analogy between the
Figure 4 Deflection x as critical speed and the eigenfrequency at bending
function of rotational speed vibration.
for beam in Figure 3
From the relationship (10) it can be seen that the
deflection x of the beam changes sign if (or when)
the rotational speed increases so that becomes
larger than
e
. At a further increase of the rotational
speed the deflection decreases (i.e., its numerical
value decreases). When the rotational speed tends to
infinity, then the deflection x tends towards e, see
Figure 5 Beam deflection when Figure 4. The axle then rotates in a deflected
is very large position such that the geometric centre of the mass
M is situated on the centre line of the unloaded
axle, see Figure 5.
14.7 Discrete system, several degrees-of-freedom
Systems having more than one-degree-of-freedom (for example a system
that incorporates several rigid masses connected by several springs) can
be analysed in the same way as the 1-DOF system. The rigid masses are
disconnected from the elastic parts of the structure (the springs, for
example) and reaction forces are entered. For the elastic parts, the
force-displacement relations are determined, and for the rigid masses, one
equation of movement is written for each degree-of-freedom. The number
of equations thus obtained equals at least twice the number of
degrees-of-freedom of the system. If all reaction forces are eliminated, a
system of differential equations is obtained. The differential equations
contain the displacements as unknowns. The number of equations now
equals the number of degrees-of-freedom. For each degree-of-freedom an
equation similar to equation (2) is obtained. Each equation, however,
contains several displacements x
i
.
x
e
e
e

Chapter 14 11
Assume that the eigenfrequencies of the system are wanted (there are as
many eigenfrequencies as degrees-of-freedom). To determine the eigen-
frequencies an unloaded structure may be studied. A solution is assumed
where each displacement x
i
is written as an amplitude A
i
(unknown) times
sin

(

t) (or cos

(

t)), the phase has no influence here). The assumed
solution is entered into the system of differential equations. The factor
sin

(

t) can be deleted and what remains is a homogeneous system of
equations (zeros on the right hand side) with the amplitudes A
i
as
unknown. This system of equations will have a solution with one or more
of the amplitudes not equal to zero only if the system determinant equals
zero. This gives conditions on the vibration frequencies . Those
frequencies giving that the determinant becomes zero are the (angular)
eigenfrequencies of the structure. This can be compared with the relation
(4) above, where ( M
2
+ k) is the system determinant. Thus, the
number of eigenfrequencies obtained is always the same as the number of
degrees-of-freedom of the structure.
14.8 Example: two degrees-of-freedom
Example 14/4
An elastic beam of length 3a carries two masses (M
and 2M) according to the figure. Determine the two
eigenfrequencies of the system. The mass of the
beam can be neglected and the bending stiffness of
the beam is EI.
Solution: Dissect the two masses and enter reaction forces S
1
and S
2
between the beam and the masses. Enter displacements x
1
and x
2
at the
forces S
1
and S
2
, respectively. For the masses one obtains the equations of
movement

a, EI a a
M M 2
M x
1
S
1
and 2M x
2
S
2
(a,b)
Chapter 14 12
Divide the beam so that each part can be
solved by use of elementary cases. The
overhang, the part AB, becomes a cantilever
beam loaded with the force S
1
and the part
BC is a simply supported beam loaded by the
reaction moment S
1
a from part AB and the
force S
2
from the mass 2M. The slope of the
beam BC at the support B is called , and it
becomes
This slope is also the slope of the cantilever beam at the support B.
For the beam AB one obtains
For part BC one obtains
Solve (c) and (d) for S
1
and S
2
. It gives
Enter S
1
and S
2
into (a) and (b). It gives a system of two differential
equations:
Assume a solution x
1
on the from x
1
= A

sin

(

t) and x
2
on the form x
2
=
B

sin

(

t) and enter x
1
and x
2
into (g) and (h). It give a system of
equations for the two unknown amplitudes A and B. After sin

(

t) has
been deleted, the following system of equations is obtains (here written
with matrix notations)
1
x
S
1
S
1
2
x
2
S
2
S
M
2M
2
x
2
S
S
1
S
1
a
1
x
A B C
B C A B
S
1
a
(2a)
3EI
S
2
(2a)
2
6EI
3
8
x
1
a +
S
1
a
3
3EI

a(2a)
3EI
a +
a
3
3EI
_

,
S
1

3(2a)
2
48EI
aS
2
(c)
x
2

3(2a)
2
48EI
aS
1
+
(2a)
3
48EI
S
2
(d)
S
1

8EI
5a
3
x
1
+
12EI
5a
3
x
2
(e)
S
2

12EI
5a
3
x
1
+
48EI
5a
3
x
2
(f)
M x
1
+
8EI
5a
3
x
1
+
12EI
5a
3
x
2
0 (g)
12EI
5a
3
x
1
+ 2M x
2
+
48EI
5a
3
x
2
0 (h)
Chapter 14 13
The constants A and/or B may differ from zero only if the determinant of
the system of equations equals zero. When the determinant is set to zero
one obtains
This second-order equation in
2
gives the angular eigenfrequencies
The lowest of these two eigenfrequencies is called the fundamental
eigenfrequency of the system, and the second frequency is the (first)
harmonics.
By incerting one of the eigenfrequencies in the
Eigenmodes of the mass/beam system of equations (i,j), one can determine the
system: ratio between the constants A and B. By this it is
then possible to see how the masses are oscillating
with respect to each other. The form of the
oscillating beam is called the vibration mode or the
eigenmode (compare with the buckling mode at
instability). The eigenmodes are different for the
different eigenfrequencies. Here one obtains A =
3.28B for the lower eigenmode and A = 0.61B for
the second mode. The vibration modes at the two
eigenfrequencies have been sketched in the figure.

M
2
+
8EI
5a
3
12EI
5a
3
12EI
5a
3
2M
2
+
48EI
5a
3
1
1
1
1
1
]

A
B
1
1
1
1
]

0
0
1
1
1
1
]
(i)
(j)

M
2
+
8EI
5a
3
_

2M
2
+
48EI
5a
3
_

12EI
5a
3
_

,
2
0
or 2M
2

4
64M
2
EI
5a
3
+ 240

EI
5a
3
_

,
2
0 (k)

e1,2
2

16 t

136
5
EI
M a
3
(l)
1st eigenmode
2nd eigenmode

Chapter 14 14
14.9 Example: two critical speeds
Example 14/5 An elastic axle carries two masses according to the
figure (the axle mass can be neglected). Determine
the two critical speeds of the axle.
Solution: The solution of the Example 14/4 gave
two eigenfrequencies (at bending vibration):
These two frequencies also give the two critical speeds (in radians per
second) of the axle. If the (angular) frequencies
e1
and
e2
are divided
by 2, the critical speeds in revolutions per second (cycles per second,
Hz) are obtained.
14.10 Damping
In a real system, damping is always present. In
general, damping transforms the kinetic energy of a
system into heat, implying that a free vibration will
not go on for ever, as in equation (5a,b), but the
oscillation will attenuate and finally the vibration
will stop. One way to model damping is to
introduce a viscous damper in the model describing
the vibrations, see Figure 6. The viscous damper
has the property that it counteracts the motion of the
Figure 6 A system with 1-DOF: mass M. The motion is retarded by a force that is
mass M, spring stiffness k, and proportional to the deformation rate of the damper
damping stiffness c (compare with the property of a viscous material).
For the mass/spring system in Figure 6 one obtains
for the three parts, see Figure 7,
a, EI a a
M M 2

e1,2
2

16 t

136
5
EI
Ma
3
M
k c
F t ( )
x
Chapter 14 15
and
Eliminate S
1
and S
2
. It gives the differential
equation
The solution to equation (12) is composed of one
Figure 7 Mass M in Figure 6 homogeneous part x
hom
and one particular part x
part
.
has been dissected and reaction These solutions will now be investigated.
forces S
1
and S
2
have been
introduced
Under-critical damping ( < 1)
First the homogeneous solution x
hom
to equation (12) will be investigated.
The homogeneous solution is obtained when the right hand side in (12) is
zero, i.e. when F(t) = 0. Enter the undamped eigenfrequency
and the relative damping measure (Greek zeta), where . The
solution x
hom
can then be written, if < 1, i.e. at under-critical damping,
The constants A and B are determined from the initial conditions on x(0)
and . It is seen that the oscillations will diminish due to the factor
exp

(

0
t), because this factor tends to zero when time t tends to
infinity. The oscillation frequency is here =
0
( < 1). For
small values of (for example < 0.3) the vibration frequency of the
system, the damped eigenfrequency, becomes almost the same as the
undamped eigenfrequency. Therefore, it is often enough to determine the
eigenfrequency
0
(or eigenfrequencies) of an undamped system when
the eigenfrequency of a system is sought for.
Critical damping ( = 1)
If = 1 ( = 1 gives critical damping) the homogeneous solution to
equation (12) becomes
M
k c
x
1 2
S S
1 2
S S
F t ( )
static
equilibrium
S
1
kx, S
2
c x (11a,b)
M x F(t ) S
1
S
2
(11c)
M x + c x + kx F(t ) (12)

k/M
c/2

kM
x
hom
(t ) exp (
0
t )

'

Asin

1
2
t
_
,
+ Bcos

1
2
t
_
,

(13)
x(0)

1
2
x
hom
(t ) (A + Bt ) exp (
0
t ) ( 1) (14)
Chapter 14 16
It is seen that this solution does not give an oscillating motion of the
mass; the displacement just returns to zero after the system has been
disturbed.
Over-critical damping ( > 1)
If > 1 (called over-critical damping) the solution to equation (12)
becomes
Also in this case, as was the case at critical damping, no oscillating
movement will appear if the system is excited by a disturbance (for
example at time t = 0).
Particular solution
Now the particular solution to equation (12) will be studies. The mass M
is excited (loaded) by a sinusoidal force F(t) = F
0
sin

(

t). The excitation
contains the factor sin

(

t). Therefore a solution that contains the same
angular frequency is assumed. Thus, assume
Due to damping in the system a phase lag will appear between the load
F(t) and the displacement x. Therefore the angle was entered into the
assumed solution. When the assumed solution (16) is entered into the
differential equation (12) the constants X
0
and can be calculated. One
obtains
It is seen in (17b) that for small values of , i.e. <<
0
, one obtains an
amplitude X
0
that is almost the same as the static deformation F
0
/k
(compare this with the discussion above on quasi-static solutions). The
amplitude X
0
will have a maximum when =
0
( < 1). This
frequency, that can be called a resonance frequency, differs both from the
undamped eigenfrequency
0
and the damped one (that is
0
). It is
noted that when damping is present, the amplitude will not tend to
infinity at any frequency . The amplitude may, however, become very
large if the system is lightly damped (i.e. << 1) and the excitation
frequency is close to (or equal to) the undamped eigenfrequency
0
.
x
hom
(t ) A exp (
1
t ) + B exp (
2
t ) where

1, 2

0
( t

2
1 ) (15)
x
part
X
0
sin (t + ) (16)

tan()
c
k M
2
and X
0

F
0
/k

(1 (/
0
)
2
)
2
+ (2/
0
)
2
(17a,b)

1 2
2

1
2
Chapter 14 17
14.11 Example: damped oscillation
Example 14/6 The cantilever beam in the figure carries a mass M
at its free end. The beam has length L,
cross-sectional area A, and bending stiffness EI. The
mass of the beam can be neglected. The mass is
given a displacement w
0
, where w
0
is measured
from the equilibrium position of the beam/mass
system. At time t = 0 the mass is released so that is
starts to perform free damped oscillations. Assume
that the motion of the mass is damped (for example
due to energy transmission to the surrounding air)
by a force that is proportional to the speed of the
mass (proportionality constant c). In the figure this
is symbolised by the viscous damper. Determine the
oscillating movement w(t) of the mass.
Solution: Study the beam and the mass separately. Dissect and enter the
reaction force F
b
between the beam and the mass. The mass is also
influenced of the force F
c
from the damper. The displacement w = w(t) of
the mass is assumed to be positive downwards. The free end of the
cantilever beam will have the same deflection w as the displacement of
the mass M.
The equation of motion of the mass becomes
The deflection of the cantilever beam becomes (using elementary case)
For the damper one obtains
Eliminate the forces F
b
and F
c
from the equations (a), (b), and (c). It
gives the differential equation
The solution to the differential equation (d) is
L, A, I, E
M
M
F
F
w
w
c
b
F
b
c
c
F
c
w
M w F
b
F
c
(a)
w
F
b
L
3
3EI
(b)
F
c
c w (c)
M w + c w +
3EI
L
3
w 0 (d)
Chapter 14 18
(There is no particular solution here, because the right hand side of the
differential equation (d) is zero.)
The constants A and B are given by the initial conditions. Let time t be t
= 0 at the moment when the mass is released from the deflected position.
Then one has, at time t = 0, that w(0) = w
0
and . This gives the
constants A = 0 and B = w
0
. The mass will thus start to oscillate and its
motion is described by
It is seen that the amplitude of the oscillation attenuates (is damped out)
exponentially. If the relative damping is 0.01 (i.e. 1 per cent), then after
10 cycles (i.e. at time t = 10T
e
), the amplitude
will attenuate to
Thus, after 10 cycles the amplitude is only half of what it was from the
beginning. As time goes on, the oscillation will be totally damped out.
The larger the value of , the faster the oscillation will be damped out.
(This is valid as long as is less than 1. If 1 then other solutions, not
containing any oscillations, are obtained. The mass then returns to its
equilibrium position without performing any oscillating movement.)
14.12 Continuous systems
In a continuous system the mass is not lumped as it
is in a discrete system. Also the flexibility of the
structure is normally distributed all over the system.
Here vibrations of beams will be studied. The mass
Figure 8 Beam with a is evenly distributed along the beam, and the mass
continuous mass distribution m of the beam is m (kg/m). The total mass of the
(kg/m) beam thus is mL (kg).
According to the principle of dAlembert the inertia of the beam mass
can be seen as a force acting on the beam. The force is proportional to
the beam acceleration, thus, the inertia load on the beam is, per metre of
w(t ) w
hom
(t ) exp (
0
t )

'

Asin

1
2
t
_
,
+ Bcos

1
2
t
_
,

where
0

3EI
ML
3
and
c
2

3EI M / L
3
(e)(f)(g)
w(0) 0
w(t ) w
0
exp (
0
t ) cos

1
2
t
_
,
(h)
10 2 /
e
10 2 /
0
w
0
exp ( 0.01
0
10 2 /
0
) 0.53w
0

m, L, EI
x,t q( )
Chapter 14 19
the beam, . This is a load that acts opposite to the beam
deflection w(x,t), and it can be handled as a load counteracting the beam
load q(x,t). The total load on the beam thus becomes (compare with the
load on a beam resting on an elastic foundation, where the foundation
gives a force acting opposite to the beam load q(x,t))
Enter this load in the differential equation that describes the beam
deflection (equation 12/(8) in Chapter 12). It gives
Eigenvibration of the beam, when the beam performs bending vibration,
will be investigated. Therefore, let q(x,t) = 0. Further, this study is
limited to solutions of equation (19) that can be written on the form
w(x,t) = X(x)T(t), i.e., the vibration is synchronous. When this (assumed)
solution is entered into equation (19), an ordinary differential equation in
X(x) is obtained. The solution to (the homogeneous) differential equation
is
where
4
=
2
m

/EI has been introduced (more details on the solution is
given in Example 14/7).
Four boundary conditions gives four equations from which the constants
C
1
to C
4
can be determined. If the boundary conditions are homogeneous,
then the system of equations obtained will also be homogeneous. To
obtain a solution where at least one of the constants C
1
to C
4
differs from
zero, the system determinant must be zero. It gives a relationship
containing the angular frequency (that is included in ). Here one will
find an infinity of eigenfrequencies giving the system determinant equal
to zero. The first (the lowest) of all these eigenfrequencies is named the
fundamental frequency and the following (higher) eigenfrequencies are
the harmonics. If one of the eigenfrequencies is entered into the system
of equations determining the constants C
1
to C
4
, then three of the
constants can be expressed in the fourth, and the form of the beam
deflection can be calculated. This form is called the eigenmode or the
eigenfunction of the beam at that eigenfrequency. The amplitude cannot,
however, be determined. This solution approach is demonstrated in the
example below (Example 14/7).
m w(x, t )
q(x, t ) m w(x, t ) (18)
EIw
IV
(x, t ) + m w(x, t ) q(x, t ) (19)
X(x) C
1
cosh (x) + C
2
cos (x) + C
3
sinh (x) + C
4
sin (x) (20)
Chapter 14 20
When deducing the differential equation (19) some assumptions have
been made concerning the beam deformation (assumptions according to
the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory). One assumption is that the beam
length, which here shall be compared with the wavelength of the
vibration, should be much larger than the beam height. At high
frequencies (giving a short wavelength) the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory
does not describe the behaviour of the beam very accurately. In the case
of high frequencies, one may then expect that the eigenfrequencies
calculated by the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory are not very accurate. The
lower eigenfrequencies (with pertinent longer wavelengths) should,
however, be close to the eigenfrequencies of a physical beam. At higher
frequencies the Rayleigh-Timoshenko beam theory gives better result. In
that beam theory, shear deformation of the beam and rotational inertia of
a beam lamina are taken into account. This is further commented upon at
the end of Example 14/7.
14.13 Example: eigenfrequencies of a simply supported
beam
Example 14/7 Determine the (angular) eigenfrequencies at bending
vibration of a simply supported beam of length L
(m), bending stiffness EI (Nm
2
), and mass
distribution m (kg/m).
Solution: At bending vibration of a beam, the differential equation
according to the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory reads
Here EI is the bending stiffness of the beam (constant along the beam)
and m is the mass distribution along the beam (also constant). On the
right hand side q(x,t) (N/m) gives the loading of the beam. As only free
vibration of the beam will be investigated, the load can be set to zero, i.e.
q(x,t) = 0. It gives
Assume that (the homogeneous) solution to the differential equation (b)
can be written on the form
Enter the assumed solution (c) into the differential equation (b). It gives
m, L, EI
EIw
IV
(x, t ) + m w(x, t ) q(x, t ) (a)
EIw
IV
(x, t ) + m w(x, t ) 0 (b)
w(x, t ) X(x) T(t ) (c)
EI X
IV
(x) T(t ) + m X(x)

T(t ) 0 (d)
Chapter 14 21
This differential equation can be separated into two parts, where one part
depends on the x coordinate only, and the other part depends on time t
only. One obtains
The left hand side in (e) is a function of the coordinate x only, and the
right hand side is a function of time t only. If the assumption (c) is a
solution to the differential equation (b), the functions X(x) and T(t) must
fulfil the condition (e). This is possible only if both the left hand side and
the right hand side are constant. One obtains, using as the constant,
The second part of this expression, the relationship (g), gives
This differential equation for the function T(t) has the solution
The first part of (f) then becomes, using =
2
,
The differential equation (j) for X(x) has the solution
The solution to the differential equation (b) can then be written
This solution will now be used to determine the frequency function (the
function giving the eigenfrequencies) of the problem given. Boundary
conditions (BC) give the following equations for the constants C
1
to C
4
(the factor e
it
is omitted):
BC 1:
w(x=0,t) = w(0,t) = 0 gives X(x=0) = X(0) = 0, which gives
EI
m
X
IV
(x)
X(x)


T(t )
T(t )
(e)
EI
m
X
IV
(x)
X(x)


T(t )
T(t )
(f,g)

T(t ) + T(t ) 0 (h)

T(t ) e
i t
where
2
(i)
X
IV
(x)
m
2
EI
X(x) 0 (j)
X(x) C
1
coshx + C
2
cos x + C
3
sinhx + C
4
sinx
where
4

m
2
EI
(k)
w(x, t ) X(x) T(t )
{ C
1
coshx + C
2
cos x + C
3
sinhx + C
4
sinx } e
i t
(l)
C
1
cosh0 + C
2
cos 0 + C
3
sinh0 + C
4
sin0 0 (m)
Chapter 14 22
BC 2:
M(0,t) = 0 gives EI

w(0,t) = 0, that gives X(0) = 0,
and one obtains
BC 3:
w(L,t) = 0 gives X(L) = 0, which gives
BC 4:
M(L,t) = 0 gives EI

w(L,t) = 0, that gives X(L) = 0, and one obtains
The system of equations (m), (n), (o), and (p) can be written
To obtain a free vibration (i.e., to obtain a non-trivial solution) at least
one of the constants C
1
to C
4
must differ from zero. This requires that the
system determinant in (q) equals zero. When the system determinant is
set to zero, one obtains an equation containing the frequency (that is
included in ). The frequency equation obtained gives the (angular)
eigenfrequencies of the vibrating beam. The eigenfrequencies are here
denoted
e n
, where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ....
The two upper equations in (q) give C
1
= C
2
= 0. Using this in the other
two equations in (q) gives the frequency equation (the system
determinant)
The factor sinh

L always differs from zero and can be deleted. Therefore
the final form of the frequency equation becomes
For sin

L = 0 to be valid, the argument L must take some given values.
One solution, L = 0, gives that = 0, see (k). That solution is not of
interest here because then the beam does not vibrate at all. The other
solutions to (s) give

2
C
1
cosh0
2
C
2
cos 0 +
2
C
3
sinh0
2
C
4
sin0 0 (n)
C
1
coshL + C
2
cos L + C
3
sinhL + C
4
sinL 0 (o)

2
C
1
coshL
2
C
2
cos L +
2
C
3
sinhL
2
C
4
sinL 0 (p)

1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
coshL cos L sinhL sinL
coshL cos L sinhL sinL
1
1
1
1
]

C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4
1
1
1
1
1
]

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
]
(q)
2 sinhL sinL 0 (r)
sinL 0 (s)
Chapter 14 23
Enter = (m
2

/EI)
1/4
, see (k), into (t) and solve for . It gives
The frequency equation (s) thus has an infinity of solutions. The smallest
value of L =
1
L ( 0) that fulfils the condition (s) gives the vibration
frequency =
e 1
= (when n = 1). This frequency is the
fundamental frequency of the beam. The following solutions
n
L (n > 1)
to equation (s) give the harmonics of the beam (with frequency is here
meant angular frequency because is measured in radians per second).
By entering the value of
n
L into the system of equations (q), ratios of
the constants C
1
to C
4
can be determined. For example, the constants C
1
,
C
2
, and C
3
can be expressed by use of the constant C
4
. The constants
entered into (k) give the vibration form of the beam when it vibrates with
the frequency given by
n
L. This form is called the eigenmode or the
eigenfunction of the beam when it vibrates at the eigenfrequency given
by
n
L. The amplitude of the vibration is, however, unknown because C
1
,
C
2
, and C
3
were expressed in C
4
and the value of C
4
cannot be
determined. Therefore, the amplitude of the vibration is still unknown.
In the example studied here one obtained C
1
= C
2
=
0. Also C
3
becomes zero here, so the vibration
modes get the forms
In the figure the vibration modes, the eigenmodes,
of the three lowest eigenfrequencies of the beam
have been sketched.
L n where n 1, 2, 3, 4, . (t)

e n
n
2

EI
mL
4
where n 1, 2, 3, 4, . (u)

EI /mL
4
e1
2
3
e
e
Eigenmode 1:
Eigenmode 3:
Eigenmode 2:
frequency
frequency
frequency
X
n
(x) C
4
sin
n
L (v)
Chapter 14 24
In the figure of the vibration modes it is seen that in this example the
vibration wavelength in mode 2 (frequency
e 2
) equals the beam length
L. In mode 3 the wavelength is 2L

/3, in mode 4 the wavelength is L

/2
and so on (in mode 1 the wavelength is 2L). The eigenfrequencies
calculated here can be expected to give an acceptable agreement with the
real values of the beam as long as the wavelength of the vibration is
much longer than the height of the beam (it is assumed that the height
and the width of the beam are of the same size). At high frequencies,
when the wavelength is of the same order of magnitude as the beam
height (or width), then the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory is not valid, and
the eigenfrequencies calculated are wrong. The eigenfrequencies given
above are realistic only as long as the vibration wavelength is much
longer than the beam height or width. If the wavelength is less than ten
times the beam height (or width) then the calculated eigenfrequencies
should not be trusted. Instead, the Rayleigh-Timoshenko beam theory
should be used. Then, if the wavelength is less than, say, five times the
beam height (or width) even this beam theory must be rejected and a
three-dimensional analysis is required.
Chapter 14 25
14.14 Exercise problems
Eigenfrequencies
14/1. The spring/mass system in figure 14/1
performs free vibration. Determine the eigen-
frequency
e
of the system. For the spring the
relationship S = kx between spring force S and
deformation x can be used. Determine also the
cyclic eigenfrequency f
e
and the eigenperiod T
e
for
the system. The spring can be assumed to be
massless.
14/2. A cantilever beam (a bar) carries a mass M
according to figure 14/2. The system is excited so
that longitudinal vibrations appear in the beam (the
mass moves in the x direction). Determine the
eigenfrequency of this vibration. The beam mass
can be neglected when compared to the mass M.
14/3. The system in problem 14/2 is excited so that
bending vibration of the beam takes place, see
figure 14/3. Determine the eigenfrequency of the
system at this vibration.
14/4. An axle is fixed at one end and carries a
flywheel (rotational inertia J) at the other end. The
system is excited so that torsional vibration will
take place. Determine the (angular) eigenfrequency.
The mass inertia of the axle can be neglected when
compared to J.
14/5. Determine the eigenfrequency at bending
vibration of the system according to the figure. The
beam mass can be neglected.
14/6. Determine the eigenfrequency at bending
vibration of the system according to the figure. The
beam mass can be neglected.
14/7. Determine the eigenfrequency at torsional
vibration of the system according to the figure. The
axle mass can be neglected.
M
k
14/1
F t ( )
L, A, I, E
x M
14/2
L, A, I, E
x
M
14/3
L, GK J
14/4
M
14/5
L , EI /2 L/2
M
14/6
, EI L/2 L/2
J
2 v2 1 v1
14/7
, GK L , GK L
Chapter 14 26
14/8. A beam is composed of one elastic part
(length L, bending stiffness EI, and massless) and
one rigid part (length L, mass M), see figure. The
elastic part is simply supported as shown in the
figure, and the rigid part is an overhang. Determine
the (angular) eigenfrequency of the system.
14/9. The frame ABC (massless) carries a mass M
at the mid-point of part BC, see figure. Determine
the eigenfrequency of the structure when it vibrates
in the plane of the figure.
14/10. An elastic beam (length 3a, bending stiffness
EI, and massless) carries a point mass M at one end.
The beam is simply supported at the other end and
it is also supported by a spring, see figure.
Determine the eigenfrequency of the structure when
it vibrates in the plane of the figure.
14/11. The structure shown in the figure is loaded
by a constant force F. Determine the eigenfre-
quency of the structure as function of the force F.
What happens if F = k

L?
Stationary vibration
14/12. A cantilever beam (massless), see figure,
carries a point mass M at its free end. The mass is
subjected to the load (a force) P(t) = P
0
sin

(

t).
Determine the bending moment M
A
in the beam at
the support A when the beam performs stationary
vibration (i.e., disturbances, if any, from initial
conditions are assumed to have been damped out;
only the particular solution remains). The weight of
the structure can be neglected.
L, M
L, EI
14/8
rigid
a
M
a, EI
A
B C
14/9
2a, EI
M a
k
14/10
a, EI 2
M
k
L
14/11
F
rigid, massless
L, EI
A
A
M M
14/12
P t ( )
Chapter 14 27
14/13. An axle (massless) carries a flywheel, see
figure. The flywheel is subjected to a torque M
v
.
Determine the twisting moment in the axle at
stationary oscillation if M
v
(t) = M
0
sin

(

t) and =
0.75

e
(where
e
is the eigenfrequency of the
system).
14/14. An elastic beam (massless) is simply
supported and carries a point mass M. The mass is
subjected to a force P(t) = P
0
sin

(

t), see figure.
How much will the amplitude of the mass change if
the frequency of the loading force is changed from

e
/2 to 3
e
/2, where
e
is the eigenfrequency of
the system. Assume stationary conditions, i.e., only
the particular solution is of interest here.
14/15. Determine the horizontal displacement x =
x() of the mass M when the structure in the figure
is loaded by a constant force F (vertical) and the
time-varying horizontal force P(t) = P
0
sin

(

t).
(Compare with Problem 14/11.)
14/16. The structure in the figure (same structure as
in Problem 14/10) is loaded by a force
P(t) = P
0
{sin

(

t) + (1

/3)

sin

(3

t)}
Determine the maximum displacement of the mass
M if the excitation (angular) frequency is such
that
e
/3 < <
e
(where
e
is the eigenfrequency
of the system, see Problem 14/11.).
Free vibration, two degrees-of-freedom
14/17. Determine the eigenfrequencies of the beam
in the figure. The beam performs bending vibration.
The beam mass can be neglected.
14/18. A rigid massless beam carries two point
masses M. The beam is supported by two springs
with spring stiffness k. Determine the eigen-
frequencies of the system.
L, GK J
14/13
( ) t
v
M
M
a
14/14
a, EI 2
P t ( )
k
L
F
14/15
P t ( )
rigid, massless
a
k
M
14/16
a, EI 2
P t ( )
M M
L L L, EI
14/17
M M a
k k
14/18
a
Chapter 14 28
14/19. (a) Determine the fundamental eigenfre-
quency at bending vibration of the beam according
to the figure.
(b) How much will the fundamental eigenfrequency
increase if the two masses change place? The mass
of the beam can be neglected.
14/20. A rotor carries two flywheels according to
figure. Determine the eigenfrequencies of the
system. The mass inertia of the axle can be
neglected.
14/21. A beam (massless) carries two point masses
M according to the figure. The mass to the right (on
the overhang) is subjected to a force P(t) =
P
0
sin

(

t). Determine the maximum bending
moment in the beam at stationary vibration due to
the force P(t). The excitation frequency is =
0.9

e1
, where
e1
is the fundamental eigenfre-
quency of the system.
14/22. A simply supported beam (3L, EI) carries
two point masses M. One of the two masses is
loaded by a force F(t) = F
0
sin

(

t). Show that the
vibration amplitude A of the loaded mass is zero (A
= 0) when the frequency of the loading force F(t) is
such that 2
2
=
e1
2
+
e2
2
. Here
e1
and
e2
are the
two eigenfrequencies of the system. (This is an
example of so-called anti-resonance; the vibration
amplitude of the second mass is not zero. The
vibration of that mass will act so that the loaded
mass does not get any displacement at all due to the
loading.)
14/23. A rotor has two flywheels according to the
figure (same as in Problem 14/20). One of the
flywheels is loaded with a torque M(t) =
M
0
sin

(

t). Determine the twisting moment in the
axle if = 0.75

e
, where
e
is the non-zero
eigenfrequency of the rotor (the axle is massless).
a a a, EI
M
14/19
2M
L, GK
14/20
4 2J J
M
a, EI a a M
14/21
P t ( )
M M
L L L, EI
14/22
F t ( )
L, GK
14/23
4 2 J J M t ( )
Chapter 14 29
Critical speed
14/24. A rotor (an axle, circular cross section)
carries the mass M = 10 kg. The axle is simply
supported at A and C. Determine the critical speed
of the rotor. E = 210 GPa.
14/25. A rotor ABC carries the mass M. The rotor
is simply supported at A and C (same rotor as in
Problem 14/24). The geometric centre of the mass
is, however, situated e = 2 mm from the centre line
(the symmetry line) of the rotor. The highest stress
allowed in the axle is 200 MPa. How close to the
critical speed can the rotor be run?
14/26. Determine the critical speed of the axle given
in the figure.
14/27. Determine the critical speed of the axle given
in the figure.
Continuous systems, beam vibrations
14/28. Determine the frequency equation for the
cantilever beam (L, EI) with constant mass
distribution m (kg/m). (Thus, determine the equation
that gives the eigenfrequencies of the beam. It is the
equation one obtains when the system determinant
is set to zero.)
14/29. Determine the fundamental eigenfrequency
of the beam according to the figure. The beam has a
continuous (and constant) mass distribution m
(kg/m).
14/30. A spacecraft (modulus of elasticity E, total
mass M, second area moment I, and length L) is
subjected to free bending vibration at its
fundamental eigenfrequency. Determine that
frequency.
500 mm 500 mm
A B C
14/24
14/25
D
M
= 40 mm
= 10 kg
L M
14/26
L, EI 2
M M
L L
14/27
L, EI 2
L, m, EI
14/28
L, m, EI
14/29
E, M, I, L
14/30
Chapter 14 30
14/31. A simply supported beam, constant mass
distribution m (kg/m), is loaded by a harmonic
bending moment M(t) = M
0
sin

(

t) at x = L, see
figure. Determine the form of the beam deflection at
stationary vibration.
Transient vibration
14/32. A one-degree-of-freedom oscillator is
symbolised by an undamped mass/spring system
according to the figure. The system is excited by
the force P(t), where
P(t) = P
0
when 0 < t < t
1
=

T
e
and
P(t) = 0 when t > t
1
=

T
e
.
Here T
e
is the period time of the eigenfrequency
(thus T
e
= 1

/

f
e
= 2

/

e
). Investigate the ratio of the
maximum displacement x
max
of the mass and the
static deformation (displacement) x
stat
= P
0
/k for
some different values of (i.e, determine the ratio
x
max
/x
stat
as function of ). The system is at rest at
time t = 0.
14/33. Determine the displacement x(t) of the mass
according to the figure. The mass is excited by the
force P(t), where
P(t) = 0 when t < 0 and
P(t) = P
0
when t 0.
The system is at rest at time t = 0.
Study the response for some different values of the
relative damping , including < 1, =
1, and > 1 ( = Greek letter zeta).
Answers: 14/1.
e
= , f
e
=
e
/2 and T
e
= 1

/f
e
14/2.
e
drag
=
e
tension
=
14/3.
e
bj
=
e
bending
=
14/4.
e
vrid
=
e
torsion
=
14/5.
e
=
14/6.
e
=
L, m, EI
14/31
x M t ( )
M
k
P
0
t t
1
14/32
P t ( )
P t ( )
M
k
P
0
t
c
14/33
x
P t ( )
P t ( )

c/2

kM

k/M

EA/ML

3EI/ML
3

GK/JL

768EI/7ML
3

192EI/ML
3
Chapter 14 31
14/7.
e
= . If L
1
= L
2
= L and GK
v1
= GK
v2
= GK
one obtains , compare with Problem 14/4
14/8.
e
=
14/9.
e
=
14/10.
14/11.
e
= , it is seen that the eigenfrequency tends to
zero when F tends to the instability (buckling) load F
k
= F
critical
= kL
14/12.
14/13. M
axle
= (16

/7)

M
0
sin

(

t) = 2.3M
0
sin

(

t)
14/14. The amplitude will decrease by 40 per cent
14/15.
14/16.
14/17.
e1
= and
e2
=
14/18.
e1,2
=
14/19. (a)
e1
= 1.31 ,
e2
= 4.67 , (b) the fundamental
eigenfrequency increases by 12.6 per cent (and the first harmonics,
the second eigenfrequency, decreases by 11.2 per cent)
14/20.
e1
= 0 (which is a rigid-body rotation of the axle) and

e2
=
14/21. At the support to the right the bending moment in the beam
becomes M
max
= 4.965P
0
a (to be compared with M = 1.0P
0
a if the
load is static)
14/22. The amplitude of the loaded mass is zero, whereas the amplitude
of the other mass is not zero. The frequency given is an
anti-resonance frequency

GK
v1
/JL
1
+ GK
v2
/JL
2

2GK/JL

9EI/ML
3

168EI/19Ma
3

EI
4Ma
3
1
(1 + 9EI/4a
3
k)

(kL F) /ML
M
A

P
0
L
1
2
/
e
2
sin (t ) where
e

3EI/ML
3
x
P
0
M(
e
2

2
)
sin(t ) where
e

(kL F) /ML
x
max
amplitud

P
0
c (1
2
/
e
2
)
1
1
1
+

P
0
3c (1 9
2
/
e
2
)
1
1
1
where

EI
4Ma
3
1
(1 + 9EI/4a
3
k)

1, 2 EI/ML
3

18EI/ML
3

(3 +

5) k / M

EI/Ma
3

EI/Ma
3

3GK/4JL
Chapter 14 32
14/23. M
max
= 1.52M
0
14/24.
krit
=
critical
= = 356 rad/s = 3400 revolutions per
minute
14/25.
till
=
allowable
= 0.82

krit
= 0.82
critical
14/26.
krit
=
critical
=
14/27.
krit1
=
critical1
= 0.43 and
krit2
=
critical2
= 2.90
14/28. cos

(L)

cosh

(L) = 1, where
4
=
2
m

/EI
14/29.
krit1
=
critical1
= 4.73
2
14/30.
krit1
=
critical1
= 4.73
2
where m = M/L
14/31.
and w(x,t) = X(x)

sin

(

t)
14/32. x
max
/x
stat
= 2

sin

() when < 1

/

2, x
max
/x
stat
= 2 when > 1

/

2
14/33.

48EI/ML
3

EI/ML
3

EI/ML
3

EI/ML
3

EI/mL
4

EI/mL
4
X(x)
M
0
2EI
2

sinh (x)
sinh (L)

sin (x)
sin (L)
_

,
where
4

2
m
EI
When < 1:
x(t )
P
0
k

'

1 exp (
0
t )

cos (
e
t ) +

1
2
sin (
e
t )
_

where
0

k/M and
e

0

1
2
When 1:
x(t )
P
0
k
{ 1 (1 +
0
t ) exp (
0
t ) }
When > 1:
x(t )
P
0
k

'

1 +

2
exp (
1
t )
1
exp (
2
t )

1

2

, where

1, 2

0
( t

2
1 )
Chapter 14 33