HVE Script - v01 PDF

Chair of Energy Distribution and High-Voltage Engineering Prof. Dr.-Ing.
Harald Schwarz
High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

- Lecture notes -
Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus Chair of Energy Distribution and High-Voltage Engineering Walther-Pauer-Str.5 D-03046 Cottbus GERMANY
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Chair of Energy Distribution and High-Voltage Engineering Prof. Dr.-Ing. Harald Schwarz
1.
Introduction................................................................................................................. 4 1.1. Chair and Teaching Programme......................................................................... 4 1.2. Objective and Structure of the Lectures ............................................................. 7 1.3. Fundamental Principles ...................................................................................... 9 1.3.1. Maxwells Equations.................................................................................... 9 1.3.2. Static Fields............................................................................................... 11 1.3.3. Stationary (Steady-State) Fields ............................................................... 11 1.3.4. Slowly Varying (Quasi-Stationary) Fields.................................................. 12 1.3.5. Rapidly Varying Fields .............................................................................. 14 2. Determination of the Electric Field Distribution ........................................................ 19 2.1. Analytical Calculations...................................................................................... 19 2.1.1. Coaxial Cylinders and Spheres................................................................. 19 2.1.2. Boundary Problem for Plate Electrodes .................................................... 20 2.1.3. Influence of Space Charges...................................................................... 21 2.1.4. Schwaigers utilization factor..................................................................... 23 2.2. Graphic Determination of Field Distribution...................................................... 28 2.3. Measurement of the Field Distribution .............................................................. 30 2.4. Method of Conformal Mapping ......................................................................... 31 2.5. Method of Substitution Charges ....................................................................... 32 2.6. Differential Method............................................................................................ 34 2.7. Method of Finite Elements ................................................................................ 35 3. Boundary surfaces and imperfections in high-voltage insulators............................. 36 3.1. Boundary conditions ......................................................................................... 36 3.2. Laminated Dielectric ......................................................................................... 37 3.3. Tangential Fields at Boundary Surfaces........................................................... 42 3.4. Imperfections (Defects)..................................................................................... 43 4. Discharge Reactions in Gases (Basic Mechanisms) ............................................... 46 4.1. Statistical Basics ............................................................................................... 46 4.2. Non-Self-Maintained Gas Discharge ................................................................ 51 4.3. Self-Maintained Gas Discharge ........................................................................ 54 4.4. Towsend Discharge .......................................................................................... 59 4.5. Streamer Mechanism........................................................................................ 66 5. Discharge Reactions in Gases (technical details).................................................... 69 5.1. Breakdown of Mixed Gases.............................................................................. 69 5.2. Influence of the Electrode Roughness.............................................................. 70 5.3. Breakdown in Inhomogeneous Fields .............................................................. 72 5.4. Streamer and Leader discharge ....................................................................... 75 5.4.1. Positive Streamer Discharge..................................................................... 75 5.4.2. Negative Streamer Discharge ................................................................... 76 5.4.3. Leader Discharge ...................................................................................... 76 5.5. Breakdown Behaviour for Transient Voltages .................................................. 78 5.6. Spark Discharge and Arc Discharge ................................................................ 80 5.6.1. Spark Discharge........................................................................................ 80 5.6.2. Arc Discharge............................................................................................ 84 5.7. Surface Discharges .......................................................................................... 87 5.7.1. Breakover (Flash-Over)............................................................................. 87 5.7.2. Pollution Layer Breakover ......................................................................... 88 5.7.3. Surface Discharge (Sliding Discharge) ..................................................... 91 6. Breakdown Reactions in Solid and Fluid Insulating Materials ................................. 93 6.1. Purely Electrical Breakdown ............................................................................. 93
High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials Page 2
6.2. Global Thermal Breakdown .............................................................................. 96 6.3. Masked Gas Breakdown................................................................................... 98 6.4. Local Thermal Breakdown ................................................................................ 99 6.5. Fibre-Bridge Breakdown ................................................................................. 100 6.6. Erosion Breakdown......................................................................................... 104 6.7. Partial Discharges........................................................................................... 106 7.1. Gases.............................................................................................................. 113 7.1.1. Natural Gases ......................................................................................... 113 7.1.2. Liquefied Gases ...................................................................................... 115 7.1.3. SF6 (Sulfurhexafluorid) ............................................................................ 116 7.2. Insulating Fluids .............................................................................................. 118 7.2.1. Physical and Chemical Parameters ........................................................ 118 7.2.2. Insulating Oil Made from Mineral Oils ..................................................... 128 7.2.3. Synthetic Insulating Fluids ...................................................................... 134 7.2.4. Other Insulating Fluids ............................................................................ 135 7.3. Solid Insulating Materials................................................................................ 136 7.3.1. Physical and Chemical Parameters ........................................................ 136 7.3.2. Inorganic Solid Insulating Materials ........................................................ 141 7.3.3. Organic Solid Insulating Materials........................................................... 154 7.4. Mischdielektrika .............................................................................................. 169 7.4.1. Imprgnierte Foliendielektrika ................................................................. 169 7.4.2. Oil Paper Dielectrics................................................................................ 170 8. Testing Insulating Materials.................................................................................... 171 8.1. Dielectric Measurement .................................................................................. 171 8.1.1. Dielectric Loss Factor and Capacitance ................................................. 171 8.1.2. Insulation Resistance .............................................................................. 174 8.2. Disruptive Discharge Test............................................................................... 175 8.3. Creep Tracking Resistance ............................................................................ 176 8.3.1. Comparative tracking index (CTI) ........................................................... 176 8.3.2. Tracking under Difficult Conditions ......................................................... 177 8.4. Resistance to Arcing ....................................................................................... 177 8.5. Chemical Analysis .......................................................................................... 179 8.5.1. Water Content ......................................................................................... 179 8.5.2. Gas-in-Oil Analysis.................................................................................. 180
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1. Introduction 1.1. Chair and Teaching Programme

Head of chair: Prof. Harald Schwarz 69-4502 harald.schwarz@tu-cottbus.de
Secretary:
Marika Scholz
69-4502
marika.scholz@tu-cottbus.de
Scientific assistants:
Dipl.-Ing. Dirk Lehmann Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Maik Honscha Dr.-Ing. Klaus Pfeiffer Dipl.-Ing. Stefan Fenske Dr.-Ing. Gunnar Lhning Dipl.-Ing. Henryk Strmer Dipl.-Ing. Lars Roskoden
69-4032 69-4029 69-4035 69-3580 69-4030 69-3528 69-4044
lehmand@tu-cottbus.de honscha@tu-cottbus.de klaus.pfeiffer@tu-cottbus.de fenske.stefan@tu-cottbus.de loehning@tu-cottbus.de stuermer@tu-cottbus.de lars.roskoden@tu-cottbus.de
Technicians:
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Alexander Feige 69-4029 Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Lothar Kleinod Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Holger Husler 69-4025 69-4027
feige@tu-cottbus.de kleinod@tu-cottbus.de haeusler@tu-cottbus.de
Electrician:
Karl-Heinz Kleinschmidt
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Ground plan
The Chair of Energy Distribution and High-Voltage Engineering is situated at the building no. 3, Walther-Pauer-Strae 5 (figure 1).
Figure 1: Ground plan of the BTU Cottbus (detail)

Teaching Programme of the Chair of Energy Distribution and High-Voltage Engineering o o o o o o o o o o o Basics of Electrical Energy Technique High-Voltage Engineering and Insulating Materials High-Voltage Devices and Switchgear Protection of Energy Transmission Networks EMC in Plants and Systems (L/T 3rd semester) (L/T 5th semester) (L/T 6th semester)
Planning of Energy Transmission Networks (L/T 5th/ 7th semester) (L/T 6th/ 8th semester) (L/T 7th semester)
High-Voltage Measuring and Testing Devices (L/T 8th semester) Selected Topics from Energy Transmission and High-Voltage Engineering (T 8th/ 9th semester) Low- and Medium-Voltage Engineering LA (L 7th/ 8th semester) Power Automation LA (L 7th/ 8th semester) (Excursion) EU-East Expansion and Intercultural Competence
Figure 2: Route of the technical excursion
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1.2. Objective and Structure of the Lectures

Objective of the Lectures - Calculation of elektric fields - Discharge and breakdown reactions in gases, fluids and solid materials - Insulating materials and their electrical, physical and chemical parameters Structure of Lectures (L) and Tutorials (T) L01 L02 L03 L04 L05 L06 L07 L08 L09 L10 L11 L12 L13 L14 Introduction, fundamental principles Determination of the electric field distribution Boundary surfaces and imperfections in high-voltage insulators Discharge reactions in gases (basic mechanisms) (Statistical basics; non-self-maintained discharge; self-maintained discharge) Discharge reactions in gases (basic mechanisms) (Townsend discharge, Streamer discharge) Discharge reactions in gases (technical details) (Mixed gases; electrode roughness; inhomogeneous field; streamer; leader; transient voltages) Discharge reactions in gases (technical details) (Spark discharge; arc discharge; surface discharge) Breakdown reactions in solid and liquid insulating materials (Purely electrical breakdown; global thermal breakdown; masked gas breakdown; local thermal breakdown; fibre-bridge breakdown) Breakdown reactions in solid and fluid insulating materials (Erosion breakdown; Partial discharge) Insulating materials (Gases; insulating fluids) Insulating materials (Insulating fluids; solid insulating materials) Insulating materials (Anorganic solid insulants) Insulating materials (Organic solid insulants) Testing insulating materials
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T 01 T 02 T 03 T 04 T 05 T 06 T 07 T 08 T 09 T 10 T 11 T 12 T 13 T 14 T 15
Repetition of fundamental principles / Field patterns Analytical calculations Calculation of electric fields Boundary surfaces Statistics / Drift velocity Gas discharges Breakdown reactions Laboratory experiment 1 (Introduction into high-voltage testing devices; determination of the breakdown field strength Ed for various electrode configurations) - Group A Laboratory experiment 1 - Group B Laboratory experiment 2 (Paschen curve, impulse voltagetime characteristic) Group A Laboratory experiment 2 - Group B Laboratory experiment 3 (Partial discharges, Surface discharges) - Group A Laboratory experiment 3 - Group B Repetitions
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1.3. Fundamental Principles 1.3.1. Maxwells Equations
E dx = B dA t A x
Faradays law of induction
D = + H dx J dA t x A
Amperes law
Integral form of Maxwells Equations (field equations : Interconnection between electric and magnetic field quantities by the law of induction (left side) and Amperes law (right side).
Law of induction A changing magnetic flux Amperes law An electric current

J+ dA t
A
( B dA) produces a rotational electric field E.
produces a rotational magnetic field H.
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B dA = 0
A
Continuity equation for the magnetic flux density
D J + dA = 0 t A
Continuity equation for conduction and displacement current density
Integral form of the continuity equations for the magnetic flux density (left side, threedimensional view) and the conduction and displacement current density (right side, sectional view)
Continuity of magnetic flux density The magnetic field is source free, i.e. there are no magnetic monopoles. The magnetic field lines must be closed loops. Given any volume element, the magnetic flux entering the surface must be equal to the magnetic flux emerging from the surface. Continuity of conduction current density and displacement current density A temporal changing conduction current in conducting materials continues as displacement current in a non-conducting material. Material equations
B = 0 r H
D = 0 r E
J = E
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Material equations for magnetic and electric field quantities

1.3.2.
-
Static Fields
absolutely no temporal changes no displacement current no conduction current no energy transport
Examples: - magnetic fields of permanent magnets, - electric fields of separated charges, provided that the conductivity of the dielectric material is = 0 and there is no charge equalization.
1.3.3.
Stationary (Steady-State) Fields
- In contrast to the static fields a constant conduction current density (direct current) is permitted. - The law of induction has the form
E dx = 0
From there the loop rule (Kirchhoffs Voltage Law) of the network theory is derived
U
i
=0
- Amperes law has the form
H dx = J dA =
A
- The continuity equation for conduction and displacement current has the form
J dA = 0
A
From there Kirchhoffs Current Law (Kirchhoffs point rule) is derived
=0
- The continuity equation for the magnetic flux density remains unchanged.
1.3.4.
Slowly Varying (Quasi-Stationary) Fields
1.3.4.1. Inductive Fields in Conductors In materials of high conductivity the displacement current D / t can be neglected in comparison with the conduction current (for frequencies up to the GHz range). Inductive fields
E dx = B dA t A x
Law of induction
H dx J dA =
x A
Amperes law
B dA = 0
A
J dA 0
A
Continuity equation for the conduction current density
Maxwells equations for slowly varying inductive fields (disregarding the displacement current in conductors)
Quasi-stationary inductive fields can be found in transformer windings, conductive connectors and electrodes of high-voltage devices.
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1.3.4.2. Capacitive Fields in Insulating Materials In high-performance insulating materials with low residual conductivity the conduction current density is very low in comparison with the displacement current density. That means that the electric field is mainly a source field and the induced electric field strength can be neglected. Capacitive fields
E dx 0
x
Law of induction
D = + H dx J dA t x A
Amperes law
B dA = 0
A
D J + dA = 0 t A
Continuity equation for the conduction current density
Maxwells equations for slowly varying capacitive fields (disregarding the magnetic induction)
The transition from inductive to capacitive fields shall be demonstrated for the example of an open conductor loop.
Slowly varying fields inside and outside of an open conductor loop (inductive und capacitive fields).
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Quasi-stationary fields can be found at high-voltage devices for
D.C. voltage, A.C. voltage (50 Hz), Switching impulse voltage 250 / 2500 s and Lightning impulse voltage 1,2 / 50 s
if the physical size of the devices is in the range of several meters.
1.3.5.
Rapidly Varying Fields
The travel time of an electromagnetic wave for a distance x is given by
x = v
with v = propagation speed of the wave. In energy distribution systems the wave propagation speed is
v=
r r
mit r =1
c = velocity of light r = relative permittivity of the insulation i.e.
km m m v = c = 300 000 = 300 = 0,3 s s ns

for air insulation and
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v=
c km m m = 200 000 = 200 = 0,2 s s ns 1,5
for cable insulation (r = 2,3) respectively. For lightning impulse voltages, which are rapidly changing in the microsecond range, rapidly varying fields can be found at system sizes of around 100 meters. Should transient voltages with fluctuations in the nanosecond range occur, such fields can be found at system sizes of several meters. - Maxwells equations in the complete form have to be used. - The coupling between electric and magnetic field becomes timeand space-dependent. - Travelling waves occur.
In general the following equations are valid:
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v=
r r
Propagation speed
z=
Wave impedance
- In energy systems travelling waves can be found mainly at long lines. - In the equivalent circuits of the lines the electric and magnetic fields are respresented by inductances and capacitances.
- The wave impedance z of a line is given:
R ' + jL' z= G ' + j C '

- Neglecting R and G results in
L' v = 1 z= C' L' C '

- Typical values of the wave impedance are z 300 z 30 overhead line cable
- If a wave front (incoming wave) comes to the connection of two lines (cables) with different wave impedances, the ratio of current to voltage is changed at the reflection point.
Reflection and refraction of an incoming travelling wave at a discontinuity of the line wave impedance
- The the current-to-voltage ratios of the refracted and the passing wave are determined by the wave impedances of the two lines. - If the incoming and the passing wave have different voltage amplitudes, a refracted wave has to be superimposed to the incoming wave so that the amplitudes at the reflection point are equal.
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- Naturally these refracted voltage wave is accompanied by a refracted current wave. It holds Current i Refraction factor Voltage u
bi =
2 z1 z1 + z 2
bu =
ru =
2 z2 z1 + z 2
z 2 z1 z1 + z 2
Reflection factor
ri =
z1 z 2 z1 + z 2
Reflection and refraction of an incoming travelling wave at a discontinuity of the wave impedance for three special cases: open-ended line, short-circuited line and matchterminated line
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2. Determination of the Electric Field Distribution 2.1. Analytical Calculations 2.1.1. Coaxial Cylinders and Spheres
Cylinder
E (r ) =
U r ln ra ri
Sphere
E (r ) =
U 1 1 r2 r r i a
Boundary problem for the termination of a coaxial cylinder by a hemisphere because of Cylinder Emax Sphere
U ri ln ra ri
U ri ri 1 r a
Optimal radius ratio
ra = e = 2,71 ri
ra =2 ri
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2.1.2.
Boundary Problem for Plate Electrodes
Field pattern at the boundary region of a parallel-plate capacitor
Field strength at the boundary region of a plate electrode arrangement Using the method of conformal mapping a profile can be found, which guarantees that the field strength in the boundary region is not higher than at the homogeneous region.
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Rogowski profile for
= / 2
s s y = + exp 2 s
2.1.3.
valid for one sparking distance only
Influence of Space Charges
One-dimensional electric field Poisson equation
= x 2
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For
f (x)
=
(homogeneous space charge)
it follows
1 2 x +c x+c 1 2 2
Boundary conditions
x = 0 =U x=s
x U 1 = s =0
( )
1 2 x x 2 s + 2 s s
()
Field strength
U 1 E= s+ x s 2
Damage risk for
U E zul without s
Emax > Ezul with
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2.1.4.
Schwaigers utilization factor
Emax = f (U, s, remaining term )

Parallel-plate electrodes Emax =
U s
* (1)
Coaxial cylinders
Emax =
r r U a i r s ln r i ra i
Concentric spheres
r r U Emax = a i s r r 1 i i r a
General expression Emax =

E E U average average = = s * E max
Definition of Schwaigers utilization factor (degree of homogeneity)
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With the variables bigger radius smaller radius R r
q=
R r s+r p= r
= f (q, p)
Diagrams
Air unit capacitance Cylinder Spheres
CLE = f (p, q) C = r * l * CLE C = r * r * CLE
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Utilization factor for cylinder arrangements

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2.2. Graphic Determination of Field Distribution

Objective: fast determination of a qualitative field distribution Prerequisite: two-dimensional electrode arrangement
Graphic determination of field lines and equipotential lines for two-dimensional fields
- Field lines and equipotential lines are perpendicular to each other. - Electrode surfaces are equipotential lines with 0 % (ground side) or 100 % (high-voltage side) respectively. - The distance a between two equipotential lines corresponds always to the same potential difference U. - The distance b between two field lines (displacement flux density lines) corresponds always to the same charge Q at the electrodes.
C =
Q is constant for the whole field map. U
b/a = const. For b/a = 1 the field determination can be drawn using circles.
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Step 1 First the known potential distribution at the homogeneous part of the field is drawn (1). The further drawing of equipotential lines is oriented to the form of the electrodes (2). Note: It is sensible to start with only a few equipotential lines (e.g. with the lines for 0 %, 25 %, 50%, 75% and 100%). Afterwards the drawn field distribution can be further refined by interpolation. Step 2 Field lines are added perpendicular to the equipotential lines, observing the ratio b/a = 1. It is sensible to work along one electrode (e. g. the high-voltage electrode). By drawing circles between field lines and equipotential lines it can be found, that the ratio b/a does not equal 1 in most cases (3). Step 3 The correction of the first picture is made by increasing the distance between the 25%-line and the lower electrode toward the outside of the electrode arrangement (4). The 75%-line is drawn closer to the edge of the upper electrode, while the distance to the upper side of the electrode is increased considerably (5). It should be noted that the field strength at the edge of the electrode decreases from the upper towards the lower electrode, i.e. the distance between the field lines shall increase. Checking the ratios of sides and angles shows the necessity of further refinements. Step 4 By iterative refinements of the field distribution according to the drawing rules the final picture is drawn. In the current example it is sensible to draw the circles at the homogeneous part of the field first. Afterwards the drawing can be continued at the inhomogeneous region (6).
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2.3. Measurement of the Field Distribution

Basis: Analogy of slowly varying dielectric displacement fields (A.C. voltage) and stationary electric flow field (D.C. voltage)
r r r r D = E J = E
r r r r Q = D dA = J dA
Potential distributions of dielectric displacement fields (caused by separated charges) are equivalent to potential distributions of stationary electric flow fields.
Measurement at semiconductive paper (resistance paper) - Drawing of conductive electrode outlines; - Applying a D.C. voltage to the electrodes; - Measuring of equipotential lines with measuring bridge and null indicator; - Modelling of different values r by using multiple layers of the resistance paper; - Usable for two-dimensional fields Measurement in semiconductive liquids (electrolytic tank) - Immersion of the electrode arrangement in a semiconductive liquid; - Usable for three-dimensional fields; - Measurements require a lot of time and money.
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2.4. Method of Conformal Mapping

- Analytical calculation of several important field configurations - Especially important before the advance of numerical field calculation
Idea
- Transformation of a complex electrode arrangement at the x,y-plane into a simpler arrangement at an u,v-plane, - Calculation of the simpler electrode arrangement at the u,v-plane, - Inverse transformation of the results into the x,y-plane Example: Cylinder in a corner - with
w = z 2 = (x + jy )2
mapping as parallel-plate electrodes
Conformal mapping of field lines and equipotential lines for a rectangular electrode:
w= z2
After inverse transformation
E =U *
2 a2
x2 + y2
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2.5. Method of Substitution Charges

Idea: Modelling of potential field by superposition of single point, line and surface charges Field of two point charges
Example:
- Modelling the equipotential surfaces by conductive spheres would not change the field distribution. - For given electrode outlines the position of the substitution charges can be manipulated iteratively until the boundary conditions are met.
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2.6. Differential Method

Solution of Laplace equation with differential formulation and Taylor series expansion Square formula:
1 4 o = i 4 i =1
Diagonal formula
1 8 o = i 4 i =5
- Covering of the field space with a square grid; - Modelling of the electrodes using a square grid; - Set-up of a system of linear equations; - Insertion of boundary conditions (electrode potentials).
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2.7. Method of Finite Elements

- Triangle or tetrahedron as basic elements; - Iterative optimisation of field distribution for minimum field energy.
Field distribution of a disconnector of a metal-enclosed switchgear assembly with SF6insulation: a Mesh grid of the field space; b Equipotential lines in the field space
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3. Boundary surfaces and imperfections in high-voltage insulators 3.1. Boundary conditions
Et1 = Et2 JWn1 = JWn2

r r r D r E = E + J = E + W t t
electric field strength
current density
with
a) periodical alternating (A.C.) field and 0
D n1 = D n 2
n1 = E n2
2 1
b) constant (D.C.) field
n1 = 2 E n2 1
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Vectors of electric field strength at the boundary surface between two insulating materials
En1
1 > 2
1
E t1
(1 > 2 )
E1
En2
Et 2
E2
3.2. Laminated Dielectric

a) A.C. voltage
2
s2
s1
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from
U = Eds
follows
U = E1s1 + E2s2
With boundary surface conditions follows
2 / 1 U E = 1 s s 1 2 1 +1 s 1
1 U E = 2 s s 1 2 1 +1 s 1
Example for
2 = 4 and s1 = 1 s 1 9
Range field strength depending on position of boundary layer
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Conclusions (general validity) - For inhomogeneous dielectric the E-field depends on the electrode arrangement and the properties of the insulating materials. - High field strengths can be found at areas of small physical dimensions with small r. - The electric field between parallel-plate electrodes becomes inhomogeneous for 1 2. - In inhomogeneous fields the displacement current density D is no direct measure of E. b) D.C. voltage
Displacement current density is discontinuous
D1 1 E1 1 2 = = 1 D2 2 E2 2 1
from Maxwells equation
r r DdA = Q
follows the boundary surface charge
Qg = A (D2 D1) 0
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Example
Short-circuiting the electrodes for a short period of time gives residual field strengths E1R, E2R
0 = E1R * s1 + E2 R * s2
or
E1R s2 = E2 R s1
Residual field strength for short circuit (s1 = s2)
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From there it follows
D1 1 E1R 1 s2 = = 1 2 s1 D2 2 E2 R
i.e. there exists an interfacial charge. After clearing the short circuit this charge will generate influence charges at the electrodes.
Attention
- Devices with laminated dielectrics have to be permanently shortcircuited after a D.C. voltage was applied. - Short-circuiting for a short period of time will neutralize the electrode charges but not the interfacial charge. - After a short-time short-circuiting the interfacial charge will generate influence charges at the electrodes, which will result in dangerous high voltages at the device. - There will be no interfacial charge for the special case 1 = 1 only. 2 2 - For high-voltage devices usually different rated voltages are defined for A.C. and D.C.
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3.3. Tangential Fields at Boundary Surfaces
Conclusions - Inclination reduces the tangential field strength = surface field strength. - Field problem in gas insulation B: C: Tapered insulator at inner conductor (high-voltage) Increase of high initial field strength. Tapered insulator at outer conductor (ground potential) Increase of low initial field strength.
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3.4. Imperfections (Defects)

Inclusion of a defect with rs results in a mixed dielectric. Assumption: Inner effects - Disk-type defect (Field lines perpendicular to defect area) Small defects cause no alteration of basic electrode field Eo.
Esi =
r E 0 rs
Example: Gas enclosure in cast resin
r = 4; rs =1
Esi = 4 Eo
At the same time reduced dielectric strength at the gas space. - Spherical defect
Esi =
r E + 2 0 rs r
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r = 4; rs =1
- Cylindrical defect (Axis Field)
Esi = 1.33 Eo
At the same time reduced dielectric strength at the gas space.
Esi =
r E + 0 rs r
r = 4; rs =1
Esi
= 1.6 Eo
At the same time reduced dielectric strength at the gas space.
In general: Es > Eo for rs < r !
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Outer effects Field strength in the vicinity of the defect
rs 3 r E sa = Eo r rs + 2 r
for sphere
Example: Metal inclusion or electrode roughness
rs
E sa = 3 Eo
for metallic sphere also valid in front of a metallic hemisphere at an electrode.
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4. Discharge Reactions in Gases (Basic Mechanisms) 4.1. Statistical Basics

Statistical methods are used because of large variation of e.g.
Inception / Extinction Breakdown voltage Breakdown time
Examples for the statistical character of discharge reactions
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For the mathematical treatment a theoretical distribution function has to be chosen. Gaussian (normal) distribution Weibull distribution
Gaussian (normal) distribution with density function D(x) and distribution function F(x)
Weibull distribution with density function D(x) and distribution function F(x)
Density function
Density function
(x ) 1 D ( x) = exp 2 2 2
Distribution function
D( x ) =
d F ( x) dx
Distribution function
x F ( x ) = D ( x ) dx
x x0 F ( x ) =1 exp x x 63 0
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Probability paper is used for testing the validity of the chosen distribution function.
Display of a theoretical distribution function (top) as a line in a probability net (below)with distribution tests of two measurement series
Probability net for the Weibull distribution with logarithmic scaling of the axis
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Examples
Voltage in kV Frequency Cumulative frequency
92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
1 0 1 2 0 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 0 0
0,05 0 0,05 0,1 0 0,05 0,1 0,1 0,15 0,05 0,1 0,05 0,1 0 0 0,05 0 0
1 1 2 4 4 5 7 9 12 13 15 16 18 18 18 19 19 19
0,05 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,2 0,25 0,35 0,45 0,6 0,65 0,75 0,8 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,95 0,95 0,95
Comparison of the empirical distribution function (cumulative frequency polygon) with a theoretical distribution function (Gaussian distribution)
Distribution table for measured values
Class in kV
Frequency
Relative cumulative frequency
Absolute
Relative
Related to
> 91,5 - 94,5 > 94,5 - 97,5 > 97,5 100,5 >100,5 -103,5 >104,5 -106,5 >106,5 -109,5
2 3 7 4 2 1
0,1 0,15 0,35 0,2 0,1 0,05
0,033/kV 0,050 /kV 0,117 /kV 0,067 /kV 0,033 /kV 0,017 /kV
0,1 0,25 0,6 0,8 0,9 0,95
Formation of classes from frequency tables
Comparison of an empirical density function (related frequency) with a theoretical density function (Gaussian distribution)
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Remarks - Gaussian distribution
= expectation value = average value = standard deviation Useful for many natural processes. Range of values from - to + Application in high-voltage engineering
Withstand voltage Breakdown voltage Guaranteed breakdown voltage ud0 ud50 ud100 for for for x = - 3 = 0.13 % x = = 50 % x = + 3 = 99.87 %
- Weibull distribution xo = x63 = = initial value 63 % value Weibull exponent
There is a lower limit for the range of values. Well suited for the determination of the withstand voltage because F (x) = 0 for x x0
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4.2. Non-Self-Maintained Gas Discharge

Generation of free charge carriers by radiation energy
Ws = h * f
h = 6.62 * 1034
Ws2
Planck constant of action
Energy input into a gas molecule results in a increase of the orbital radius of the shell electrons If the ionization energy Wi is supplied an electron leaves the orbit
Gas Wi 02 12.8 C02 14.4 N2 15.8 SF6 19.3 1 eV = 1.6 10-19 Ws eV
Ionization rate due to cosmic radiation and natural radioactivity

5 20 electronionpairs per cm3 * s
Continuous recombination processes by trapping of e- by electronegative gases (02, SF6)

Lifetime of free electrons Lifetime pos./neg. ions Ion density in the field-free space 10-8 s 18 s 500 / cm3
Directional motion of charge carriers caused by an external field

Coulomb force Assumption: initial velocity after generation
r r F =q E
vo = 0
Acceleration of charge carriers

* Positive charge carriers * Negative charge carriers in against Field direction Field direction
Page 51
Drift velocity In vacuum the charge carriers can be accelerated without retardation. In real gases collisions occur, resulting in an average velocity (drift velocity).
r v
r = b E with b = mobility
Electron: b = 500
VD
cm / s V / cm
Ion: Large ion:
b= 1
cm / s V / cm
b = 10 4 ...10 1
x
cm / s V / cm (Dust partikel)
Dark current Motion of charge carriers in gases Gas discharge Non-self-maintained gas discharge Charge carriers generated by external influences No luminous effect Dark discharge Dark current density
r + + r+ r r J =n q v +n q v +n q v D D e e De
Assumption: singly charged
r J = q n+ b+ + n b + n b E e e e
Specific conductivity of the gas

= q n + b + + n b + n b
e
e e
with
b + b und n b << n b e e and qe =1,6 *10 19 As
it follows
10 16 ( cm )
1
Linear up to about 10 V/cm, afterwards saturation, because all charge carriers generated per unit of time reach the electrodes during the same unit of time
Page 53
4.3. Self-Maintained Gas Discharge

Collision ionization At high field strength the probability for the trapping of electrons decreases.
Gasmolekhl Ladungstrger rB rA
rB rB
A S = (r A + rB )
2
Model of effective cross section and free path length
Density of molecules
n=
p kT
p = pressure, T = absolute temperature Ws k = Boltzmann constant = 1.37 * 10-23 K Cylinder in field direction Gas molecules in the cylinder (statistical average) V = (rA + rB)2 N = nV
Statistical spread of free path length between two collisions
Mean free path length
l l 1 = = 2 N nV n ( rA + rB )
Page 54
Charge carrier = electron
rA << rB
=
Charge carrier = ion
1 e n rB 2
rA rB
Type of gas H2 N2 O2 H2O CO2 SF6
1 1 = ion 4 n rB 2 4 e =
ion in m e in m
0.11 0.058 0.064 0.041 0.039 0.025
0.63 0.33 0.36 0.23 0.22 0.13
Kinetic energy
1 2 = Wk 2 m v = q E

independent of mass because of e 4 ion energy-dependent effects caused mainly by electrons
If the collision of an electron with a gas molecule releases another shell electron the prerequisite for a self-maintained gas discharge is given.
Page 55
Ionization Coefficient Number of collision ionizations per path length
1 i / = e
with
Ionization path length
i =
2 B
Wi qe E
Wi r p r p = exp kT q E kT e
2 B
By joining all gas specific values
B = A exp p E / p
1 cm + Pa 64.5 * 10-3 94.5 * 10-3 113 * 10-3
A in Air N2 SF6
kV cm + Pa 1.9 * 10-3 2.56 * 10-3 2.37 * 10-3

B in
kV cm * Pa 0.3 1.4 * 10-3 1.1 4.5 * 10-3 0.8 2.2 * 10-3

for E/p in
Page 56
Effective Ionization Coefficient Trapping of free electrons
for SF6
eff
A = attachement coefficient
A = 4 2,87 *10 3 kV E p kV cm Pa p A = 0,434 0,8*10 3 kV E p kV cm Pa p
for air
A decreases with increasing field strength E.
- For strongly electronegative gases eff becomes nearly linear. - There is a minimum value E/p for ionization.
eff
p
= ki
[( ) ( ) ]
E E p p o
for SF6
1 k = 27.7 ; i kV
E kV = 88 . 4 p cm o
Minimum field strength E = 88,4

E kV = 25 p cm o
kV cm
for eff > 0!
for air
Page 58
4.4. Towsend Discharge

Electron avalanche Change of the number of electrons
dN
e =N e eff dx
because of and
it follows
= f (E) eff = f ( x) eff E = f ( x)
x e 1 dN = dx e eff N N o eo e
x N = N * exp e eo o eff
dx
Page 59
Physical model of the Townsend discharge
- Ions drifting to the cathode - No impact ionization by ions because free path length is to small - Impact of ions on electrodes work function of conduction electrons (of the metal electrodes) is exceeded starting electrons for secondary avalanche
Page 60
Work function Wa of different cathode materials Material Barium oxide Aluminium Copper Copper oxide Silver Gold Iron Nickel Molybdenum Primary avalanche: Electrons Wa in eV 1.0 3.95 1.77 4.82 3.89 5.34 4.74 3.09 4.90 4.33 4.79 3.92 5.02 3.68 4.15 3.22
N =N s exp eff dx e0 0
e1
Ions
=N
exp s eff dx 1 e0 0
Secondary avalanche: Electrons
e2
= N
exp s eff e0 0
dx 1
N2 Air
Al 0.1 0.035
Cu 0.065 0.025
Fe 0.06 0.02
= Reaction coefficient
Page 61
Ignition Condition
s 1 > N N e0 exp eff dx e0 0

i.e.
s 1 2,5... 4 = k eff dx > n 1 0
( )
with the guide values for
for homogeneous field
eff * s > k
The reaction coefficient takes into account the following effects:
Releasing of electrons by positive ions, Releasing of electrons by the photo-effect, Releasing of electrons by neutral atoms, Ion emission of the anode, Field emission.
Page 62

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Chair of Energy Distribution and High-Voltage Engineering Prof. Dr.-Ing.

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

1. Introduction 1.1. Chair and Teaching Programme

69-4032 69-4029 69-4035 69-3580 69-4030 69-3528 69-4044

lehmand@tu-cottbus.de honscha@tu-cottbus.de klaus.pfeiffer@tu-cottbus.de fenske.stefan@tu-cottbus.de loehning@tu-cottbus.de stuermer@tu-cottbus.de lars.roskoden@tu-cottbus.de

feige@tu-cottbus.de kleinod@tu-cottbus.de haeusler@tu-cottbus.de

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Figure 1: Ground plan of the BTU Cottbus (detail)

Figure 2: Route of the technical excursion

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

1.2. Objective and Structure of the Lectures

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

1.3. Fundamental Principles 1.3.1. Maxwells Equations

Law of induction A changing magnetic flux Amperes law An electric current

( B dA) produces a rotational electric field E.

produces a rotational magnetic field H.

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Material equations for magnetic and electric field quantities

absolutely no temporal changes no displacement current no conduction current no energy transport

Stationary (Steady-State) Fields

- Amperes law has the form

From there Kirchhoffs Current Law (Kirchhoffs point rule) is derived

Slowly Varying (Quasi-Stationary) Fields

Continuity equation for the magnetic flux density

Continuity equation for the conduction current density

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Continuity equation for the magnetic flux density

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Quasi-stationary fields can be found at high-voltage devices for

if the physical size of the devices is in the range of several meters.

Rapidly Varying Fields

The travel time of an electromagnetic wave for a distance x is given by

c = velocity of light r = relative permittivity of the insulation i.e.

km m m v = c = 300 000 = 300 = 0,3 s s ns

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

c km m m = 200 000 = 200 = 0,2 s s ns 1,5

In general the following equations are valid:

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

- The wave impedance z of a line is given:

R ' + jL' z= G ' + j C '

L' v = 1 z= C' L' C '

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Optimal radius ratio

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Boundary Problem for Plate Electrodes

Field pattern at the boundary region of a parallel-plate capacitor

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Rogowski profile for

valid for one sparking distance only

Influence of Space Charges

One-dimensional electric field Poisson equation

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

(homogeneous space charge)

Emax > Ezul with

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Schwaigers utilization factor

Emax = f (U, s, remaining term )

General expression Emax =

Definition of Schwaigers utilization factor (degree of homogeneity)