Code-Switching

Code-switching as a Communication Device in Conversation

A Classroom Research Paper Presented to The College of Education

University of Manila

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Course ENG 2-Communication Arts and Skills II

October 2013 By: Helen Maniba

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter 1: The problem and its Background Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 Statement of the Problem -------------------------------------------------------------- 3 Significance of the Study ---------------------------------------------------------------- 4 Scope and Limitations -------------------------------------------------------------------- 5 Methodology ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ - 6 Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature and Studies-------------------------------------------- 13 Chapter 3: Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data---------------------------------- 24 Chapter 4: Summary findings, Conclusion and Recommendation----------------------------- 39 Bibliography ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------44 Curriculum Vitae--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study Code switching is a strategy used to involve and encourage student/s to understand, clarify, interpret, reiterate, message made by the teacher (Adeddorf,1996). Code switching can benefit student to learn the language in a positive manner since young children are exposed to society/community the acquiring multiple languages. Learning more than one languages will benefit the students when they go out real world .So most parents encourage multi-linguality in their children at a young age (Li Wei,Milrey,L.1995). Teachers find it hard to teach English as a second language to students who lack exposure in English, these students become inattentive and distractive (making noise, playing with their clothes or sleep) due to lack of interest in learning the English language. Moreover,the school required the educator to refrain from translating or codeswitching from one language to another because student would depend on the translation from time to time and will not exert the effort to learn the new language.Faltis,C.J.,and Hudelson,S.J.,(1998)stated that the role or use of home language to students who are learning language will promote laziness, and student would only depend or rely on the person who can speak of their language anymore. David Crystal (2005) also agreed that majority of bilinguals do not have an equal command of their two languages. Speaker is more fluent in one language than the other if we code switch or translate it will interfere

2 With the acquisition of another language, or the student might simply used his/her preferred language in certain situations. He also stressed that many bilinguals fail to achieve a native like fluency in either language because of confusion. In any case, (Faltis & Hudelson, 1998) recognized that learners native language maybe beneficial in learning the second language. As Cumins and Swain,(1986) point out developing full proficiency in their first language can also promote in the second

language. Moreover, the result of this study will encourage the students to learn the language with confidence and with high hoped of mastering the skills as well. As for teachers who are multilingual, the school can take advantage of his skills in addressing the daily needs of the students by in order to use the language, and develop communicative oral skills for students. Additionally, it could stimulate the childs selfesteem to communicate with people who speak different languages because they can choose whatever language they feel comfortable with communicating with other children. If children were exposed to negative or threatening experience when learning another language, it will set up a mindset which can hinder the ability to learn languages (Taeschner, 1950).And somehow it may be an advantage for the school to have teachers who can speak more than two languages to teach, help and encourage student to speak and understand the second language.

3 B. Statement of the Problem

1. What strategies do we need to help students learn the English language?

2. Will Code switching be an effective tool to help student learn the English language?

4 C. Significance of the Study Most teachers who teach second language does not accept the fact that code switching is helpful in teaching young children to learn another language. According to them, students became confuse when having language in L2 but if the teachers were able to understand the meaning of the students home language teacher would be able to help encourage students to learn and engage more on speaking another language. We hope that this study will let us understand that code switching will do no harm in allowing students to experiment the use of language (i.e. home language and second language) in communicating with peers and adults.

5 D. Scope and Limitations of the Study The study will focus only on the native Filipino speaking pre-Kinder students in Philippine Cultural College. The students stay in school for four hours to learn two major subjects, English and Chinese. The English class is conducted for two hours, which snack time fifteen minutes, and the Chinese class for two hours. The researcher will observe the whole class the Filipino speaking students will be the focus on the study. We also need to consider special the presence of two students who are labeled with special needs.

6 E. Methodology Participants The research will be classroom based; participants include pre-Kinder students of the Philippine Cultural College located in Abad Santos Street consisting of 20 children,13 females and 7 males which ages from 4 to 5 year old. Among the 20 the students in the class included the student labeled as pervasive development, and one with speech delay. Moreover the prevailing choice of language Tagalog (94.44%) then English (5.56%) and

Chinese/Fukien(11.11%). However, this study will include the whole class who are native Filipino speakers they will be learning English only as the medium of instruction during the structured activity(circle time) and differentiated group activity.

During center time, children have their own way of communicating with each other as well as sending their message among themselves. Children are free to use, experiment, and explore on the language of their choice to learn and encourage each other to speak other languages (English, Chinese, Filipino. During structured activities students are exposed to English only as the medium of instruction and discussion. In differentiated activities students are group and engaged in an activity with teacher, English also used as the medium of instruction. In these three activities, children will be exposed in the conversation using the tool of code-switching. The conversation will be transcribed with the used of frequency of code switching(as cited in

7 Gumprez,1985)as Then & Ting et al., used in their study of Teacher Code Switching in Secondary English and Science in Malaysia. To help the participants understand and make sense of what they learn in English, at the same time o see the effective use of code switching and other instructional media as a tool in learning and acquiring second language. Data Collection The collection of Data will be in qualitative form of research with the use of observations, audio recorded conversations during center time and structured activity and journals. The conversation of children with peers and adults will then be transcribe after which evaluate the frequency distribution of the language utterances of the student with the use of Filipino,Chinese and English language in their conversation during the given period of the said activity. If children will still be mixing with the use of home language (L1) with the second language (L2) or enhanced their ability to use the acquired language (English) in communicating or getting

their message across with an adult and among other children. Language utterances of the student (Filipino,Chinese,English) will be charted in a frequency distribution and evaluated. Procedure Before intervention, the participants will be observed for a week. The researcher will conduct an audio recording of childrens conversation with peer and adults during circle time, another during unstructured activity (center time) to get the baseline on the students knowledge of the English language. The observer also will collaborate and interview the cooperating teacher

8 In understanding the process of childrens knowledge of English language, as well as referring to the field notes and weekly journals of the students. The observation is conducted during the second week of September. To see the effect of interventions to students who will be able to communicate or converse with their peers and other adult in English language. The researcher will observe and document the language use or reactions of participants, during structured activity (circle time) where they are engage in code-switching in the middle of English instructions. Then the use of instructional media such as exploring concrete

object,visual,aural/cues such as pictures,story book,videos and other on hand materials as other strategies to help student make sense of their English utterance in order to build confidence in conversing in English language(Kersten, 2010).The childrens conversation is transcribe using the frequency of code switching function design by(Gumprez,1985).To determined the effect of code switching in improving and understanding of using English concepts of students.

Data Presentation Documentation of data includes: 1.Teachers field notes 2.Audio Recording (via iphone) of everyday conversation 3.Journal writing

9 Data Recording No.1 Students have rich vocabulary of their native language, which is Tagalog. Most students speaks in Tagalog. Students from China were influenced by most children to speak in Tagalog.and most of them is under the supervision of care-giver that is why they speak more Tagalog with their teacher and peer. Students who speak Chinese will respond if you speak to them in Chinese.and Tagalog if you speak to them in Tagalog.but will answer you whenever you speak to them in English.Children were able to reiterate or imitate whatever the teacher delivers in English. (i.e.Children will call you one by one.Mica will say to her classmate who speaks at the same time by one by one!Stop!). Children mixed all three languages together.(i.e. Angela to parlor,with mommy and Daddy.Tapos punta sa Hospital,di-hia ko me sakit.)

Data Recording 2 The participants will be identified as the English speakers (ES) were both parents speak English at home. Chinese speakers (CS) whom parents are migrants from China and their language use at home is Mandarin/Fukien Finally,Tagalog speakers (TS) children who are natively born with family of Tagalog speaking family or who grew up with the care of Tagalog speaking Caregiver.

10 During the structured or unstructured part of class discussion, children used tagalong exclusively in conversing with children and other adult; i.e.Center time:Dramatic Area(conversation on having two caregivers) Avery: Ikaw na yung Tatay. Julanna:Hindi ikaw na yung yaya. Julia:Uy,uy,hindi pwede ah,ikaw yung baby daw Sachi:Hindi syoti sabi nila dalawa baby daw ako Arvin:Hindi wala tayo Tatay

Julianna:Hindi ako na lang yung achie.Kaw na lang yung Yaya.Kayo na lang yung Papa Mica:Kayo pupunta ke Papa Julianna:Kayo na lang Yaya ko Julia:Ano ba hindi pwede dalawa,isang yaya lang. Chinese and Tagalog speakers tries to speak in English language if spoken to in English but will insert Tagalog words to complete the phrase or sentence. Data Reccording 3 i.e Angela with his parents in Chinatown Angela:Saturday ,lucky china town.Bili shoes, black shoes. And go to Vikings, eat mushroom, hakao,rice siomai and go swimming in Palawan next time. Some children spoke in Tagalog sentences and inserted English words i.e.Center Time(Dramatic Area) conversation on a telephone with Mica, Julia

11 Julia:Nasa bahay na!magda-drive na ako,pupunta na ditto Mica:ok sige,bye!bye! Mica:Saan ka ba? Julia :nandito na! nasa Manila Hotel na ako.On the stairs na ako.

Angelina:Dapat magswi-swimming sa Manila Hotel

The researcher also observed that the teacher can be a main factor of engaging or encouraging student to be able to express their thoughts in the language they are comfortable using.

Data Recording 4 i.e.Circle time sharing Teacher:Ok children.where did you go last weekend?Lets listen to your classmate. Angelina:I go 168 with mommy and daddy and syobe.And lucky Chinatown Julianna:I go to Golden Bay and SnR Julia;So to SM Angelina:Malapit na birthday ko October 10 Sachi Punta kami Chinatown The researcher also found out that some students were able to use different nouns to describe some objects or people they are familiar with, to fill in the missing part of the sentence i.e.flower,paper,crayon,chair, mommy,daddy,syoti,achie,teacher,doctor Example Teacher:what did you do last Saturday or sunday ? ()what did you do?( ) 12

Joan: Write()heart() (made a heart) Joan:went to store ( )work()cloths()bought me a pair of pants( )have something for rubbing hands()smell good()my mama cook rice ()

13 Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature Second Language Acquisition Learning second language is a skill that needs practice and mastery. We need to understand how children acquire and make use of language, especially a second language. Iannaci, L.(2008)discussed that code switching is a way of coping with the liminality or the sense of living of the two languages and culture. It capitalizes their knowledge of blending primary and dominant languages that help children negotiate and socialize in the classroom.Faltis and Hudelson(1998) also cited by Gee,(1992)and Faltis Hudelson,(1994) that learning new language entails learning of a new set of social and personal meanings, practices and conventions. It also requires how to participate successfully in a new ways of doing things and socializing into certain ways of acting in a new speech. Faltis &Hudelson (1994) also stated that learners will be able to construct better knowledge through a language that they know well rather than through a language they still struggle ng to learn and express themselves. Likewise language plays an important role in learning, students used their primary language to participate in discussion to express their ideas. However in the study of Cumins,(2001) cited by Iannaci, (2008) it is also important that we should consider the use of powerful messages that the students can understand and able to communicate with others to validate and take advantages o primary language development. Also, the

importance use of home language that provide meanings to students identity (Dara

14 Hill,K.,2009),that the facilitators gives value and respect on students nationality and where he/she came from. The California Department of Education (2009) handbook discuss the The stages of learning second language and according to it, learning occurs through the form of communicating with children using of their home language, it encourages student to open up to other children during play time and at the same time e able to build trust and rapport with adults. Second, children observe and listen; at this stage children spend the rest of their time listening to the conversations of other people who speaks another language. Third, children will make sense of their new language and observing gestures and environmental cues to associate it the new language. Fourth, children form telegraphic and formulaic speech, by trying out or experimenting the use of the second language and using what is known to communicate. Lastly, the fluid use of language, at this stage children are using new language such more creatively and begin to sound more like native speakers. Second language learner tend to mix home language to fill in the missing piece of the sentence(i.e. the students wants to pee. The child will sayteacher I want to xiao pien.But in the study of Kyratzis,Tang and Koymen, 2009)Code, Code Switching and context:Style and footing in peer group bilingual play, there are some educators who has negative attitude in responding on the switching on the student language cited in Zenetlla (1998),because they tend to categorize his students as linguistically and cognitively deficient. However, the use of ode switching is to describe positive aspect that has the

15 ability to make the target language more accessible, focus attention, clarify or reinforce lessen material(Fennema-Bloom, 2010). And if,Kyratizis et al (2009) the teachers understood the meaning and making of the words students were implying,they would not view code switching negatively cited in Zentella(1997,1998).Code Switching allow students to use home language and experiment on other language to communicate with other students as well as adults. This will also provide effective bridging use of second language learning in pre-kinder students. Language Acquisition Behaviorists language acquisition is a behavior is and every child productive speech is shaped by different reinforces and punishment supplied by environmental agents. Language is determine through the course of training and not maturation, as well as imitating the exact copy of behavior, because it allows shortcut to mature behavior without laborious shaping of each and every verbal response(Gleason,1993). Kertsen (2010), states in one of her guidelines that children learn language through observing, listening and imitation, Observation and imitation of others are certainly involve in language development to some degree, like infant imitating a specific sound and general sound patterns and other caregivers make(as cited in the Goldstien & Schwade,2008 and Tonick,Coh & Shea,1986). Likewise older children sometimes pick up other peoples words and expression that are acquired by listening in his/her class (McDevitt and Omrod,2010).(McDevitt and

16 Omrod et al (2010) acknowledge that Skinner encourages, adults to reinforce the use of single words, then use of multiword combinations and eventually only word combination from an adults perspective, because parents usually reinforce their childrens statements based on what is factually accurate rather than what is grammatically correct (as cited in Brown & Hanlon, 1979 and O Grady,1997). On the other, hand linguistic approach view language acquisition as a process where children discover realities in their native language. As acknowledge by the way we must understand the acquisition of knowledge on how it affects it affect student learnings or in acquiring another language(Gleason,1993), the linguist prefer to teach language wether it be the first or second language because once the skill are well established in one language, they will transfer readily and rapidly to the other language, even without explicit instruction (Cumins and Swain,1986) .Like in the study of Chomsky, 2000 acknowledge that language is the result of interplay of initial state and course of experience, to established stron empirical conditions and satisfy the satisfy it assumes and the language being spoken as the way we speak and understand. And through experience and exposure with other children or adults, children may learn the process the process of speaking or experiencing oneself in his/her home language or second language, because as cited by McDevitt et al 2020. In the study of Chomsky (1965),1976,2006) children have biologically built in mechanism that enables them to learn many complex language in a very shorttime. However, in the study of McDevitt (2010)stated that many

17 psychologists agree with Chomskys belief that human beings are certainly not born knowing any particular language, nevertheless inherit some predispositions that assist them in acquiring linguistic knowledge and skills McDevitt et al 2010 points out that according to Piagets cognitive approach, language is a symbolic system for the expressions of intention or meaning. Piaget assumes that language per se is not a separate innate characteristics, but rather only one of several abilities that result from cognitive maturation (Gleason1993). Also stated that the intellectual development of the child starts from the linguistic stage, where in the child uses his/her sensory motor (direct sensation) to understand his environment. Through the second year of the child establish the concept of permanence, understanding that objects have permanence and an identity apart from their perception, and the permanence is necessary for language acquisition ( as cited in Piaget, 1954). Moreover, children engage in multi sensory approach; using visual, auditory and kinesthetic modalities creates an environment that promotes activities that are meaningful based on content, and language is not the focus of attention but is used as a means of communication (Kresten, 2010).Nevertheless, children are given the chance to experiment and demonstrate verbally or non-verbally what they have understood in a given concept or task. In such a way, children are able to relate action and language or other authentic situation in a more intensive way.

18 Apart from cognitive approach there is the social interaction approach where it combines many aspects of traditional behavior and linguistic behavior. They argue that children cue their parents into supplying the appropriate language experience. This approach suggests that language maybe thought by the parents and learned through imitation, and the role of the childs language environment is stressed throughout development(Gleason,1993). That the language socialization involves explicit instructions about language, and direct means of communicating appropriate linguistic behavior and internalize language (McDevitt & Ormrod 2010). Also according to the book of Cooperative Language Learning edited by Kessler, (1992) stated that childrens language are earned before they enter the school,and it is in the people in the childs environment helps provide support or scaffold to encourage talk that is appropri.ate and make sense. In which according also, to Fennema-Bloom,J.R., (2010) cited in Vygotsky, 1962) the theory of Zone Proximal Development(ZPD) scaffolding helps provide the facilitator a ladder that connects between new material and existing schemata. Teachers then, would e able to negotiate meaning and comprehension in sustained communication with their students. Code switching Code switching can be used as scaffolding as a scaffolding device similar to that used to facilitate learning by linking prior linguistic knowledge with the language and content knowledge targeted for acquisition. Code scaffolding allows teachers to more

19 actively construct communicative learning events by sustaining and increasing students comprehension and participation through the use of two languages but it can be used where a linguistic switch. Bloom, (2010) points out teachers could utilized Code switching on a conversional level in their classrooms and might be best described as translanguaging where they try to negotiate meaning and comprehension in sustained communication with students (as Cited in Garcia, 2008).The process of code- switching is to scaffold further content acquisition, made to check and sustained comprehension, scaffolds and or explain difficult elements targeted for language acquisition, and scaffolds the facilitation of the learning event and increases participation amongst student (Bloom et al, 2010).That is according to Kyratzis (2009),code switching is communicative resource whereby bilingual children negotiate social alignment in their play or other social communications. It is a discursive resource that helps children identify, categorize and index an alignment of a certain social categorization of play. To be able to help student acquire the skill of speaking second language educators must find the way on how to tech and encourage student to speak English as their second language, teachers then code switch to be able to help student what they learn. As David Crystal (2005) defines code switching, language switching, or language mixing as switching from one language to another in the course of one conversation. Iannacci, L. (2008) that if the use of two languages simultaneously or interchangeably. It has been identified as the common discourse strategy for bilinguals. And as cited by

20 California Department of Education (2009), they define code switching as the use of two languages in the same stream of talk or as the ability to alternate between two language systems in a conversation. Also according to (Fennema-Bloom,J.R.,2010) code switching was used to scaffolding device similar to that used by monolingual teachers. It facilitates learning by linking prior linguistic knowledge and content knowledge targeted for second language acquisition. Bilingualism Bilingualism, according to Liddicoat in Bilingualism and bilingual education (1991), as he cited in various authors define bilingualism as, a native like control of two languages. I begins to the point where the speaker of one language can produce complete, meaningful utterances in the other language has commence when a person begins to understand utterances in a second language, but is unable to produce utterances and has the ability to use two or even more languages. It can be assessed in the individuals command of four skills of listening comprehension, speaking, reading comprehension and writing in ach language. Synthesis First language and second language acquisition is somewhat same in the sense of the nativist they require children to learn and master first their native or home language, and learning another language will be easier to acquire. While the behaviorist approach

21 they view the learner acquire their language through imitation and cue from the adult or other people within their environment. The cognitive approach instead, children acquire their knowledge first in their pre-linguistic stage; they start on their direct sensation to make sense on a particular object and to have the permanence of an object. And lastly the social interaction approach to which the influence of acquiring knowledge in language by the children starts from his or her environment. The child starts acquiring their speaking skills in interacting with peers and other adults in community. Being a second language learner we tend to code switch to help others understand the utterance of a word or message you relay. This research will prove that code switching can be useful and a beneficial tool in acquiring second language for young children. In the process of combining mother tongue and a second language, we will be able to help native Chinese and Filipino speaking students be more confident in expressing themselves in the society. When they are more confident in expressing themselves they will be free to experiment with the use of language. Also we can reiterate that code switching has no harmful or negative effects to the childs ability to learn new language. In fact, it is helpful in building rapport among them because they are greatly encourage to communicate with their peers and other adults in the environment.

22 Framework of the Study To have the better view on the affectivity of code switching as a tool in teaching second language to preschool student, I adopted a pattern Cunningham (2008) use in his action research use in his action research. The step by step approach to classify my research and find answer on the use of code switching in children acquisition on second language.

23 In our classroom children comes only on the afternoon for only four hours and needs to learn two language at the same time English and Chinese. However they need to learn to speak the language at the end of the school year. But as teacher how are they going to be able to help students acquire English language, if students were not able to respond on simple English instruction and unable to utter simple English words in simple conversation. This study then will be able to help pre Kinder student respond to English instruction and utter more English words than their home language. During structured and unstructured activity students will be engage in using the tools such as the English instruction media(books, songs and videos)Teacher will code switch in the middle of discussion for the student to help better understand what is being discussed during structured activity. We will observe then the student conversation with peers and adult as well, then the researcher will evaluate and transcribe their conversation with us of Then & Ting, 2009 frequency of code switching as cited in Gumprez, (1985).For the evaluation the researcher will also use his field notes, journals and collaboration with the team teacher for the progress of students acquisition of second language, as well as the affectivity of the student for the said tools. However if the study ,shows the need for the modification of tools, the researcher then will modify y collaborating with the team teacher and go over again with notes, journals and interview.

24 Chapter 3: Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data Conversational functions of code-switching While the nature of code-switching is spontaneous and subconscious, studies have reported that it is actually used as a communicative device depending on the switchers communicative intents (Tay, 1989; Myers-Scotton, 1995, Adendorff, 1996). Speakers use switching strategies to organize, enhance and enrich their speech in order to achieve their communicative objectives.

The discourse-enhancing functions of code-switching have been much discussed in the literature. For example, speakers may code-switch to express solidarity and affiliation with a particular group (Gal, 1978; Milroy, 1987). In addition, code-switching can also be use to fill a linguistic or conceptual gap of the speaker (Gysel, 1992). It is seen as a communication strategy it provides continuity in speech to compensate for the inability of expressions.

Studies have also shown that speakers code-switch to reiterate or emphasize a point (Gal 1979). By repeating the same point in another language, the speaker is stressing or adding more point on the topic of discussion. In addition, code-switching is also used for different pragmatic reasons, depending on the communicative intent of the speakers such as a mitigating and aggravating message (Koziol, 2000), effective production (Azhar & Bahiyah, 1994), distancing strategy (David, 1999) etc.

25 The present study Studies on code-switching have moved from the notion that the switching behavior is a compensation for linguistic deficiency in bilingual speakers (Adendorff, 1996; Myers-Scotton, 1995). Code-switching is seen as functionally motivated behavior (Adendorff, 1996, p. 389). Being a multilingual country, this sociolinguistic phenomenon is very common in Malaysian speakers speech. Studies have shown that it occurs in both formal and informal contexts of communication and has become a normal verbal mode among Malay-English bilinguals (Jacobson, 2004). If code-switching is functionally motivated, a study that investigates the functions of code-switching occurring in Malaysian bilinguals communication will, therefore, be meaningful toward the understanding of this phenomenon. This paper examines how codeswitching is employed in achieving ones communicative intent in Bahasa Melayu (BM)-English bilingual conversations during organizational training sessions. The data from this study came from the audio-recording of speakers speech during the organizational training sessions. The subjects were all adult bilingual speakers of BM and English. The recorded speech was transcribed and speech that contained code-switching was identified and extracted. Code-switching was considered to occur when there was a language change in the speakers utterances. In this study, the term code-switching encompasses both switching at intersentential and intrasentential levels. The data were analyzed according to the situation that triggered the code-switching. Situation here means the intentional functions of code-switching that the speakers use to achieve their communicative objectives, that is, how code-switching can convey the speakers intent.

26

To determine the functions of the code-switching, the categories proposed in the research literature were used to examine the representative switches: mitigating and aggravating messages (Koziol, 2000), effective production (Azhar & Bahiyah, 1994), distancing strategy (David, 1999), signaling topic change (Fishman, 1972; Hoffman, 1991), dramatizing key words (Auer, 1988), framing discourse (Koike 1987) and personalizing messages (Koziol, 2000).

To signal social relationships Code-switching can also be seen as a tool to indicate the social relationships between the participants. The data illustrate that speakers code-switched either to level the rank or to wield power between the participants. The following data show that the speaker switched to English pronouns to indicate her strategy to level the rank between her and the participants. Excerpt 1 Trainer : You all memang. Tak, I kata, yang lain tu. Sebab kalau your branch cukup, I rasa dia orang takkan guna you, ok. Sebab kalau you betul-betul nak mengajar you kena tau sebab you memang tak pernah buat letters langsung. (Thats typical of all of you. No, I was referring to the others. If your branch does not have enough [lecturers], they wont ask you to teach [that subject]. You have to have 1 2 3 4 5

knowledge in it if you want to teach because you havent done letters at all) 27 As can be seen clearly, the use of English pronouns was used to show equal relationship between her and the participants of different status, age and familiarity. In Malay speech behavior, it is very important to observe the use of pronouns or forms of address for people of different social roles. This confirms earlier research on Malaysian bilinguals communication which reported that the use of English pronouns can avoid rank signaling (Noor Azlina, 1975) and equalize power relations between speakers (Nair-Venugopal, 2000). In addition, the use of English pronouns can also be seen as a deliberate effort to avoid the serious implication of not adhering to the mores of addressing people among the Malays. As exemplified by Asmah (1992) in using BM,a simple error in the use of pronoun or forms of address, or a slip of the tongue in some language act, may not be easily forgiven (p.44). The analysis of the data shows that speakers code-switched to manifest power. For example, in the following excerpt, the speaker switched to BM when referring the trainer to the subordinate group. Excerpt 2 Department Head : Err all of you would have problems put your problems down because later, we want to solve it for you. Dont forget because when hes talking, youre having ideas, and, and, and, its good. Write it down, and after, in the correct forum, you bring the problem out, OK? Please hold it, so our Encik K ( Mr K) wont be delayed. 1 2 3 4 5

28

The data provide strong evidence in illustrating the existence of power between the participants in the context of interaction. The speaker switched from the language of interaction to BM when referring the trainer, who was also another head of department, as Encik K (line 7) to the group, who were considered as the subordinates in the organization. The switch to Encik K seemed like a deliberate move to indicate his superiority, thus, this implies a demarcation of power and status between him and the subordinates.

To signal language preference Studies have also shown that speakers tend to code-switch to fill in the lexical gaps in the language of interaction. The data from the present study confirmed this. Speakers maintained the English terminology for technical jargons and referential terms rather than using the BM equivalence. The analysis shows that such maintenance arises, perhaps due to habitual use of the terms, training received in English, the comprehensibility of the terms in English compared to BM, and the availability of the English terms in the speakers linguistic repertoire.

However, a closer look at the data shows that speakers did not only code-switch due to the lack of vocabulary, but rather as a language of preference.

29 Excerpt 3 Trainer : Objektif penilaian tanah ni ialah kita nak tentukan nilai, market value dan juga benefit value. Secara dasarnya, value ni ditentukan oleh lokasi tanah yang nak dinilai tu. Macam mana pun, value dan potential sesuatu property tu ditentukan oleh lokasi. So what we need to understand her is, spatial factors are very significant in making any decision regarding land valuation (The objective of land valuation is to determine value: market value and benefit value.Fundamentally, the value of the land is determined by its location ...) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

As can be seen from the excerpt, the speakers use of English referential terms such has value (lines 2, 5) and land valuation (line 9) was not because of the lack or unfamiliar terms in BM. The BM equivalence, nilai (line 4) and penilaian tanah (line 1) occurred in his speech. However, it seemed that the English version was preferred as the word value was used more compared to nilai. Romaine (1995, p. 143) points out that, Although it is popularly believed by bilingual speakers themselves that they mix or borrow because they do not know the term in one language or another, it is often the case that switching occurs most often for items which people know and use in both languages. The bilingual just has a wider choice at least when he or she is speaking with bilingual speakers. In effect, the entire second language system is at the disposal of the code-switcher.

30 To obviate difficulties A closer look at the data show that code-switching is far from random. Speakers seemed to codeswitch to obviate difficulties in finding the correct referential terms in BM. This can be clearly seen in the following excerpt. Excerpt 4 Trainer : There are five branches here, why dont we take turn.. er.. go .. er menggubah, er .. menggubah, menggubal, heh, menggubah pulak ya. Alright, designing the questions for progress test. (..composing, er, composing, designing, heh, why did I use composing..) 1 2 3

The data illustrate evidence that the speaker felt that she faced difficulties in finding the right referential term in BM for the word designing (line 2). The fillers er (line 2), show that she was looking for the right word between menggubah (composing) and menggubal (designing). In BM, these words both have the same meaning as writing. However, in terms of verb collocation, the former is used for composing songs, while the latter is for designing examination questions or writing constitution. The speakers attempt to use the BM equivalence of the term designing had caused her confusion as to which term to use. Thus, she decided to revert to the English term as she felt that it was more comprehensible. The word alright (line 3) implies that she had given up looking for the right word in BM and the English term would obviate any confusion.

31 To frame discourse Another function of code-switching is to attract and hold listeners attention. This is done by framing the discourse with the use of conjunctions like so and then, and routines like well, ok and alright. According to Koike (1987), this type of code-switching normally occurs at boundaries as an intensifying strategy to emphasize the utterance, hold the listeners attention and move the action forward. The following is one of the extensive evidence found in the situated discourse. Excerpt 5 Trainee : So macam mana kita nak masukkan dalam input form? (So, what should we put in the input form?) Memang kita ada satu proses yang mandatori, buat data verification. So dalam perubahan, kita buat yang inilah, yang terbaru, so kita tak terikat dengan data LPH dahulu. Tapi data LPH dulu kita pakai sebagai bantuan untuk kumpul stok. Nampak tak? Nak buat pembetulan tak? (We do have a mandatory process, that is, data verification. So in the changes, this is what we do. This is the latest process, so we will not be bound to the previous LPH. However, the previous LPH data can help us in collecting the stock. Can you see it? Do we need to do any correction?) 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2

32 As can be seen from the data, the body of the discourse was in BM, framed by the English conjunction, so (lines 1, 4, 5). The switches occurred at the beginning of the utterance and were used to capture the audiences attention before moving on to the topic of discussion. To contrast personalization and objectification Code-switching may also be employed to show a contrast between personalization and objectification. A speaker may use a language in talking about his or her personal feelings while using another language in describing facts or objectives. This can be illustrated in the following example. Excerpt 6 Trainer : So I hope whatever we have discussed here can help you with your teaching. So, saya minta maaf, lah kalau ada salah silap, terkasar bahasa tu ya. ( Please accept my sincere apologies for my shortcomings, if any). 1 2 3

It can be seen that the speaker used English in objective-related utterance (line 1) and BM for the utterance that involved personal feelings (lines 2-3). Fotos (1990) found similar findings in her study on Japanese-English conversational switching among bilinguals. She found that English as a foreign language (EFL) learners tend to talk about their feelings in Japanese and use English for factual, task-related utterances.

33 To convey cultural-expressive message Some cultural expressions uniquely belong to a particular language and cannot be expressed in another language. Speakers often switched from the language of interaction when it comes to cultural expressions as they feel that the language will not be able to convey the intended meaning. Excerpt 6 above is a good representation of this. The concept of apologizing or asking for forgiveness for any shortcomings at the end of any social event is the cultural norm in Malaysia, particularly among the Malays. The phrase saya minta maaflah kalau ada salah silap, terkasar bahasa tu ya (lines 2-3) as used by the speaker is a typical utterance for this purpose and it is uttered with sincerity. To say it in another language does not really convey the sincerity and intention of asking the forgiveness. This prompted the speaker to switch from English to BM. This linguistic behavior has also been observed in other communities. For example, Mendieta-Lombardo and Cintron (1995) found that the Spanish community in America would use the Spanish words to express emphatically Hispanic concepts and to evoke emotional and cultural associations that the English correlate would fail to convey (p. 567).

To dramatize keywords The data show that speakers also code-switch for a dramatic effect in order to attract listeners attention. It can be represented by the deliberate use of words that can emphasize the speakers point, or expressed in the forms of inventive expression as shown in the following excerpts.

34 Excerpt 7 Trainee : Saya boring betul kalau benda-benda jadi macam ni (I really dont like it when these things happened). The word boring in the speakers speech does not refer to the speakers boredom of what has taken place. This is a unique feature of the local variety, Malaysian English. The word boring can be used to express either boredom or dislike. The speakers use of this English word within the matrix language, BM, was to highlight his dislike over the matter. Such use resulted in the dramatic emphasis on the situation. 1

Another dramatic effect can be achieved through the use of inventive expression. The following excerpt shows that the inventive expression occurs in the form of language play. Excerpt 8 Trainer : May be kita boleh bincangkan, alright, make a schedule. There are five cawangans here, cawangans, ya (May be we can discuss this, ok.. Draw a schedule. There are five branches here, branches) (laugh) (Chorus) : 1 2 3

35 The speakers invention of the word cawangans (lines 2, 3), which was the pluralism of a BM word (cawangan) into English by addings, had a dramatic effect on the listeners. As suggested by Jorgenson (2003), such performance in group conversation can have an effect on the listeners; as shown in the data, the appreciation of the language play was indicated by their laughter.

To lower language barriers Studies have shown that speakers accommodate and take into account other interlocutors linguistic factors in designing their speech (Giles & Smith, 1979; Bell, 1984; Giles, Coupland & Coupland, 1991). Speakers may diverge and converge their speech to accommodate the other interlocutors for effective communication.

The data show that code-switching is employed as a strategy to lower the language barriers between the speaker and the audience due to the discrepancy in their language competence. The speaker was more fluent and competent in English compared to BM. The audience, on the other hand, were competent BM speakers and their level of competence in English was only marginal. The following data demonstrate how the speaker used code-switching as a strategy to compromise her own and the audiences level of competence in BM and English. Codeswitching was, thus, seen as device to ensure understanding where she switched only at the topic-related words such as baki (line 1), perubahan (lines 1, 2) and syarat (line 2).

36 Excerpt 9 Department Head : Her question is under baki. For perubahan, there are certain syarat for perubahan. (Her question is under balance. For changes, there are certain conditions for changes) 1 2

To maintain the appropriateness of context The analysis of the data was inline with Blom and Gumperzs (1972) concept of situational switching. The following excerpt illustrates how the trainer switched her language to keep up with the language used by the trainee in order to maintain the appropriateness to the context. Excerpt 10 Trainer : So kita taulah what are the latest, what are the latest features, what are the latest features of technology today, equipment and all that. (So, we would know.) 1 2 3

Assalamualaikum. Trainee : Waalaikumsalam. Trainer : 5 4

37 It is the practice in Islam that when someone greets a person that it is compulsory for that person to give his or her reply. It goes without saying that the Arabic greeting assalamualaikum should be replied with waalaikumsalam. As can be seen from the excerpt, the trainer switched her language of interaction to Arabic in her reply to the trainees Arabic greeting as it was the most appropriate thing to do. A Muslim will not answer it in another language as it will not be appropriate and seem absurd.

To show membership and affiliation with others Speakers also code-switch when they want to establish relationship between them. The following excerpt illustrates the speakers effort in enacting a relationship with the others through codeswitching. Excerpt 11 Trainer : Setuju ya? Member kita kat sana tu? (All agreed? What about our friend(s) over there?) 1

The speaker did not really know the participants of the training sessions. However, he tried to affiliate himself with the others by using the word member when addressing them. The word

38 member is widely accepted in the communication of the local people for friend (Yen, 1991). The speakers choice of the native variety vocabulary indicates his effort in establishing friendship, affinity and solidarity with the participants. Even though he could use the BM word for friend, his use of the English word seemed as a strategy to show that although he was the superior, he considered the participants as his friends. The English word gave the implication that he had elevated the participants status to his level. This is related to the prestige that English brings to its speaker. To reiterate messages Code-switching is also used to reiterate messages, which are, repeating what has been said earlier in another language with the intention of making the message clearer and understood. Excerpt 12 Trainer : If you want to convert it, each the weightage for quizzes is fifteen per cent, lima belas per cent. 1 2

It can be inferred from the data that the reiteration of the phrase fifteen percent (line 2) was to ensure mutual understanding among the listeners. As a member of the Malay speech community herself, the speaker was aware that Malaysian speakers normally have a problem in differentiating between short and long vowels. This is because BM does not have short and long vowels. Thus, by reiterating the word fifteen with lima belas the speaker was making sure that everybody in the context of the interaction understood it as fifteen not fifty.

39 Chapter 4:Summary, Findings Conclusion, and Recommendation Findings and Discussion The data present a very rich description of speakers use of code-switching as a personal communication strategy. The data clearly illustrate how speakers organized, enhanced and enriched their speech through code-switching strategies such as signaling social relationships and language preferences, obviating difficulties, framing discourse, contrasting personalization and objectification, conveying cultural expressive message, dramatizing key words, lowering language barriers, maintaining appropriateness of context, showing membership and affiliation with others and reiterating messages. These findings are discussed in chapter 3

Summary Speakers of more than one language (e.g., bilinguals) are known for their ability to codeswitch or mix their languages during communication. This phenomenon occurs when bilinguals substitute a word or phrase from one language with a phrase or word from another language. To illustrate, consider the sentence, (1) I want a motorcycle VERDE. In this sentence, the English word green is replaced with its Spanish equivalent. A noteworthy aspect of sentence (1) above is that the Spanish adjective verde follows a grammatical rule that is observed by most bilingual speakers that code-switch. Thus, according to the specific grammatical rule-governing sentence (1) above, sentence (2) I want a VERDE motorcycle would be incorrect because language switching can occur between an adjective and a noun, only if the adjective is placed

40 according to the rules of the language of the adjective. In this case, the adjective is in Spanish; therefore, the adjective must follow the Spanish grammatical rule that states that the noun must precede the adjective. Traditionally, code-switching has been viewed as a strategy to compensate for diminished language proficiency. The premise behind this theory is that bilinguals codeswitch because they do not know either language completely. This argument is also known as semi-lingualism, which underscores the notion that bilinguals almost speak both languages correctly. However, one concern with this account is that the notion of language proficiency is not clearly defined. It is not clear whether reading and writing language skills should take precedence over spoken language. This reliance on reading and writing is problematic because most bilinguals receive their formal education in one language, whereas a majority of their social interactions take place in the other language. So, when their reading and writing abilities are tested in both languages, the language in which bilinguals received more formal education will usually fare better. Recent developments in psycholinguistic research has focused on how code-switching is a natural product of the interaction of the bilinguals two languages. Early researchers viewed code-switching as evidence that the bilinguals two languages were organized in separate and distinct mental dictionaries. For example, a general finding throughout the literature is that bilinguals take longer to read and comprehend sentences containing code-switched words as compared to monolingual sentences. Apparently, this time consuming process is due to a mental switch mechanism that determines which of the bilinguals two mental dictionaries are on or off during the course of language comprehension. This mental switch is responsible for

41 selecting the appropriate mental dictionary to be employed during the comprehension of a sentence. Thus, for a Spanish-English bilingual speaking English, the English linguistic system is turned on, whereas the Spanish linguistic system remains off. However, if during the course of comprehending a sentence, a Spanish code-switched word is encountered, the mental switch must disable the English linguistic system, and enable the Spanish linguistic system. Other psycholinguistic research is concerned with identifying some of the factors influencing the comprehension of code-switched words. Research shows that bilinguals comprehend codeswitched words faster when there is phonological overlap between the two languages. For example, Chinese-English bilinguals take longer to recognise English code-switched words in Chinese sentences, but only if the English words contain initial consonant-consonant (e.g., flight) clusters, simply because the Chinese language lacks this phonotactic structure. Other important factors reported to influence the recognition of code-switch words include, context, phonetics, homophonic (e.g., words pronounced the same), and homographic (e.g., words spelled the same), overlap between the two languages. Another current view suggests that language dominance (i.e., which language is used more frequently) plays an important role in code-switching. For example, Spanish-English bilinguals report more linguistic interference (code-switching) when they communicate in Spanish, their first-language, and little or no code-switching when they communicate in English, their secondlanguage. In other words, these bilinguals code-switch more when they communicate in Spanish than when they use English. Empirical research supports these observations. Psycholinguistic evidence also suggests that bilinguals retrieve English code-switched words faster when they

42 listen to Spanish sentences, whereas they are slower to retrieve Spanish code-switched words as they listen to English sentences. More interestingly, evidence also shows that code-switched words are actually retrieved faster than monolingual words, but only if the code-switched word is in English, and the language of communication is Spanish. These results suggest a reliance on the bilinguals second-language as opposed to their first-language. How are these results explained? The general idea behind this view is that after a certain level of fluency and frequent use of the second-language, a language shift occurs in which the second-language behaves as if it were the bilinguals first-language. In other words, the second-language becomes more readily accessible and bilinguals come to rely on it more. Thus, regardless of which language the bilingual learned first, the more active (dominant) language determines which mental dictionary is going to be accessed faster. This argument is reasonable since most bilinguals in the US, whose first-language is Spanish, obtain their formal education in English. Likewise, many of their everyday interactions involve the second-language. As a result, words and concepts in English, the second-language, become more accessible than words in Spanish, the first-language. Thus, code-switching is not the same for both languages. Rather, it depends on language dominance. During early stages of bilingualism, Spanish-English bilinguals rely on their firstlanguage when they communicate in their second-language. As a result, bilinguals are more likely to code-switch to Spanish, when they communicate in English. However, as the secondlanguage becomes the dominant language, bilinguals rely on the second-language when they communicate in the first-language. In this case, bilinguals code-switch to English when they communicate in Spanish.

43 In short, code-switching may be indicative of difficulties in retrieval (access) affected by a combination of closely-related factors such as language use (i.e., how often the first-language is used) and word frequency (i.e., how much a particular word is used in the language). Finally, the notion that people code-switch as a strategy in order to be better understood and to enhance the listeners comprehension is another plausible alternative. Conclusion The results of the study have shown that code-switching behavior is not random nor it is seen as a sign of linguistic deficient or inadequacy. Rather, it is a negotiation between language use and the communicative intents of the speakers. Code-switching is employed as a tool to achieve these intents. It is also used to express a range of social and rhetorical meanings. As pointed out by Myers-Scotton (1995), the choices that a speaker makes in using a language are not just choices of content, but are discourse strategies (p. 57), that is, the choices are used more to accomplish the speakers intents than conveying referential meaning.

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