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Effect of Corn Particle Size and Pellet Texture on Broiler Performance in the Growing Phase
A. S. Parsons, N. P. Buchanan, K. P. Blemings, M. E. Wilson, and J. S. Moritz1 Division of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown 26506
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
Preparing grain by grinding before incorporating it into a compound diet improves broiler performance [1, 2]. However, studies focusing on optimal grain size, specically corn particle size, have presented conicting results. Smaller corn particle size has a greater surface area to volume ratio, increasing exposure to digestive enzymes and presumably decreasing energy needed for mastication [3]. Reece et al. [2] and Lott et al. [1] reported improved broiler performance when corn particle size decreased from 1,289 to 987
1
m and from 1,173 to 710 m, respectively. Further decreases (900 to 300 m) have also resulted in improved performance [4]. In contrast, Nir [5] has shown that increasing corn particle size from 525 to 897 m increased broiler performance. Feeding large-particle corn may produce benecial effects similar to reports of whole grain feeding. Whole grain feeding has been associated with increased gut development and health; that is, a more muscular gizzard and less occurrence of proventricular dilatation [6]. Greater development of the broiler gastrointestinal tract suggests that
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Figure 1. Corn particle size distribution (% of a 100-g corn sample) for ne, small, medium, large, and coarse corn.
feed may be retained in the upper digestive tract for a longer period allowing for increased enzymatic digestion [6, 7]. Concerning feed manufacture, improved pellet quality has been associated with a smaller grain particle size [8, 9]; however, reducing grain particle size has been shown to increase hammer mill energy consumption and decrease production rate [4, 8]. A comprehensive study exploring large corn particle size does not exist.
Nearly 80% of all US poultry feed is pelleted [10]. Broiler performance benets associated with pelleting have been well documented [11, 12, 13, 14]. However, benets are only realized if pellet integrity is maintained to consumption. Zatari et al. [15] showed that pellets of poor quality, simulated by a 25:75 pellet to nes ratio, diminished predicted performance improvements associated with pelleting. Moritz and coauthors [16, 17, 18] determined that incorporating water into feed for-
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Table 1. Ingredient percentages of diets formulated to NRC [19] specications. All diets were adjusted in nutrient density for the percentage of added moisture or commercial pellet binder Ingredient Yellow corn Soybean meal (47.5%) Soybean oil Deuorinated phosphate Limestone Poultry premix1 NB3000 Salt Methionine Coban 602 BMD 503 Thiamine premix Vitamin D3 premix Water Maxibond4 Calculated composition ME (kcal/kg) CP (%) CF (%) Analyzed composition CP (%) CF (%) DM (%)
1
Grower mash 62.813 29.832 4.395 1.578 0.793 0.250 0.138 0.067 0.075 0.050 0.005 0.003 3,200 19.875 7.036 Fine 22.2 8.4 88.3 Small 22.3 8.7 88.3 Medium 21.6 7.6 88.3 Large 21.7 7.9 88.6 Coarse 22.7 8.6 89.1
Grower hard pellet 62.405 29.896 4.540 1.579 0.792 0.250 0.138 0.067 0.075 0.050 0.005 0.003 0.200 3,200 19.871 7.165
Grower soft pellet 59.286 31.369 6.314 1.631 0.799 0.250 0.142 0.073 0.077 0.051 0.005 0.003 2.5 3,200 20.326 8.818
Supplied per kilogram of diet: manganese, 0.02%; zinc, 0.02%; iron, 0.01%; copper, 0.0025%; iodine, 0.0003%; selenium, 0.00003%; folic acid, 0.69 mg; choline, 386 mg; riboavin, 6.61 mg; biotin, 0.03 mg; vitamin B6, 1.38 mg; niacin, 27.56 mg; pantothenic acid, 6.61 mg; thiamine, 2.20 mg; menadione, 0.83 mg; vitamin B12, 0.01 mg; vitamin E, 16.53 IU; vitamin D3, 2,133 ICU; vitamin A, 7,716 IU. 2 Active drug ingredient is monensin sodium, 60 g/lb (90 g/ton inclusion) as an aid in the prevention of coccidiosis caused by Eimeria necatrix, Eimeria tenella, Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria brunette, Eimeria mivati, and Eimeria maxima; Elanco Animal Health, Indianapolis, IN. 3 Bacitracin methylene disalicylate, 50 g/lb (50 g/ton inclusion) to increase weight gain and improve feed efciency; Alpharma, Fort Lee, NJ. 4 Maxibond = urea-formalydehyde resin and calcium sulfate (4 lb/ton inclusion) as a pelleting aid used in animal feed; AG Research Inc., Joliet, IL.
mulations increased pellet durability, decreased nes, and improved broiler performance when compared with feeding pellets of lower moisture. The authors observed that these high-moisture pellets had a softer texture compared with more conventionally produced pellets. The effects of pellet texture on broiler performance have not been documented. An understanding of grain particle size and pellet texture is critical for development of feed manufacture strategies that optimize broiler performance. The objectives of the current study were 1) to evaluate the effects of corn particle size, feed form, and pellet texture on broiler performance and carcass characteristics, and 2) to attempt to understand these effects in relation to
TMEn, nutrient retention, feed passage time, and particle size preference.
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Table 2. Pellet characteristics and processing variables1
Pellet type Variable Corn particle size (m) Mean PDI2 (%) Mean modied PDI3 (%) Mean nes (%) Mean breaking force4 (g) Water activity5 Bulk density (lb/ft3) [kg/m3] P-rate6 (ton/h) [tonne/h]
1 2 3
Soft (water) 491 90.4 82.8 44.52 1,662.45 0.672 40.73 [650.28] 57 [4.56.4]
Hard (binder) 491 86.2 80.4 40.37 1,856.4 0.653 42.49 [678.45] 56 [4.55.4]
Values are the average of triplicate determinations. Pellet durability index [22]. Modied pellet durability index (utilizing 5, 13-mm hex nuts for added pressure on pellets). 4 Breaking force [24]. 5 Water activity = ratio of vapor pressure generated by feed sample compared with that generated by pure water [25]. 6 Production rate of the pellet mill.
metric standard deviation were calculated. Varying corn particle sizes, categorized as ne (781 2.09 m), small (950 2.08 m), medium (1,042 2.13 m), and large (1,109 2.22 m) were manufactured using hammer mill screens of 1/8 in. (3.18 mm), 3/16 in. (4.76 mm), 1/4 in. (6.35 mm), and 5/16 in. (7.94 mm), respectively. A coarse (2,242 2.11 m) corn particle size was created by hammer-milling corn without a screen. Particle size distribution is illustrated in Figure 1. Two additional grower diets were pelleted at a commercial feed mill using a 7800 series California pellet mill capable of manufacturing 50 ton (45.5 tonne) of feed/h. The corn used for pelleted diets had a particle size of 491 m. Particle size was determined using a Ro-Tap particle size analyzer [20]. One pelleted diet, designated soft, contained added tap water at 2.5% of dietary inclusion and was manufactured at 5 to 7 ton/h (4.5 to 6.4 tonne/h) as observed in the feed mill control room. The diet formulation was adjusted to prevent nutrient dilution; for example, soybean oil inclusion was increased to prevent energy dilution. The other pelleted diet, designated hard, contained a commercial binder [21] at 0.2% dietary inclusion, and was manufactured at 5 to 6 ton/h (4.5 to 5.4 tonne/h). The source of corn and soybean meal was different for pelleted diets compared with mash. Pelleted diets were transported 125 miles (201 km) to West Virginia University and tested for pellet durability using standard and modied pro-
cedures [22], nes [23], pellet breaking strength [24], bulk density [22], and water activity [25] (Table 2). All diets were analyzed for DM [26], CP, and CF [27] after 1 wk of storage (Table 1). Pellets were stored for 1 wk before DM analysis and water activity was performed to estimate bound moisture [16, 17, 18]. Performance and Nutrient Retention Two thousand, two hundred eight 1-d-old, straight-run 308 344 Ross broilers [40] were randomly allotted to 96 oor pens (0.69 2.44 m; 23 broilers per pen) located in a cross-ventilated negative pressure house. Pens contained fresh wood shavings, nipple drinkers, and feed pans adapted to hoppers for ad libitum access to water and feed. Broilers were fed a starter mash pretest containing medium-sized corn for 3 wk. At the conclusion of the third week a representative sample of birds was killed by CO2 (asphyxiation), weighed, and analyzed for nitrogen [27] and lysine [28] to estimate the efciency of lysine and nitrogen retention by comparative slaughter. The number of chicks per pen was reduced by removing any underdeveloped chicks as determined by visual inspection so that each pen contained 21 broilers (0.7 ft2/bird). Pen weight was then recorded. A pen was designated as an experimental unit. One bird from each pen was weighed and leg-banded for later determination of nitrogen and lysine retention. Lysine levels of mash and pelleted grower diets had analyzed values above 1.5
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Table 3. Inuence of particle size and pellet texture on 3- to 6-wk broiler performance and nutrient retention (mean SD) Performance Live weight gain (kg) Mash treatments Fine corn mash Small corn mash Medium corn mash Large corn mash Coarse corn mash LSD3 value ANOVA Pelleted treatments Soft pellet Hard pellet LSD value ANOVA Linear regression
ac 1
Nutrient retention2 Mortality (%) 0.732 0 0 0.771 0.366 1.78 0 0 1.89 1.32 0.2858 ENR (%) 4.752 4.294 5.292 5.126 5.725 0.79bc 1.06c 0.69ab 0.50ab 0.98a 0.6082 0.0003 ELysR (%) 2.619 2.227 3.896 3.475 3.896 1.51 1.01 2.42 1.88 1.57 0.0754
Feed intake (pen) (kg) 63.004 66.027 65.602 64.642 71.831 3.84b 3.63b 4.97b 4.32b 8.66a 4.4185 0.0030
Feed efciency1 (kg/kg) 0.520 0.514 0.517 0.507 0.481 0.03a 0.02a 0.02a 0.02ab 0.06b 0.0273 0.0444
1.604 0.05b 66.075 2.81 1.711 0.06a 67.785 3.94 0.0433 0.0002 0.0793 0.2415
1.815 3.08 4.501 0.43b 1.465 3.00 5.367 0.93a 0.5614 0.7853 0.0057
P-values generated for linear regression of mash diets 0.0001 0.0013 0.9819 0.0009
Means within a column without a common superscript differ signicantly (P 0.05). Feed efciency was calculated using mortality weight. 2 ENR = efciency of nitrogen retention: (g of nitrogen gained/g of nitrogen consumed) 100; ElysR = efciency of lysine retention = (g of Lys gained/g of Lys consumed) 100. 3 Fishers least signicant difference value.
and 1.8%, respectively. The 7 grower diets were randomly assigned within each of 13 blocks consisting of 7 adjacent pens for a randomized complete block design. Lighting remained at 24 h for wk 1 to 4 and decreased 1 h for each remaining week. Temperature was regulated thermostatically by beginning chicks at 90F (32.2C) for the rst week and decreasing the temperature by 5F (2.8C) each remaining week. Mortality was collected twice daily. Upon conclusion of the sixth week, feed consumption and pen live weight were recorded and live weight gain, feed efciency, and percentage mortality were calculated for the wk 3 to 6 period. One male and 2 females were randomly selected from each pen, killed by CO2 (asphyxiation), and weighed. Boneless/skinless breast tissue, abdominal fat pad, gizzard (sliced open, rinsed, and blotted dry), and intestine (from bottom of gizzard to ileo-cecal junction and stripped of digesta) were weighed. Carcass characteristic weights were recorded relative to bird BW. Leg-banded birds were weighed, terminated by CO2 (asphyxiation), and gastrointestinal contents removed. These carcasses were frozen and ground. Subsamples were taken, quick-frozen in liquid nitrogen, and pow-
dered. Carcass subsamples and feed were analyzed for nitrogen [27] and lysine content using reverse-phase HPLC after precolumn derivatization by phenylisothiocyanate as previously described [28]. Remaining birds were transported to a commercial processing facility. TMEn Forty-eight broilers (3 wk of age) initially brooded with birds from the performance study were randomly selected and transferred to a separate room utilizing cross ventilation and negative pressure. Each bird was placed in a 12 20 in (305 508 cm) raised wire cage containing nipple drinkers and an external feed trough for an adaptation period of 1 wk. An individually caged bird was designated as the experimental unit and blocks were comprised of 8 adjacent cages assigned by location in the room. The same 7 diets utilized in the performance study were randomly assigned to cages within each of 6 blocks. One cage in each block was not assigned a diet and was used to determine endogenous excreta energy. During the adaptation period all birds received ad libitum feed of assigned diets and water. At the conclusion of the adaptation period (fourth
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Table 4. Inuence of particle size and pellet texture on 6-wk broiler carcass characteristics (mean SD) Carcass characteristics Gizzard (kg) 0.035 0.038 0.036 0.036 0.041 0.01b 0.01ab 0.01b 0.01b 0.01a 0.0054 0.0107 1.51 1.54 1.60 1.61 1.81 0.040 0.042 0.040 0.041 0.046 1.74 1.74 1.77 1.86 2.03 1.20 0.18 1.28 0.24 0.2079 0.038 0.01 0.042 0.02 0.2381 1.66 0.33 1.84 0.86 0.3520 0.0289 0.25b 0.17b 0.24b 0.28b 0.22a 0.1358 0.0002 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.3750 0.47 0.50 0.35 0.61 0.48 0.2221 0.057 0.059 0.056 0.055 0.057 Gizzard (%LW) Fat pad (kg) Fat pad (%LW) Intestine (kg) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.7292 0.057 0.01 0.063 0.01 0.1034 0.5896 Intestine2 (%LW) 2.49 2.41 2.50 2.42 2.54 0.31 0.34 0.43 0.27 0.29 0.6322 2.51 0.37 2.66 0.34 0.1900 0.5848
Breast (kg)
Breast (%LW)1
Mash treatments Fine corn mash Small corn mash Medium corn mash Large corn mash Coarse corn mash LSD3 value ANOVA Pelleted treatments Soft pellet Hard pellet LSD value ANOVA 0.027 0.01 0.029 0.01 0.0666 0.0250 P-values generated for linear regression of mash diets 0.0123 0.0001 0.1505
Linear regression
0.0149
a,b
Means within a column without a common superscript differ signicantly (P 0.05). Boneless, skinless breast weight as a percentage of live weight. 2 Small intestine weight (from the gizzard to the ileo-cecal junction) as a percentage of live weight. 3 Fishers least signicant difference value.
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Feed Passage Time One hundred forty-four, 1-d-old, straight-run 308 344 Ross broilers were allotted to oor pens (0.69 2.44 m) containing fresh wood shavings, nipple drinkers, and a feed pan adapted to a hopper for 0 to 3 wk. Each pen received a pretest mash starter diet (corn particle size of 870 m) and water for ad libitum consumption. Upon conclusion of the 3-wk period, birds were transferred to a similar room as that utilized in the metabolism study and 3 birds per cage were placed in each of 48 raised wire cages for a 10-d adaptation period. Eight groups of 6 adjacently caged birds comprised blocks for a randomized complete block design. Six mash diets were manufactured utilizing similar formulation and corn particle size as those used in the performance study for each of the 5 mash diets (ne, small, medium, large, and coarse) and the soft pelleted diet. The soft pellet diet was tested to determine any effects of high soybean oil inclusion on feed passage time and was fed in mash form using the ne corn particle size to exclude feed-form effects. Each of the 6 diets was randomly assigned to cages within each block. Diets were fed to birds during the adaptation period and fecal samples were taken to determine percentage acid insoluble ash (AIA) from diets without added AIA. At the end of the adaptation period, birds were feed restricted for 24 h. Birds were fed 200 g/cage of the assigned experimental diets containing 0.5% AIA [31]. Feed was provided for a 2-h period, then removed and weighed to determine feed intake. A diet without added AIA corresponding to diets as-
0.0042
Means within a column without a common superscript differ signicantly (P 0.05). 1 Fishers least signicant difference value.
week), birds were restricted from feed for 24 h. Following restriction, feed was provided for 45 min, and then removed. Those birds not assigned a diet received no feed during this time. Total excreta were collected for 48 h from the time of feeding, air-dried, weighed, and ground. All samples were analyzed in duplicate for gross energy [29] and nitrogen [27]. Retained nitrogen was calculated and corrected for eventual uric acid formation and oxidation [30]. Nitrogen-corrected TME was calculated using the weight of feed consumed, total excreta, gross energy, and retained nitrogen oxidation values.
Table 6. Inuence of particle size and fat inclusion level on passage time as determined by percentage of acid insoluble ash (AIA) Passage time (h) Treatment Fine Small Medium Large Coarse Soft mash ANOVA P-values3
1 2
Feed intake of diets containing 0.5% AIA per cage. Percentage AIA of excreta resulting from unmarked diets. 3 There were no signicant differences (P > 0.05).
252 signed to each cage was fed upon removal of diets containing added AIA. Fecal collection began 6 h after providing diets containing added AIA and continued every 2 h for the following 12 h, then at 24, 30, and 36 h post-AIA administration. Water was provided for ad libitum consumption throughout the experiment. Collected excreta were stored and analyzed for DM [26] and AIA [32]. Acid insoluble ash measurements were corrected for AIA contained in diets without added AIA. Particle Size Preference One hundred twenty 1-d-old, straight-run 308 344 Ross broilers were fed a starter mash pretest diet (1,042 m) from 0 to 3 wk of age. Birds were then transferred to a room similar to that used in the TMEn study and placed in 40 raised wire cages (3 birds/cage) for a 10-d adaptation period. Each cage of 3 birds constituted an experimental unit. Eight groups of 5 adjacent cages provided blocks for a randomized complete block design. Upon conclusion of the adaptation period, birds (4.5 wk of age) were restricted from feed for 24 h. The 5 experimental mash diets that differed in particle size (Table 1) were randomly assigned to cages within each block. Experimental diets were supplied in 1.0-kg aliquots. Water was provided ad libitum. A 100-g feed sample was taken from each cage to determine initial diet particle size. Homogeneous feed samples (100 g) were taken following feed administration at 3-h intervals for a 12-h period. Homogeneity of feed samples was created by 30 s of manual stirring. Particle size analysis was performed on all test samples [20]. Preference was determined by comparing the average particle size at each time point with the initial average particle size of the assigned diet. Increases in diet particle size over time indicate a preference for smaller particles and vice versa. All experimental protocols were approved by the West Virginia University Animal Care and Use Committee (ACUC # 02-1002). Statistical Analysis The GLM procedure of SAS [33] was used to determine effects of particle size and pellet texture on performance, carcass characteristics, TMEn, nutrient retention, feed passage time, and
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*Means differ signicantly from the initial average particle size for that row (P < 0.05).
been confounded by larger changes in live weight, breast weight, and gizzard weight. Nir et al. [35] reported a positive relationship between gizzard weight and dietary particle size. Similarly, Healy [4] reported increased gizzard, proventriculus, and intestinal weights for chicks fed corn ground to 900 m compared with that ground to 300 m. In the current study, increased grain particle size seemed to increase the proportion of feed energy utilized for gizzard growth and maintenance as opposed to breast growth. This speculation is also supported by changes in feed efciency (Table 3). True metabolizable energy values were high relative to the calculated diet ME of 3,200 kcal/ kg (Tables 1 and 5). Values might have been high in general due to the fast-growing broiler model, timed feeding regimen, or high soybean oil inclusion of all diets. Increasing dietary corn particle size resulted in a quadratic effect on TMEn (P = 0.0042). Feeding diets containing medium corn particles resulted in the highest TMEn. Hetland et al. [7] reported that starch digestibility increased when broilers were fed whole wheat compared with ground wheat. The authors attributed increased starch digestibility to increased gizzard activity that would increase ingredient grinding and mixing. In the current study, the efciency of nitrogen and lysine retention of broilers also suggested benets of large particle feeding (Table 3). Feed passage time (FPT) data are illustrated at different collection times by the average percentage AIA of excreta in Table 6. Cage FI did not differ among diets (P = 0.4682). The maximum excretion of AIA for all diets occurred during the 6- and 8-h collection periods. Jensen et al. [13] reported maximum excretion of chromic oxide at similar times. Particle size did not signicantly affect FPT. However, ne and small particle diets
had numerically the highest AIA percentages at 6 h, suggesting increased FPT. Conversely, the coarse particle diet had numerically the lowest AIA percentage at 6, 8, and 10 h suggesting a decreased FPT. Nir et al. [35] reported that content weight of the gizzard was signicantly less for diets containing small particles compared with large, suggesting a decreased particle retention time. Larger corn particles may have been retained in the gastrointestinal tract for an increased time that may contribute to increased nutrient digestion and energy metabolism. Consistent preference trends for feed particles among diets were not apparent (Table 7). However, any particle size preference from the initial diet particle size would indicate that birds are not consuming a homogeneous mix of ingredients and, therefore, a nutrient prole different from the calculated formulation. The medium- and largeparticle diets illustrated no particle size preference (P > 0.05) for collection times of 3 and 6 h. The lack of particle preference may have contributed to increased performance. However, all mash diets illustrated a signicant preference for larger particles for the 12-h collection period. Portella et al. [36] reported decreases in the concentration of larger particles in a crumbled diet over time. In summary, broilers obtained digestive benets from consuming diets containing medium to coarse particle corn (i.e., 1,042 to 2,242 m). In addition, broilers may consume a more balanced nutrient prole from medium and large particle corn (i.e., 1,042 and 1,109 m) due to lack of particle size preference. However, feeding coarse corn (i.e., 2,242 m) may increase gizzard growth and maintenance to an extent that compromises performance. Pellet Texture All physical characteristics of the pelleted diets were similar with the exception of texture
254 as determined by breaking force (Table 2). Mean breaking force for pellets containing commercial binder was greater than that of pellets containing added water, 1,856.37 and 1,662.45 g respectively, producing a comparatively harder texture. The high percentages of nes for both diets are indicative of commercial pellet manufacture post cooling and transport [37]. Broilers fed hard pellets had signicantly greater live weight gain and FE than those fed soft pellets (Table 3). Performance benets of hard pellets compared with soft pellets may be derived by similar mechanisms as observed with increased corn particle size of mash diets. Nitrogen and lysine retention were signicantly improved for broilers fed hard pellets compared with broilers fed soft pellets. In addition, Table 5 illustrates that hard pellets produced a signicant increase in TMEn compared with soft pellets. Carcass characteristics were not affected by pellet texture (P > 0.05; Table 4). Feed passage time was not performed on pelleted feed. However, the soft pellet formulation made with ne particle
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sieving. Page 325 in: American Society of Agricultural Engineers Standard S 319. American Society of Agricultural Engineers Yearbook Standards, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI. 24. Pellet breaking strength was tested using a TA-HDi texture analyzer with a Warner-Bratzler blade. 25. AOAC. 1990. Ofcial Methods of Analysis. 16th ed. Association of Ofcial Analytical Chemists, Arlington, VA. Water activity was analyzed using an AquaLab model CX2. 26. American Association of Cereal Chemists. 1995. Moisture Air-Oven Method. AACC Method 44-15A. Approved Methods of the American Association of Analytical Chemists Vol II. St. Paul, MN. 27. AOAC. 1990. Ofcial Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. Association of Ofcial Analytical Chemists, Arlington, VA. 28. Stinefelt, B. M., J. C. Eya, K. J. Semmens, and K. P. Blemings. 2004. Effect of diet and strain on growth and performance in hybrid Bluegill. North Am. J. Aquac. 66:312318. 29. Isoperibol oxygen bomb calorimeter model 1266, Parr Instrument Company, Moline, IL. 30. Hill, F. W., and D. L. Anderson. 1958. Comparison of ME and PE determinations with growing chicks. J. Nutr. 64:587. 31. Celite Corporation, Lompac, CA. 32. Vogtmann, H., P. Frirter, and A. L. Prabuck. 1975. A new method of determining metabolizability of energy and digestibility of fatty acids in broiler diets. Br. Poult. Sci. 16:531534. 33. SAS Institute. 2000. The SAS System for Windows 2000. Release 8.1. SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC. 34. Kilburn, J., and H. M. Edwards, Jr. 2001. The response of broiler to the feeding of mash or pelleted diets containing maize of varying particle sizes. Br. Poult. Sci. 42:484492. 35. Nir, I., R. Hillel, G. Shefet, and Z. Nitsan. 1994. Effect of particle size on performance. 2. Grain texture interactions. Poult. Sci. 73:781791. 36. Portella, F. J., L. J. Caston, and S. Leeson. 1988. Apparent feed particle size preference by broilers. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 68:923930. 37. Scheideler, S. E. 1991. Pelleting is important for broilers. Pages 17 in Proc. 18th Annu. Carolina Poult. Nutr. Conf., Charlotte, NC. North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh. 38. Mateos, G. G., J. L. Sell, and J. A. Eastwood. 1982. Rate of food passage (transit time) as inuenced by level of supplemental fat. Poult. Sci. 61:94100. 39. McEllhiney, R. R. 1994. Determining and expressing particle size. Pages 545547 in Feed Manufacture Technology IV. American Feed Industry Association, Inc., Arlington, VA. 40. Avaigen, Hunstville, AL.
Acknowledgments
This study was nanced by Hatch funds allocated to West Virginia University, Project No. H-435 and USDA-NRI 2002-35208-11580. The authors acknowledge Fred Roe, Bill Miller, and Bill Jones for assistance with animal welfare. Mark Nazelrodt and Pilgrims Pride Corporation are appreciated for feed manufacture and broiler chick support.