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- 1 - Metocean



Oceans






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- 2 - Metocean

Oceans & Numbers

The earth can be considered as a spherod with a total volume of about 10
21
m
3

and a total surface of about 5.1 10
14
m
2
. It is slightly flattened at the poles and
bellied around the equator. Polar radius (6357 km) is 21 km smaller than the
equatorial radius (6378 km).



Oceans cover an area of about 3.6 10
14
m
2
, that is 70.8%, while continents cover about 1.5 10
14
m
2
(29.2%).
The distribution of oceans is not even. They account for about 60.7% of the total surface in the northern hemisphere and for about
80.9% in the southern hemisphere.

















Latitude
South
Latitude
North
EARTH OCEAN
10
6
km
2

Tchernia, 1978
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- 3 - Metocean
The average depth of the oceans is 3.8 km. That is about 1/1700th of the earths radius (6400 km).
Oceans total volume is about 1.4 10
18
m
3
. It is about 14 times the volume of the emerging continents.

The four main oceanic basins are Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Arctic. In 2000, the International Oceanographic Association added a fifth
one, the Austral ocean, including all waters south of the 60S parallel.








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- 4 - Metocean
Structure of the Oceanic Basins


Continental Shelf : submerged area close to the continent, with
about the same slope as the neighbouring emerging area and
limited off-shore by a sharp change of slope. Their maximum
depth is in a range between 100 and 300/400 metres (150 m on
average). They can extend to a distance of about 600 km to 800
km from the shore. Average extension is 350 km with a slope of
0.4%.
The relief of the shelf is often similar to the one of the
neighbouring continent. It can be very narrow along shores
limited by mountains.

Continental slope : Topographic break between continental
shelf and deep ocean bottom ( 3000 to 6000 m depths).
With an average slope of about 3 to 3.5 % (locally up to 25%).

Continental rise : Region with milder slope in which the
continental slope grades into the abyssal plain.

Deep oceanic floor (Abyssal plain) : The bottom surface of
the ocean, with a very mild slope (0.05% ~1m/km). Mostly
covered with sediments their average depth varies between 3000
and 6000 m.

Oceanic Trenches : Below 7000 m (The deepest : 11035 m
Marianes Trenches).
Limited areas usually near continents or areas with underwater
volcanic activity.

Mid-Ocean ridges : At the boundaries of divergent tectonic
plates, rising above the abyssal plain.



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- 5 - Metocean
Depth (m) Percentage of total oceans area Name
0 to 200 7.6% Continental Shelf
200 to 1000
1000 to 2000
2000 to 3000
4.3%
4.2%
6.8%

Continental Rise (15.3%)
3000 to 4000
4000 to 5000
5000 to 6000
6000 to 7000
19.6%
33.0%
23.3%
1.1%


Deep Ocean Floor (77.0%)
> 7000 0.1% Oceanic Trenches
Distribution of oceanic depths (Tchernia, 1978)













West-East section of the surface of the earth from Pacific to Atlantic
Vertical amplification X100 (The Open University, 1989)


Note : One has to remember that, in spite of this static description, shape and structure of oceans basins are evolving in time. Shape
alteration is mostly due to the slow motions of the lithosphere plates (Indian and Atlantic Oceans are enlarging while Pacific is shrinking).
Bathymetry is also changing, because of sediment layering and erosion induced by currents and also because of isostatic adjustments.

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- 6 - Metocean

CONTINENTAL SHELF IN THE BAY OF BISCAY


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- 7 - Metocean

Sea Water

97% of the water on earth is found in the oceans.
Average water temperature in the oceans is 3.6C
Average salinity is 34.7 g/l.





Density of sea water is modified by salinity and, mostly, by temperature. It is also affected by pressure so that these three parameters are
responsible for a large part of the oceans circulation and mostly vertical motions (more dense cold waters will sink towards the bottom
while warmer and less salty waters, having less density, will stay near the surface).

Sea Water salinity
Sea water salinity is measured in Practical Salinity Unit (PSU) which corresponds to the mass of salt (in grams) per kilogram or litre of
water.
Main dissolved salts are : NaCl (78%), MgCl
2
(11%), MgSO
4
(5%), CaSO
4
(4%), K
2
2SO
4
(2%). One also finds rare elements, (Si, Sr, Al,
Au) as well as dissolved gas (O
2
,N
2
,CO
2
)

Process of salts dissolution in oceans waters took place over hundreds of millions of years. Major sources for these dissolved elements
are:
- Erosion of soils and rocks,
- Volcanic gas and hydrothermal activity,
- Biological processes of consumption, alteration and sedimentation on the bottom of oceans.



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- 8 - Metocean

The vertical structure in the ocean basins, can be globally divided
into three layers, except at the upper latitudes in the north and
south. This structure is mostly driven by the density of the water.

In the upper layer, or mixed layer, which extends at depth
between ~100m and ~300m, water is moved under the action of
winds creating surface currents.
In the intermediate layer (pycnocline), down to about 1000m, the
water density increases rapidly with depth as water temperature
lowers.
The lower layer or deep layer, which represents the most
important part of the ocean, is more stable and cold.



























DEPTH (m)
NORTH SOUTH
LATITUDE
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
0
400
800
120
0
160
0
200
0
Mixed Layer
Pycnocline
Deep Layer
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- 9 - Metocean
Oceans circulation

Oceans are continually in motion under the combined action of
various elements :

- Solar radiation,
- Earths rotation,
- Water density, salinity and temperature,
- Gravitational forces

This circulation can by divided into two main components : the
surface circulation, mostly wind driven, and the deep oceans
circulation due to density, temperature and salinity variations
(thermohaline).


Wind driven Currents

Solar radiation above earths surface is uneven yielding uneven distribution of temperatures, hence atmosphere density and pressure.
Balance between the high and low pressures is the main cause for winds.


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- 10 - Metocean

Friction of the air on the surface of the sea creates ripples (waves) which in turn induce enough roughness to create a coupling between
water and wind. If the wind blows for a long time, its action will initiate displacement of a volume of water which will keep travelling even
after the wind stops blowing. This is purely inertial motion.
Since the earth is rotating, this volume of water is submitted to the Coriolis force and the equation of motion can be written in the form :

g u
z
p
t
w
u
y
p
t
v
v
x
p
t
u
O +
c
c
=
c
c
O
c
c
=
c
c
O +
c
c
=
c
c

cos 2
1
sin 2
1
sin 2
1


where p is the pressure, is the latitude and O (rad/s) is the rotation of the earth.


We assume that :

- The coriolis force is the only force acting on the water, hence there is no horizontal pressure gradient and
0 =
c
c
=
c
c
y
p
x
p

- The flow is horizontal

So that equations become :


Cu u
t
v
Cv v
t
u
= O =
c
c
= O =
c
c

sin 2
sin 2
where
sin 2O = C
is the Coriolis parameter

Solving these coupled differential equations, one obtains a solution in the form :
v u
V
Ct V v
Ct V u
2 2
cos
sin
+
=
=
=


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- 11 - Metocean
This solution of the inertial current is actually the parametric equation for a circle of diameter
C
V
D
2
=
and period
C
T
t 2
= so that such inertial
currents will be observed as large eddies travelling in the ocean. They are deflected to the right of the wind direction in the Northern
Hemisphere (clockwise rotation) and to the left of the wind direction in the Southern Hemisphere (counter-clockwise rotation).

Such currents which are created by rather quick wind changes will also decay rapidly (within a few days).






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- 12 - Metocean
We now take friction into account, and consider that the volume of water is placed under the combined action of friction forces and
Coriolis force.
Introducing the wind stress in the x and y directions :
z
u
K T z xz
c
c
=
,
z
v
K T z yz
c
c
=
where
Kz
is the vertical eddy viscosity, which we
assume here to be constant, and is the water density and assuming that the flow is horizontal, homogeneous and steady so that
0 =
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
y x t
, momentum equations reduce to :

0
0
2
2
2
2
= +
= +
c
c
c
c
z
v
Cu
z
u
Cv
K
K
z
z
where C is the Coriolis parameter
Solutions of this set of equations will be in the form :
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(

=
(

=
4
cos
4
sin exp
2
4
sin
4
cos exp
2
t t
t t
a
z
a
z
a
z
aC
v
a
z
a
z
a
z
aC
u
T T
T T
yz xz
yz xz
where
C
a
K
z
2
=


From this results, it can be seen that:

- on the surface (z=0), the current travels at an angle of 45
to the wind direction (to the right of the wind in the
Northern Hemisphere, to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere),
- the velocity of the current decays exponentially with depth,
- the orientation of the current varies with depth: a layer will
deflect to the right of the overlying layers movement in the
Northern Hemisphere (to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere)




EKMAN Spiral

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- 13 - Metocean


Depth=6m Depth=550 m
Mercator Model


The total mass transport in the Ekman layer is obtained by
computing the integral of the Ekman velocity from the surface to
a depth d at the lower limit of the layer. Under this theoretical
approach and with the given assumptions, it can be shown that
this mass transport has an angle of 90 to the wind direction.

As a result from Ekman transport surface water is piled up in
some areas of the ocean and removed from other areas,
producing variations in the height of the sea surface, causing it to
slope gradually. One consequence of a sloping ocean surface is
the generation of horizontal gradients in water pressure. These
pressure gradients, in turn, give rise to geostrophic current.




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- 14 - Metocean


Geostrophic Equations

Under the assumption of a stationary flow
0 =
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
t
w
t
v
t
u
and neglecting viscous effects (friction), there is a balance between pressure
forces and Coriolis forces on an horizontal level. This balance is called the Geostrophic balance and will induce a flow oriented to the right
of the pressure gradient force in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left of the pressure gradient force in the southern Hemisphere :


x
p
C
v
y
p
C
u
c
c
=
c
c
=

1
1
where C is the Coriolis parameter and P the pressure
( )gdz z p
h
}

=
0

Credits Ssalto/Duacs.
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- 15 - Metocean

Deep Ocean circulation

The density of ocean water is not globally homogeneous, but varies significantly . As cold wind blows across oceans at high latitudes, it
produces evaporation which lowers the water temperature while increasing its salinity (only pure water is evaporated). These large
masses of cold and salty waters, denser, will sink to lower depths in the oceans. At lower latitudes, mixing with warmer less salty masses
of water will create overturning that will bring back this cold denser water to the surface. This circulation once referred to as thermohaline
is now defined as meridional overturning circulation. It is not just mass circulation, it also carries heat, salt, oxygen