ATP and respiration All activities requiring energy are fuelled by a single molecule known as A.T.P or Adenosine triphoshate.

These include : Muscle contraction Active transport Protein Synthesis ATP is made up of one Adenosine and three phosphates High Energy Bond

ADENOSINE

3 PHOSPHATE GROUPS

ATP is important as a means of transferring energy from energy releasing reactions such as respiration to energy requiring reactions such as active transport or protein synthesis e.g. Amino Acids

Carbon ATP Dioxide Energy Energy + Water ENERGY TRANSFER RESPIRATION Glucose + Oxygen
Energy

WORK

Energy

ADP + Pi

Protein molecule

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ATP is continually synthesised and broken down within the cell as follows ADP + Pi ATP

This process of rapid breakdown and regeneration means that very little ATP is present in a cell at any one time ATP is produced during respiration where a respiratory substrate such as glucose is gradually oxidised by the removal of hydrogen (OILRIG) Respiration should be seen as a series of reactions in which 6-carbon glucose is oxidised to form carbon dioxide. This is accompanied by the synthesis of ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
Wordbank you will come across the following words during this topic and it important to know what they mean. Regeneration to be made again Reduction molecules have hydrogen added to them Metabolism All body reactions (anabolic and catabolic) Anabolism Reactions which use energy to build complex molecules from simpler molecules e.g. proteins and built from amino acids Catabolism - Reactions which release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler molecules e.g. respiration.

Chemistry of Respiration Respiration should be seen as a series of enzyme controlled reactions in which : 6-carbon glucose is oxidised to form carbon dioxide this is accompanied by the synthesis of ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). Respiration takes place in three main stages and we will look at each of these in turn. Stage 1 Glycolysis Stage 2 Krebs Cycle Stage 3 Cytochrome system

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Stage 1 Glycolysis The first stage of respiration is called Glycolysis. This process takes place within the cytoplasm. does not require oxygen involves the step by step breakdown of a 6-carbon sugar such as glucose to form two 3-carbon pyruvic acid units Glycolysis results in a net gain of 2ATP as follows: energy from 2 ATP is required to trigger it 4 ATP are produced through energy released later in the process

The breakdown of glucose is an oxidation reaction involving the removal of hydrogen Hydrogen is removed by a dehydrogenase enzyme The hydrogen removed temporarily binds to a coenzyme molecule called NAD or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Glycolysis therefore yields hydrogen in the form of NADH The NADH produced through glycolysis may produce further ATP molecules at a later stage (cytochrome system) if oxygen becomes available What happens next? The pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis diffuses into an organelle called a mitochondrion for further breakdown if oxygen becomes available see next page

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Crista This is the site of stage 3 The cytochrome system

Inner Membrane

Outer Membrane

Matrix Fluid This is the site of stage 2 Krebs Cycle Cytoplasm This is the site of stage 1 Glycolysis with the pyruvic acid then diffusing into the matrix

SUMMARY OF GLYCOLYSIS

2 ATP are required to start the process

Hydrogen is removed by a dehydrogenase enzyme and passed to a carrier co-enzyme molecule called NAD

Glucose 2ATP 2ADP+2Pi

Energy released used to make ATP

2NAD+2H2

4ADP +4Pi 4ATP

2NADPH2 2NADH2

Pyruvic Acid +Net Gain of 2ATP 2NADH2

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Stage 2 - Krebs cycle.

The aerobic phase, the Krebs cycle, can be considered as a process which begins when a 2-carbon acetyl group produced from pyruvic acid joins with coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl CoA. see below The convertion of the(3C) pyruvic acid to the (2C) acetyl group involves the removal of carbon and the release of carbon dioxide. The convertion of the(3C) pyruvic acid to the (2C) acetyl group involves the removal of hydrogen which binds to NAD to form NADH The Acetyl component of Acetyl CoA reacts with a 4-carbon compound to form a 6-carbon compound (citric acid). Citric acid is gradually oxidised, in a cyclic series of reactions, back to the 4-carbon compound with carbons also being removed as carbon dioxide. During the Krebs cycle hydrogen molecules are continuously removed and bind to NAD to form NADH. TOP TIP - Note - Intermediate molecules need not be named, but the number of C atoms in compounds should be accounted for. see p6

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SUMMARY OF THE KREBS CYCLE

2Pyruvic Acid - 3 carbon molecule
2CO2

2NADH to cytochrome system 2 Acetyl - 2 carbon molecule Co-enzyme A (co-A) binds to Acetyl

Acetyl co-A

Citric Acid 6 carbon molecule Intermediate 4 carbon molecule KREBS CYCLE 2NADH to cytochrome system Intermediate 4 carbon molecules Intermediate 4 carbon molecules 2NADH to cytochrome system 5 carbon molecule 2NADH to cytochrome system
2CO2

2NADH to cytochrome system

2CO2

Top Tip The Acetyl produced after glycolysis is a 2C compound. This is carried for a short while by Co-A (acetyl co-A). The 2C acetyl then reacts with the 4C compound to give 6C citric acid releasing the carrier Co-A.

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What happens next? All NADH resulting from the continuous removal of hydrogen are transferred to the cytochrome system resulting in formation of ATP and eventual formation of water STAGE 3 CYTOCHROME SYSTEM The final stage of respiration is known as the cytochrome system. see below This system of hydrogen carriers is the most important means of releasing energy in respiration. This is a system of carrier molecules is found on the cristae of the mitochondria Hydrogen bound to the carrier molecule NAD is passed down a series of molecules successively reducing (gain) and oxidising (loss) each carrier in turn. Top Tip Learn this phrase off by heart as it is difficult to describe any other
way!

The final hydrogen acceptor is oxygen which forms water as a result. If oxygen is not present to act as the final accceptor, the hydrogen cannot pass through the system and complete oxidation cannot take place.
Reduced Carrier e.g. NADH2
ADP Pi ADP Pi ADP Pi

Oxygen

Carrier1

Carrier2

Carrier3

Carrier4 Cytochrome Oxidase

Oxidised Carrier e.g. NAD

Water

ATP

ATP

ATP

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Adding up all the ATPs

This bit is pretty tricky and you should only spend time on it if you are aiming for an A pass. Each molecule of NADH which passes its hydrogen into the cytochrome system gives releases enough energy to synthesise 3 A.T.P molecules The process of respiration has released 12 NADH( look back to see if you can find them all) which after passing the hydrogen into the cytochrome system results in 36 ATP Glycolysis released a further net gain of 2ATP

1 molecule of glucose therefore gives rise to 38 ATP

OTHER RESPIRATORY SUBSTRATES Carbohydrates such as glucose are the main respiratory substrate but if they are not available fats and proteins may be used as an alternative. The Fatty acids from fats are converted to Acetyl Co-A and enter the Krebs cycle. Fats release twice the energy/gram compared to carbohydrates but the energy is released much more slowly. The amino acids from proteins may also be used but only during periods of starvation TOP TIP The following page shows a summary of the whole process which will scare you at first. Try to learn it in steps as follows Step 1 Draw the main backbone with the main molecules and their carbons. Step 2 If you notice the number of carbons reducing ( e.g. 3C 2C) put an arrow in showing the CO2 has been removed Step 3 At all stages other than build up stages ( e.g. 4C 2C) you can assume than hydrogen is removed
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RESPIRATION THE WHOLE PROCESS ON ONE DIAGRAM

NADH2 Acetyl (2C)

CO2

Co- enzyme A

36 ATP

36 ATP + 2 net gain in glycolysis = 38 ATP in total

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ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION This is respiration without oxygen present. If this happens only the first stage called glycolysis can take place. Once pyruvic acid has been formed the cell must convert this to other compounds. In yeast Pyruvic acid is converted to ethanol ( 2C) and carbon dioxide ( 1C). The ethanol cannot be changed back as a carbon has been lost. In animals and bacteria Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid ( 3C) . This can be changed back to pyruvic acid as soon as oxygen becomes available again Anaerobic respiration only gives a total of 2ATP

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Respirometers Measuring the rate of respiration

Scale Tap

Coloured dye
Respiring material e.g. germinating sunflower seeds

Respiratory Chamber

Filter paper Sodium Hydroxide Solution Respirometers measure respiration as oxygen uptake/minute Carbon dioxide released is absorbed by sodium hydroxide

Cold blooded animals are used as heat released by warm blooded animals affects volume of gas in test tube Temperature must be kept at a constant during experiment by placing in water bath Control tube contains glass beads or non respiring (dead) organism Top Tip Peas are often used be careful not to assume they are photosynthesising

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