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TIMBER STRUCTURES
describe the fire behaviour of timber construction give design methods for heavy timber structural members exposed to fire briefly discuss fire behaviour of connections in timber structures
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Glulam
'Glue laminated timber' (glulam) are members made from several laminations glued together Fire tests have shown that glulam members exposed to fires behave in the same way as solid sawn-timber members of the same cross section
Heavy timber construction describes all uses of large-dimension timber framing in buildings Heavy timber structures are principal structural elements (beams, columns, decks or truss) Light timber frame construction uses smaller sizes of wood framing (studs in walls, joists in floors)
Winter 2003 Design of Wood Structures 8-3
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Fire-retardant Treatments
Fire-retardant chemicals are available for treating wood to reduce its combustibility The purpose of the chemical treatments is to reduce the rate of flame spread Chemical pressure impregnation is effective Impregnation can have some negative effects
loss of wood strength corrosion of fasteners
Fire-retardant chemicals do not significantly improve the fire resistance of timber members
Winter 2003 Design of Wood Structures 8-6
FIRE-RESISTANCE RATINGS
Design process for fire-resistance requires that: provided fire-resistance > design fire severity Verification is usually in time or strength domain Temp. domain is not used for timber structures (no critical temp for fire-exposed timber) Usually, fire design of heavy timber structures is by calculation methods Some countries have generic fire-resistance ratings for heavy timber construction There are very few proprietary ratings
Winter 2003 Design of Wood Structures 8-7
WOOD TEMPERATURES
When heavy timber members are exposed to severe fires, the outer layer of wood chars Boundary between the char layer and remaining wood corresponds to about 300C temp. Below the char layer there is a layer of heated wood about 35 mm thick Layer above 200C is the pyrolysis zone (thermal decomposition to gases, see Figure below) Moisture evaporates in the wood above 100C Structural design of heavy timber members is based on the rate of charring of the wood surface
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WOOD TEMPERATURES
Char layer and pyrolysis zone in a timber beam
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Bending behaviour
Bending behaviour is a combination of tension and compression Some ductility is available in timber beams when the material is stronger in tension than in compression
Design values
Structural design calculations require values of the design strength of the wood material For limit states design, design stress is 5th percentile failure stress under short-duration loading Due to variations, characteristic stresses are usually obtained from in-grade tests of large numbers of representative samples The 5th percentile value for design in normal temp. conditions, may be modified to 20th percentile strength value for fire design
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Design values
Design strength of timber depends on duration of the applied load as a duration-of-load factor In limit states design, duration-of-load factor is 1.0 for short-duration loads and 0.8 or 0.6 for medium- and long-duration loads In working stress design, duration-of-load factor is 1.0 for long-duration loads and 1.25 or 1.6 for medium- and short-duration loads The duration-of-load factor for fire design should be the appropriate value for short-duration loads
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Figure (b) shows temp. profile below char layer Figure (c) shows drop in wood strength below char layer (significant reduction below 25 mm)
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Verification
Verification of strength during fire exposure: U*fire Rfire U*fire is the design force and Rfire is the load capacity The design force U*fire may be axial force N*fire , bending moment M*fire or shear force V*fire The load capacity is calculated as axial force Nf, bending moment Mf or shear force Vf
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Charring rate
Rate of charring (under standard fires) depends on the density and moisture content of the wood Many codes specify a constant charring rate of:
0.60 - 0.75 mm/min for softwoods about 0.5 mm/min for hardwoods
The effect of density, (kg/m3), and MC on the charring rate is shown in Figure below, given by the equation below for charring rate (mm/min): = 0.4 + (280 / )2 Table below shows recommended charring rates
Winter 2003 Design of Wood Structures 8-50
Charring rate
Charring rate as affected by density and MC
Charring rate
Charring rates for design
Material Glue-laminated softwood timber Solid or glue-laminated hardwood timber Softwood panel products (plywood, particle board) minimum thickness 20 mm Minimum density (mg/m3) 290 450 450 Char rate 1 (mm/minute) (mm/minute) 0.64 0.70 0.50 0.55 0.9
for actual cross sections with rounded corners 1 (10% larger notional charring rate) is for no corner rounding
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Charring rate
In North America, recommendations for charring rate are given by AFPA (White, 1988) The proposed charring rate is the average charring rate (mm/min) given by: = 2.58 n / t0.187 n is a nominal charring rate ( n=0.635 mm/min) and t is the time (min) The resulting char layer thickness c (mm) is: c = t = 2.58 n t0.813 Figure below shows the resulting depth of char during 4 hours of standard fire exposure
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Charring rate
Depth of char from North American recommendations
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Corner Rounding
All fire tests of large rectangular timber sections show some rounding of the corners Figure below shows a typical charred cross section Most design codes assume the radius of the rounding as equal to the depth of the charred layer If corner rounding is considered in beams exposed to fire on 3 sides, the section modulus Zf,r of the reduced cross section is given by: Zf = bf df2 / 6 - 0.215 r2 df bf is the beam residual width, df is beam residual depth, and r is the radius of the charred corner
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Corner Rounding
Residual cross section of timber beam exposed to fire
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The AFPA North American design method increases the nominal charring rate by 20% to allow for the heated wood below the char line Using the effective cross section method in accordance with Eurocode, the charring rate 1 should be used (earlier Table)
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Consider a softwood glulam beam, 130 mm wide by 720 mm deep, spanning 7.5 m with a dead load G = 4.0 kN/m (including self weight) and live load Q = 7.0 kN/m. The beam is laterally restrained with timber decking nailed to the top edge. Check the design for normal conditions and for 60 minutes fire-resistance rating, exposed to fire on three sides. Use the Eurocode method with the charring rates from Table 8-52 and the factor k20 = 1.15.
Winter 2003 Design of Wood Structures 8-64
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The characteristic flexural strength is fb = 17.7 MPa. The strength reduction factor is = 0.8 for normal design and f = 1.0 for fire design. The durationof-load factor is kd = 0.8 for cold design and kd = 1.0 for fire design. Check design for normal conditions Design load wc = 1.2G+1.6Q = 1.2x4.0+1.6x7.0 = 16.0 kN/m Bending moment M* = wcL2/8 = 16.0x7.52/8 = 112 kNm Section modulus: Z = bd2/6 = 130x7202/6 = 11.2x106 mm3
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Nominal strength Mn = kd f0.05 Z = 0.8x17.7x11.2 = 159 kNm Design strength Mn = 0.8x159 = 127 kNm M* Mn so design is OK. Loads for fire conditions Design load wf = 1.0G+0.4Q = 1.0x4.0+0.4x7.0 = 6.8 kN/m Bending moment M*fire = wfL2/8 = 6.8 x 7.52/8 = 47.8 kNm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Method I (effective cross section, no corner rounding) Rate of charring: 1 = 0.7 mm/min Depth of char: c = 60 x 0.7 = 42 mm Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2x42 = 46 mm Reduced depth: df = 720-42 = 678 mm Thickness of zero-strength layer: z = 7 mm Effective breadth: be = 46-2x7 = 32 mm Effective depth de = 678-7 = 671 mm Section modulus: Zf = be de2/6 = 32x6712/6 = 2.40 x 106 mm3
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Flexural strength: Mf = kd ff Zf = kd k20 f0.05 Zf = 1.0x1.15x17.7x2.4 Mf = 48.9 kNm M*fire Mf so design is OK. Method II (reduced properties, no corner rounding) Rate of charring: 1 = 0.7 mm/min Depth of char: c = 60 x 0.7 = 42 mm Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2x42 = 46 mm Reduced depth: df =720-42 = 678 mm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Section modulus: Zf = bf df2/6 = 46x6782/6 = 3.52x106 mm3 Beam area: A = bf df = 46x678/106 = 0.0312 m2 Beam perimeter: p = bf + 2df = (46+2x678)/103 = 1.40 m Reduction factor: kf = 1-p/200A = 1-1.40/(200x0.0312) = 0.775 Flexural strength: Mf = kfkdk20f0.05Zf = 0.775x1.0x1.15x17.7x3.52 Mf = 55.6 kNm M*fire Mf so design is OK.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Method III (reduced properties, corner rounding) Rate of charring: = 0.64 mm/minute Depth of char: c = 60 x 0.64 = 38.4 mm Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2 x 38.4= 53.2 mm Reduced depth: df =720-38.4=682 mm Section modulus: Zf = bfdf2/6-0.215c2df Zf =53.2x6822/6-0.215x38.42x682=3.90x106 mm3 Beam area: A =bf df = 53.2x682/106 = 0.0363 m2
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Beam perimeter: p =bf+2df =(53.2+2x682)/103 = 1.42 m Reduction factor: kf = 1-p/200A = 1-1.42/(200x0.0363) = 0.805 Flexural strength: Mnf = kfkdk20f0.05Zf = 0.805x1.0x1.15x17.7x3.9 Mnf = 63.9 kNm M*fire Mf so design is OK.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Repeat Example 1 using the NA charring rate in the working stress design format. The allowable stress under long duration loading in flexure is fa = 8.0 MPa. The factor to convert allowable stress to mean failure stress is kmean = 2.85. Check design for normal conditions Design load: w = G+Q = 4.0+7.0 = 11.0 kNm Bending moment: M*w = wL2/8 = 11.0x7.52/8 = 77.3 kNm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Section modulus: Z = bd2/6 = 130x7202/6 = 11.2x106 mm3 Flexural stress: f*b = M*w/Z = 77.3x106/11.2x106 = 6.91 Mpa f*b fb so design is OK. Fire design (NA char rate, no corner rounding) Time of calculation: t = 60 minutes Depth of char: c = 2.58 n t0.813 = 2.58x0.635X600.813 = 45.7 mm
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2x45.7 = 38.6 mm Reduced depth: df = 720-45.7 = 674 mm Section modulus: Z = bf df2/6 = 38.6x6742/6 = 2.92x106 mm3 Flexural stress: fb,f = M*w/Z = 77.3x106/2.92x106 = 26.4 MPa Allowable stress: fa,f = kmean fa = 2.85x8.0 = 22.8 Mpa f*b,f fa,f so the beam fails in fire.
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32 24 16 10 6.4
40 30 20 12 8.0
55 45 34 22 15
68 57 42 27 19
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Empirical Equations
Most NA codes include equations to calculate fire resistance of beams and columns (Lie, 1977) Lies simple equations assumed:
a uniform charring rate of 0.6 mm/min section remains rectangular and the residual core has 80% of initial strength under char layer
Empirical Equations
For columns, the time to failure tf (min) is: tf = 0.1 z b (3 - d/2b) (3-sided exposure) tf = 0.1 z b (3 - d/b) (4-sided exposure) For long columns, z is calculated by trial and error (see textbook) For short columns, z is based on better fitting with experimental results for columns of low slenderness ratio, given by: z = 0.9 + 0.3 / Ra
For beams, the time to failure tf (min) is given by: tf = 0.1 z b (4 -b/d) (3-sided exposure) tf = 0.1 z b (4 -2b/d) (4-sided exposure) z = 0.7 + 0.3 / Ra Ra is ratio of actual to allowable load at normal temp. and dimensions are in mm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the time to failure for the beam in Worked Example 1 using NA empirical design equation. Design bending moment: M* = 112 kNm Design strength: Mn = k1 fb Z = 127 kNm Load ratio: Ra = M* / Mn = 112/127 = 0.882 z factor: z = 0.7 +0.3/Ra = 0.7+0.3/0.882 = 1.04 Time to failure: tf = 0.1 z b (4-b/d) tf = 0.1x1.04x130 (4-130/720) = 50.1 min Time to failure is less than 60 minutes, so the beam fails in the fire.
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Beams
Beams can be designed using the same design equations as for normal temperature conditions, with modifications for strength and cross section It is important to determine which surfaces of the beam are exposed to fire (see Figure below) In addition to flexural strength calculations, lateral torsional buckling must also be checked Shear stresses are not a concern for rectangular beams, but should be considered for I-beams Deflections are not usually of concern
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Beams
Three-/four-sided beam exposure
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Tension Members
Tension members are not affected by the possibility of buckling The tensile load capacity of a fire-reduced cross section can be calculated using one of the design methods
effective cross section Reduced properties
Columns
Short columns strength depends on material crushing strength and reduced cross section Long columns strength (buckling increases with time) depends on moment of inertia and modulus of elasticity of reduced cross section Lateral stability is very important for columns Columns built into walls may have better fire resistance (less charring and lateral restraint) Tests on 16 columns (Malhotra et al. 1970) achieved fire-resistance ratings between 30 and 90 min, depending on load and slenderness ratio
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Beam-columns
A 'beam-column' is a member subjected to combined bending and axial loading The design approach is to check the general interaction formula including both flexural strength and axial load capacity, such as: (N/Nu)2 + M/Mu 1 N = applied axial load (kN), Nu = axial load capacity with buckling effects (kN), M = applied bending moment (kN-m), and Mu = flexural capacity with lateral buckling effects (kN-m)
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Decking
Assessment of fire resistance of decking must consider all three possible failure criteria of stability, integrity and insulation Solid wood decking includes solid timber or glulam timber planks laid flat and butted together with tongue and groove edges, and timber planks set on edge and nailed together (see details in textbook)
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Decking - Stability
The stability criterion can be assessed in the same way as for beams and columns Janssens (1997) proposed an empirical design formula for structural performance of solid decks (based on a temperature and charring model) The time to structural failure tsf (min) is given by: tsf = 1.25 d (1 - 0.4Ra) - 11.3 d is the thickness of the deck (mm), and Ra is the ratio of the applied load to the allowable design load
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Decking - Integrity
The integrity criterion may be the most difficult to satisfy for wood deck systems The difficulties arise at the junctions between the planks, which may increase in width due to shrinkage of wood which often occurs during the life of a building Tongue and groove joints between the planks are the best solution
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Decking - Insulation
If the integrity and stability criteria are satisfied, there will be no problem meeting the insulation criterion, because the thickness of remaining wood required to carry applied loads will be greater than that required to prevent excessive temperature rise on the top surface
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
A solid timber deck consists of 150 mm thick planks joined with central splines as shown in Figure 10.35(c). The deck spans 5 m with a superimposed dead load of 1.25 kN/m2 and live load 5.0 kN/m2. Calculate the failure time using Janssen's formula. Use the Eurocode reduced properties method to calculate if the deck has a 90 minute fire-resistance rating.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
The characteristic flexural strength of the decking timber is fb = 25.0 MPa. The density of the wood is 5.0 kN/m3. The strength reduction factor is 0.8 for normal design and f = 1.0 for fire design. The duration of load factor is kd = 0.8 for cold design and kd = 1.0 for fire design. The factor kf is 1.15 for fire design.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Check for normal conditions Thickness of deck: d = 150 mm Self weight of deck: ws = d =5x0.15=0.75 kN/m2 Total dead load: G = 0.75+1.25 = 2.0 kN/m2 Design load: wc = 1.2G+1.6Q = 1.2x2.0+1.6x5.0 = 10.4 kN/m2 Design a strip 1 m wide. Uniformly distributed load = 1.0 x 10.4 = 10.4 kN/m Bending moment: M* = wcL2/8 = 10.4x52/8 = 32.5 kNm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Section modulus: Z = bd2/6 = 1000x1502/6 = 3.75x106 mm3 Design strength: Mn = k1 fb Z = 0.8x0.8x25x3.75 = 60.0 kNm M* Mn so design is OK. Janssen's formula Load ratio: Ra = M* / Mn = 32.5/60 = 0.54 Time to failure: tsf = 1.25 d (1-(0.4Ra))-11.3 tsf = 1.25x150 (1- (0.4 X 0.54))-11.3 = 89 min
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Eurocode reduced properties method Design load: wc = 1.0G+0.4Q = 1.0x2.0+0.4x5.0 = 4 kN/m2 Design a strip 1 m wide. Uniformly distributed load = 1.0 x 4.0 = 4.0 kN/m Bending moment: M*fire = wc L2/8 = 4x52/8 = 12.5 kNm Rate of charring: = 0.64 mm/min Depth of char: c = 90 x 0.64 = 57.6 mm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Reduced depth: df = 150-57.6 = 92.4 mm Section modulus: Zf = bdf2/6 = 1000x92.42/6 = 1.42 x 106 mm3 Section area: A = b df = 1000x92.4/106 = 0.00924 m2 Exposed perimeter: p = b = 1.0 m Reduction factor: kf = 1-p/200A = 1-1.0/(200x0.00924) = 0.46 Design strength: Mf = kf kd k20f0.05 Zf Mf = 0.46x1.0x1.15x25x1.42 = 18.8 kNm M*fire Mf so design is OK.
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Metal Fasteners
The behaviour of metal fasteners depends on the temperature of the metal because:
it affects the strength of the fastener itself high temperatures lead to charring or loss of strength of wood in contact with the metal
Geometry and protection of metal fasteners are explained in more details in the textbook
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Bolted Connections
Bolted connections are widely used in timber structures with excellent results Fire behaviour of bolted connections depends on the amount of heat able to enter the wood through the bolts The theory for nails could be applied to bolted connections but no comprehensive studies have been published
Truss Plates
Truss plates have been shown to have a poor reputation for fire resistance Tests (White et al. 1994) on truss plates under ASTM E-119 standard fire exposure up to 300C In the tests, unprotected plates failed in less than 6 min compared with 13 min for solid timber with no connection Various combinations of protection increased the fire resistance, the best gave over 30 min fire resistance when all 4 sides of the member were protected with 13 mm Type X gypsum plaster
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Glued Connections
Many timber structures and timber members are connected with adhesive When exposed to fire, glued wood members generally behave in the same way as solid wood provided that thermosetting adhesives are used Some adhesive such as epoxies are sensitive to elevated temperatures and should not be relied on in fire conditions
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