History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

Colonizers Architecture
Term Paper for History of Architecture (AP131) Sheifali Aggarwal
Roll Number: 07616901611 Sushant School of Art and Architecture

ABSTRACT
The Roman Empire occupied Britain between 43 and 410 AD and the territory was known as Britannia. During the occupation the Romans changed Britain by building an extensive network of roads, water supply and sanitation systems. The Romans also established many cities which include London and Manchester which were then known as Londinium and Mamucium. However, the Romans had ingeniousness, beauty and lasting grandeur. When the Romans conquered nations and established and expanded their empire, they brought with them innovations that had beneficial impact on the lives of those conquered. The aqueduct of Segovia, Spain, which is rooted on great pillars and arches of stacked granite blocks so perfectly hewn that no mortar was needed to hold them in place, is one of the most impressive examples of Roman architecture you will ever witness. (1) The Romans built towns in lowland areas, such as at forts across rivers, in contrast to the earlier Neolithic and Iron Age practice of sticking to the slopes and higher ground above the valleys. Town boundaries, unlike military forts, were not laid out in rigid rectangles or squares, but they did contain a regular grid-like network of streets. Every town had public baths. The baths were a Roman institution, and most town dwellers would have attended daily before their evening meal. They were open to both sexes, though at different times of day, and served as a combination health club, healing spa, and meeting place. Most large villas are built quite close to major urban centers, generally within ten miles, so the owners were never very far from the center of affairs. Villas were more than fancy houses, though; they were centers of rural industry and agriculture. (2) One of the best Roman remains in London is the 2nd century Temple of Mithras (mithraism was a form of religion popular among Roman soldiers). It was found near Walbrook during construction work in this century, and moved to Temple Court, Queen Victoria Street. Artifacts recovered from the excavation of the temple are now in the Museum of London. (3) The Indo-Saracenic Revival (also known as Indo-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal, Hindoo or HinduGothic) was an architectural style movement by British architects in the late 19th century in British India. It drew elements from native Indo-Islamic and Indian architecture, and combined it with the Gothic revival and Neo-Classical styles favored in Victorian Britain. The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of the various views of India by William Hodges and the Daniell duo, (William Daniell and his uncle Thomas Daniell) from about 1795. (4) The British government was afraid of what kind of legacy they would leave behind when exiting India in 1947. Today, years after the independence of India, one is still able to see such a legacy in stone: the colonial architecture and cities that are still in existence. The styles of architecture employed by the British Raj were systematically chosen, dependent on the location and utilization of a given city. (5)

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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

PAPER Romans Colonising Britain

43 AD: Britain becomes part of the empire 117-38AD: Hadrian 122AD: Hadrians Wall started in Britain. Static frontiers created elsewhere 212AD: Grant Roman citizenship to all free people in the Empire 286-96 AD: Secessionist Empire in Britain 406AD: Rhine freezes over, allowing German invaders in. Loss of parts of Gaul and Britain (by410) (6) For the first time, under the Belgic chief Cunobelin, Shakespeares Cymbeline, much of southern England united under a single ruler, Rex Brittonum, as he was referred. Roman merchants settles here, slaves, iron and corn were exported in exchange for eastern luxuries. When he died, however, his kingdom collapsed, and in AD 43 the Roman emperor Claudius sent an army to add Britain to his empire. (7) The Roman legions soon occupied England even after great resistance. Wales, too, was eventually subdued, but the Roman occupation of the islands was virtually confined to England: there was no attempt to invade Ireland; Wales was too mountainous for civilian settlement, Scotland too wild and warlike, and Cornwall too barren and remote. Therefore, the romans sealed off these dangerous areas by building forts at Caerleon, Chester and York, each the headquarters of a legion, and a great defensive wall across the north of England, from Solway to the mouth of Tyne. (7) For some three centuries under the Pax Romana the Britons of the southern half of England knew little or nothing of war. Towns were centres of civilization, and Bath and Verulamium emulated the elegance of Rome; the ports shipped lead from Shropshire and the Mendips, iron from the Weald and Forest of Dean, even gold from Wales and corn was exported to feed the populace of the imperial capital. (7) Londinium (present day London) was established besides the Thames at the lowest point at which opposed gravel banks facilitated a permanent crossing. It might indeed be fairly claimed that Londinium began as the parasite of London Bridge. (8)

Figure 1: Plan of London Ref: http://www.britainexpress.com/London/roman-london-map.htm

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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

Figure 2: Plan of London showing baths, roman bridge, London Bridge, roman wall, mithraeum, cripple gate, basilica Ref: http://www.roman-britain.org/places/images/londinium_plan.gif

The Temple of Mithras Mithraeum were generally built partly or completely underground, representing the cave in which Mithras was said to have slain the primordial bull, thereby unleashing the powers of creativity and life into the world. The Temple of Mithras was built sometime in the middle of the 2nd century A.D. Within the temple were found likenesses of Minerva, Bacchus, and Serapis, imported from Italy. These are now to be seen at the Museum of London. The form of temple used by Mithraism is the fore-runner of the traditional Christian church, with aisles flanking a long nave leading to an altar and an apse. The Christians may have been horrified, but architecturally, at least, they owed a debt of thanks to Mithraism. (8)

Figure 3: Temple of Mithraeum Ref: http://knowledgeoflondon.com/images/roman_tempsideview.jpg

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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

Figure 4: Reconstruction of the interior of the Walbrook Mithraeum. The nave is divided from raised aisles by sleeper-walls, each of which carried seven brick columns. The temple continued in use at least until the mid-fourth century. Ref: http://www.honour.org.uk/projects/mithras/images/mithrastempleartistimpression.jpg

Hadrians Wall Probably the most famous Roman remain in England is Hadrian's Wall. The honour goes to the Antonine Wall, an earthwork defence between the firths of Clyde and Forth. It is, however, an impressive engineering feat, and well worth visiting. The original construction took six years to complete, during which time plans were altered several times. The building was done by members of three vex illations - temporary legion subunits - working from east to west, and it has been estimated that they used more than a million cubic metres of stone in its completion. This was not a weekend project. The wall was manned until sometime around 400 A.D. The wall itself was eight to ten feet wide and fifteen feet high, with a rampart walk and six foot high parapet. There are over eighty mile forts spaced, every mile, with a kitchen and barracks for a small garrison. In between the mile forts two observation towers were built, resulting in lookouts every third of a mile for the entire length of the wall. In addition to the mile forts there were seventeen larger forts holding from 500 to 1000 troops, infantry or cavalry, or a mixture of both. These forts were built into the wall, with large gates on the north face flanked by stone towers. (8)

Figure 5: Hadrian's Wall near Twice Brewed, Northumberland Ref: http://www.northumbria-byways.com/images/hadrians_wall_region.jpg

To the south of the wall the Romans dug a wide ditch, or vallum, with six foot high earth banks. (8)

Figure 6: Hadrians Wall Ref: http://www.britainexpress.com/History/Hadrian%27s_Wall.htm

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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

Roman Villa - Kings Weston Avon Kings Weston Roman Villa features the remains of a roman villa or country house/farmhouse of the late 3rd and 4th century AD. Its located by Long Cross Road, in Lawrence Weston, enabling you to discover where the Romans used to live on the doorstep of Bristol. At Kings Weston Roman Villa, you get to see the only Roman bath suite in Bristol, marvel at the wellpreserved mosaic floors and discover Roman central heating. (9) Newport Roman Villa Newport Roman Villa was built around 280 AD with local stone including flint, chalk, limestone and greensand with the walls remaining almost at their original height. The building was roofed with massive slabs of Bembridge limestone which needed large roof timbers to support them. Many of these roof slabs had a distinctive shape, pierced with a single hole to take a nail, were found on the site. It is likely the building was the center of a wealthy estate. The discovery of fragments of window glass on the site shows that the building had some glazed windows and remains of painted wall plaster during excavation show that at least some of the rooms had brightly colored interior walls. It features one of the best preserved Roman bath suites with hypocaust under floor heating. The furnace for heating the bath suite was outside the back wall of the villa at the end of the bath wing, and a servant would have been responsible for providing it with fuel. The hot air from the furnace passed through an arch at the base of the villa's back wall and circulated under the raised floors of the three rooms. (10)

British Colonizing India

The Indo-Saracenic Revival (also known as Indo-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal, Hindoo or HinduGothic) was an architectural style movement by British architects in the late 19th century in British India. It drew elements from native Indo-Islamic and Indian architecture, and combined it with the Gothic revival and Neo-Classical styles favored in Victorian Britain. The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of the various views of India by William Hodges and the Daniell duo, (William Daniell and his uncle Thomas Daniell) from about 1795. (4) 1st Jun, 1757 2nd Aug,1858 1st Jan, 1885 1st Jan, 1930 12th Mar, 1931 14th Aug, 1947 26th Aug, 1947 30th Jan, 1948 26th Jan, 1950
(11)

The British East Indian Company The British Government establishes rule over India (establishes the Raj) Indian National Congress Muslim League wants a separate Pakistani state Gandhi's Salt March Pakistan and India declare Independence First battle over Kashmir Gandhi assassinated India becomes a democracy

Both sides in the debate were agreed on that, but Smith was adamant that the style chosen must be emphatically European. He would have preferred to say British but for his nervous doubts that there was any such thing as a distinctively British architecture; never mind, the British could lay claim to European architecture as their own, and in their Empire: We ought, like the Romans and the Mahommedans, to take our national style with us we shall be likely to succeed best if we are not too anxious to incorporate much of art or style of the country with our own. (12)

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History of Architecture (AP313) | Term Paper | 2013

Muir College, Allahabad Large hall in Venetian Gothic style has a dome which is Mughal in outline but Persian in decoration. Besides the hall, stands a minaret which was designed by a Briton, William Emerson; he was expressing an earnest, even crusading intention.

Figure 7: The Muir College in Allahabad (still a part of the citys university) was designed by William Emerson in 1873; it was one of the earliest attempts to concoct an Oriental imagery for buildings of the British Raj. Ref: http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/01216/24TH_ALLAHABD_VARS_1216948f.jpg

University Senate House, Madras Designed by Robert Fellowes Chisholm Some arches are of an ogee form, like those of the Deccan, while others are of a voluptuous horseshoe form, such as those of Moorish Spain. Persian domes over brick towers. Stone carving on capitals and balconies.

Figure 8: The most prolific early exponent of the Indo-Saracenic approach. Robert Fellowes Chisholm also applied it to university buildings; as in the Senate House, Madras (early 1870s). Ref: http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/dynamic/00731/25MPMUTHIAH_731467f.jpg
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Chepauk Palace, Madras Adjacent to the Senate House site, to the south Residence of the Nawabs of Arcot. Spindly minarets, bulbous dome, pointed arches, carved balconies, and polychrome walls Most details derived from Mughal and Deccani sources

Figure 9: Part of the former Chepauk Palace, which had been acquired by the government from the Nawabs of Arcot, was transformed by Chisholm into the Board of Revenue Offices, draped in Islamic imagery, to the Approval of the Governor, Lord Napier. Ref: http://www.hindu.com/mp/2011/03/14/images/2011031450960602.jpg

In these works for Indian patrons, Chisholm seems to have subtly modified his method: when working in the British city of Madras, he was broad-minded, almost undiscriminating, in his choice of sources; but when working in an Indian state, he included forms which were specific to the region, as if trying to preserve local particularities and traditions. Though it was not observed invariably, this distinction was maintained by other architects of the movement, as though a general Eastern style was the preserve of the Imperial Power while Indian rulers were to be reminded of their provincial status. (12) Gargantuan Laxmi Vilas, Baroda Build for Gaekwaf Sayaji Rao II between 1878 and 1890 Refined and profuse in its ornament Employing across its capacious but crowded faade every type of arch, dome and moulding known to the vocabulary of north Indian architecture. Chajjas, bangla eaves and chattris Private apartments, public rooms, and zenana wing, the Laxmi Vilas retains the traditional tripartite division of an Indian palace but in size and proportion of its rooms, and all other aspects of its planning and organisation, it adheres more closely to European models. (12)

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Figure 10: It took the combined expertise of Mant and Chisholm to design and built the vast Laxmi Vilas for the Maharaja of Baroda between 1878 and 1890; one faade is over 500feet long but every detail is flawlessly executed. Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laxmi_vilas_Palace_Vadodara_Baroda.jpg

Victoria Memorial Hall, Calcutta Designed by William Emerson at the beginning of the century but formally was opened in 1921. Much more emphatically European design, defiantly classical. Central dome transports one to the other capital of the Empire with its strong echo of wrens St. Pauls. Corner domes have a more Mughal outline. General massing of the building is vaguely suggestive of the Taj Mahal: a central dome surrounded by four small domed kiosks surmounts a vast arched portal and four corner towers, all clad in white marble. (12)

Figure 11: vie of the Victoria Memorial hall in Calcutta designed by William Emerson. Though vaguely suggestive of the Taj Mahal, it is defiantly classical in designed a splendid monument. Ref: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Victoria_memorial_kolkata.jpg

One point of confusion among the exponents was whether the exercise was to be regarded as a revival of the historical architecture of India or as a synthesis of Indian forms with western technology. Some of the manifesto statements, including Lord Napiers present it as a return of Indian values, as an attempt to redress the Westernizing tendencies of British architectural policies. This interpretation is underlined by the self-adopted label Indo-Saracenic, a term which was otherwise reserved for Mughal and Sultanate architecture, with which the movement was, associated itself. (12) A second point of confusion concerned the participations of Indians. Some of the Indo-Saracenic architects acknowledged their considerable dependence on Indian craftsmen and praised their abilities, but they also made it clear that the Indians role was restricted to skilfully carrying out the
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British architects instructions. Craftsmanship was sustained at the price of a colonial redefinition of its role. So here too, the movements claim to an authentic Indian identity is questionable. (12)

Bibliography
1. http://www.thoughtleader.co.za/sentletsediakanyo/2008/09/07/the-majesty-and-grandeurof-roman-engineering-and-architecture/ 2. http://www.britainexpress.com/History/Life_in_Roman_Britain.htm 3. http://www.britainexpress.com/London/roman-london.htm 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Saracenic_Revival_architecture 5. http://www.asianstudies.buffalo.edu/documents/Cities_of_Dreams_in_India_2011_MGR_UG _Runner_up.pdf 6. Peter Clayton. Treasures of Ancient Rome: Bison Group, 1986, 1994 7. F.E. Halliday. England A Concise History: Thames and Hudson, 1964, 1999 8. Mortimer Wheeler. Roman art and architecture: Thames and Hudson, 1964 9. http://visitbristol.co.uk/things-to-do/kings-weston-roman-villa-p25241 10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newport_Roman_Villa 11. http://www.timetoast.com/timelines/13616 12. Christopher W. Londor. Architecture in Victorian and Edwardian India: Marg Publications

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