Theory of Knowledge Essay

INTERNATIONAL BACCALAUREATE DIPLOMA PROGRAM [CORE] Topic 1 In what ways may disagreement aid the pursuit of knowledge in the natural and human sciences?

Candidate Name Candidate Session Number Candidate Code Examination Session Pages Word Count Date Rukmal Weerawarana 001426-005 dwd913 MAY 2013 10 1547 01/28/13

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Q: In what ways may disagreement aid the pursuit of knowledge in the natural and human sciences? [1200-1600 Words] (Topic 1; IB Diploma; May 2013) A:

Disagreement, as defined by the New Oxford American English Dictionary,1 is a

lack of consensus or approval. That is, for an individual to disagree with something would be to refute it without question. To evaluate the role of disagreement in the natural and human sciences, its roles in

other areas of knowledge such as Mathematics and Art will also be considered. Finally, to assess the comprehensive role of disagreement in the pursuit of knowledge, the nature of knowledge in the absence of disagreement must also be considered. Philosopher Thomas Hobbess statement, Science is the knowledge of

consequences, and the dependence of one fact upon another2 encapsulates the essence of the natural sciences. The validity of the most basic of scientific theories, such as the principles of Newtonian Physics 3 , and Mendeleevs classification of the elements 4 are reliant on the absence of evidence to dispute them.5 As Hobbess statement signifies, most scientific theories are indeed based on previous knowledge. However, the newest theories are often extraordinary. Today, most proposed new theories are refuted or disagreed with

(Oxford University) (Hobbes) 3 (Hamper) 4 (Brown and Ford) 5 (Helmenstine)
1 2

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at inception. Examples of this include the discovery of the planet Vulcan,6 and the theory of Spontaneous Generation.7 Therefore, it can be said that the presence of disagreement in novel scientific theories aids the pursuit of knowledge, as it allows scientists to effectively evaluate varied theories for discrepancies, both experimentally and theoretically, as opposed to accepting a single theory without objection, thus leading to superior knowledge than what could be gleaned if disagreement were not used in the consideration of scientific theories. Furthermore, new theories are also postulated from new theories proved wrong by

disagreement. For example, in the 15th century, general consensus was that the Earth was flat.8 However, Christopher Columbuss journey to what he thought to be India across the Atlantic9 marked a change in human history, where the already highly debated shape of the Earth was decided by Columbuss disagreement with the norm. The amount of knowledge gained through the disagreement of previously established facts could be supplemented by Galileo Galilees discovery that the Earth was not the center of the universe in 1633,10 which opposed the prevailing Catholic beliefs.11 Further, Galileos example could also be used to illustrate the ill effects of abstaining

from the use of disagreement in the pursuit of scientific knowledge. Today, probes to outer space and other geographical facts confirm that the Earth is undoubtedly not the center of

(Encyclopedia Britannica) (Zwier) 8 (Hannam) 9 (NMN Learning Team) 10 (de Santillana) 11 (Brachear)
6 7

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the universe. 12 However, the Catholic Church banned Galileos book of his published hypotheses in 1633 for two centuries from its publication.13 This example illustrates the knowledge lost due to the absence of disagreement in the pursuance of knowledge. When the Human Sciences are considered, the role played by disagreement varies

greatly, both due to the varying subjects within the Human Sciences, and the different nature of the areas of knowledge. This difference is illustrated in Experimental Psychologist Steven Pinkers statement Human behavior makes most sense when it is explained in terms of beliefs and desires, not in terms of volts and grams.14 To consider Geography, disagreements role would be relatively miniscule when compared to its role in the Natural Sciences. Its relative absence in the Human Sciences is due to the absolute nature of this area of knowledge. For example, if a Geologist were to draw a hill on a map, nobody could disagree with the fact that there is indeed a hill on the map. However, if a Physicist were to assert the existence of the Higgs Boson particle, the theory must pass countless tests and endure criticisms to be accepted as fact by the scientific community.15 However, in Human Science subjects where there is room for disagreement, such as

Government, the use of disagreement to gain knowledge is used profusely. As a Human Science, Politics cannot be governed by a single set of rules and equations as the Natural Sciences are. Thus, structures such as the Parliament exist to allow proper consideration to

(Wilson and Dunbar) (Bellis) 14 (Linder) 15 (O'Brien and Walton)
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be given to the disagreement to various laws and ideas.16 The presence of such structures not only illustrate the fundamental need for disagreement for the gaining of knowledge as a body of entities, but it also illustrates the extent to which we as humans value opinions (a view or judgment formed about something, not necessarily based on fact or knowledge17), which can be equivocated to different states of disagreement to a given topic by different individuals. Therefore, as Parliament is a place where open debate and the voicing of disagreements is encouraged, it can conclusively be said that despite the fact that disagreement does not play as significant a role in the Human Sciences as it plays in the Natural Sciences, its aid to the pursuit of knowledge in the Human Sciences is evident. By definition, disagreement is the process of proving an assertion wrong by

providing contradicting evidence. However, due to the abstract nature of Mathematics, the use of disagreement would not add to either the amount or validity of knowledge gained. If the two integers 2 and 3 were added together, the sum would be 5. If this sum were to be attempted by two people; one who agrees with the laws of mathematics and another who disagrees with the principles of mathematics, the result would be the same; 5. Contrary to the effect of disagreement in the other areas of knowledge, the abstract and absolute nature of mathematics would be the cause of the effect of disagreement. The abstract and absolute nature of mathematics also applies to the physical world. If an individual were to put 2 apples and 3 oranges together, he would have 5 fruit, regardless of whether or not the

16 17

(Longley) (Oxford University)

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individual disagrees with the principles of fundamental mathematics.18 The main reason for this disparity would be the fact that pure mathematics is purely abstract, but is infinitely useful because of this fact, as it provides unbiased results regardless of an individuals agreement or disagreement with the principles of mathematics, as John Polkinghorne asserts; Mathematics is the abstract key which turns the lock of the physical universe.19 The appreciation of art is based entirely on the ways of knowing of sense perception,

language and emotion. As with all perceptions, they vary from individual to individual, in the form of opinions. As previously established however, opinions are merely derivations of an individuals level of disagreement with an idea. Thus, it can be inferred that the appreciation of art involves not only the ways of knowing of emotion and language, but also the level of disagreement of an individual with the work of art in question. Leonardo da Vincis The Last Supper is one of mankinds primal works of art. 20 This painting, depicting Jesus Christs last meal is clearly inspired by religion; a form of knowledge entirely based on faith. However, the painting gained its popularity mainly due to the fact that individuals chose not to disagree with the validity of the scenario. If, on the other hand, the majority of the population chose to disagree with Da Vincis ideology of The Last Supper, it would not have gained its popularity, thus depriving us as humans of an exquisite work of art: a part of human legacy, which would indeed be a loss of knowledge to the human race. Therefore, as with all knowledge, disagreement is intrinsic to gain knowledge artistically.

(Mitchener) (Polkinghorne) 20 (Esaak)
18 19

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As previously discussed, to comprehensively and completely evaluate the role of

disagreement in the pursuance of knowledge, the nature of knowledge in the absence of disagreement must be considered. To do this however, the effect of disagreement on the nature of ways of knowing must be considered. As established above, the absence of disagreement will have no effect on the nature of Logic and Reasoning. However, the absence of disagreement will greatly change the ways of knowing of Perception and Emotion, as the removal of disagreement would remove opinion, thus causing all individuals to think, act and react identically, akin to the society in Margaret Atwoods The Handmaids Tale.21 Relieving all humans of their ability to act and react differently would ominously affect the way we process and gain knowledge. Without having the ability to disagree, we as humans would be compelled to accept things as they appear, or as we are told, affecting us to such an extent that questions such as How do I know?22 would be unavailing. Contrastingly, the absence of disagreement from our human capabilities would also affect human history; there would be no wars due to the fact that no disagreements were to exist. Tragically however, humans would lose their ability to form and contradict theories, effectively stunting our ability to gain knowledge. In conclusion, it can be inferred that the presence of disagreement is quintessential

for the gaining of knowledge. Disagreement permeates all areas of knowledge except Mathematics, only because to the abstract nature of the subject. Therefore, disagreement is indeed an aid to the pursuit of knowledge in the Natural and Human Sciences. However,

21 22

(Atwood) (International Baccalaureate Oganization)

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despite the fact that disagreement is indeed a legitimate basis for procuring knowledge, it must not cloud an individuals judgment, but must be used in moderation for the betterment of the individual, and only to gain knowledge, as summarized by the words of Mahatma Gandhi; Honest disagreement is often a good sign of progress.23

Word Count 1547

23

(Mishra)

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Bibliography
Bellis, Mary. Galileo Galilei. 23 5 2012. 17 12 2012 <http://inventors.about.com/od/gstartinventors/a/Galileo_Galilei_3.htm>. Brachear, Manya A. Some Catholics seek to counter Galileo. 4 7 2011. 17 12 2012 <http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-07-04/news/ct-met-galileo-was-wrong- 20110704_1_modern-church-universe-splinter-group>. Brown, Catrin and Mike Ford. Chemistry Higher Level for the IB Diploma. Kula Lampur: Pearson, 2009. Encyclopedia Britannica. Urbain-Jean-Joseph Le Verrier :: Encyclopedia Britannica. 23 5 2012. 16 12 2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/333461/Urbain-Jean-Joseph- Le-Verrier>. Hannam, James. The Myth of the Flat Earth. 8 12 2009. 16 122 2012 <http://bede.org.uk/flatearth.htm>. Helmenstine, Anne Marie. Scientific Hypothesis, Theory, Law Definitions. 12 6 2012. About.com. 16 12 2012 <http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistry101/a/lawtheory.htm>. Hamper, Chris. Physics Higher Level for the IB Diploma. Kula Lampur: Pearson, 2009. de Santillana, Giorgio. The Crime of Galileo. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955. Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid's Tale. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1985.

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Hobbes, Thomas. "Chapter V: Of Reason and Science." Hobbes, Thomas. Of Man, Being the First Part of Leviathan. Vols. Vo. 34, Part 5, of 51. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1909-14, 1909.

International Baccalaureate Oganization. Theory of Knowledge Guide. Cardiff: Peterson House, 2006. International Baccalaureate Organization. "May 2013 Theory of Knoweldge Prescribed Titles." Theory of Knowledge Guide. New York: IBO Publications, 2012. Linder, Doug. Steven Pinker. 14 5 2004. 17 12 2012 <http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/pinkers.html>. Longley, Robert. The Congressional Committee System. 3 8 2011. 17 12 2012 <http://usgovinfo.about.com/od/uscongress/a/congcommittees.htm>. Mishra, Anil Dutta. "Gandhi Holds Key to Human Progress." Mishra, Anil Dutta. Challenges of 21st Century: Gandhian Alternatives. Delhi: Mittal Publications, 2003. 193-209. Mitchener, William G. The Nature of Mathematics. 3 9 1996. 17 12 2012 <http://www.math.duke.edu/undergraduate/Handbook96_97/node5.html>. NMN Learning Team. Christopher Columbus`. 1 2 2000. 16 12 2012 <http://www.rmg.co.uk/columbus>. O'Brien, Miles and Marsha Walton. Higgs Boson: Mysterious Particle Could Help Unlock Secrets of the Universe. 19 11 2012. 17 12 2012 <http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/science_nation/higgsboson.jsp>.

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Oxford University. New Oxford American English Dictionary. London: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Wilson, Jim and Brian Dunbar. The Milky Way and Our Location. 1 2 2012. 17 12 2012 <http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/gallery/galaxy-location.html>. Zwier, Karen R. "Aristotle on Spontaneous Generation." 21 8 2012. Saint Joseph's University. 16 12 2012 <http://www.sju.edu/int/academics/cas/resources/gppc/pdf/Karen%20R.%20Zwier.pdf>.

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