A

Seminar Report on
WIDE AREA MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY USING GPS
Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement
For The Award of Degree
of
Electrical Engineering
Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj, Nagpur University
Submitted By
Shadab Umran Sayyad
Under the guidance of
Prof. R. B. Sharma
Department Of Electrical Engineering
Government College of Engineering, Chandrapur
2013-2014
i
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
CHANDRAPUR
Certificate
This is certifying that Shadab Umran Sayyad, final year student of
Electrical Engineering, has satisfactorily completed the seminar report on
WIDE AREA MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY USING GPS. A
seminar report is submitted by him in partial fulfillment of degree in Electrical
Engineering, as prescribed by Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University,
Nagpur during academic year 2013-2014.
His work is found to be satisfactory and hereby approved for final
submission.
Date:
Place: Chandrapur
PROF. R. B. SHARMA
Electrical Engineering Department
Government College of Engineering,
Chandrapur
DR. V.N. GHATE
Head of Electrical Engineering Department
Government College of Engineering,
Chandrapur
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is with great pleasure and effort that I am able to present this seminar
report. I have tried all my best to make this report complete in all aspects.
I would like to acknowledge my project guide Prof. R. B. Sharma of
Electrical Engineering Department Government College of Engineering
Chandrapur and Dr. V.N. Ghate Head of Electrical Engineering Department
Government College of Engineering Chandrapur for providing necessary
guidance and supervision in making the seminar report.
Last but certainly not least I would like to thank my colleagues and my
friends for their inspiration and motivation and also those who helped me
directly and indirectly in seminar work.
Date:
Place: Chandrapur Shadab Umran Sayyad
iii
INDEX
Contents Page No.
1. Introduction 2
2. Global Positioning System (GPS) 4
2.1 What is GPS 4
2.2 Principle of GPS 5
2.3 GPS Time Information 5
2.4 GPS Accuracy 6
2.5 GPS Time Synchronization 6
2.5.1 GPS Receiver LeadtekGPS-9543LP 6
2.6 The Need For Time Synchronization 7
2.7 Applications of GPS 8
3. Time Synchronization 9
3.1 Introduction to Time Synchronization 9
3.2 GPS Time Synchronization 9
3.3 Configuring for GPS Time Synchronization 10
3.4 Supported GPS Receivers 10
3.5 GPS Time Synchronization Format 11
3.6 Methods of Time Synchronization 12
3.6.1 Point to Point Protocol (PTP) 12
3.6.2 Time Stamp Points 13
4. Sampling 14
4.1 Introduction to Sampling 14
4.2 Sampling Rate 15
4.3 Nyquist- Shannon Sampling Theorem 16
5. Synchronization of Sampling 17
5.1 Definition 17
5.2 Need Of Sampling Clock In Synchronization 17
iv
5.3 Problems of Distributed Sampling 18
5.4 Proposed Solution 18
5.5 Synchronization of the Sampling Process 18
5.6 Uses of Synchronized Phasors 19
5.6.1 State Estimation with Phasors 19
5.6.2 Protection with Phasors 19
6. Applications of the synchronized PMU 20
6.1 Monitoring Equipments 20
6.2 State Vectors 20
6.3 State Estimators 21
6.4 Fault location 21
7. Conclusion 22
References 23
v
LIST OF FIGURE
FIGURE
NO.
NAME OF FIGURE
PAGE
NO.
1.1 GPS satellites in orbit 3
2.1
Three measurements place the observer somewhere along
the intersection of the three spheres.
5
2.2 GPS Receiver Module 6
2.3 Block diagram of the Phasor Measurement Unit 8
3.1 Time synchronization in GPS 9
3.2 Data interchange in PTP 12
3.3 Different possible time stamp points 13
4.1 Signal sampling representation. 14
5.1 Distributed DSP system 17
6.1 Voltage Phase Angle 20
6.2 Fault Location 21
vi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
NO.
NAME OF TABLE PAGE NO.
3.1 List of GPS Receiver 10
3.2 Protocol Registers 11
3.3
Explanation of GPS: ARBITER & GPS: True time/Datum
ASCII Time Strings
11
WIDE AREA MEASUREMENT TECHNOLOGY USING GPS
ABSTRACT
Electric Power Systems are an essential infrastructure of modern society and have
been characterized as the largest man-made systems. Catastrophic failures of power systems
popularly known as blackouts occur infrequently, but when they occur they cause great
trouble to the industrial companies. This paper presents an adaptive transmission line
protection scheme based on synchronized phasor measurement units. This scheme uses the
positive-sequence voltage and current phasors at both ends of a transmission line to
determine the parameter of the transmission line and the location of a faulton the transmission
line. This scheme can be used for the protection of both single and double-circuit
transmission lines. This scheme is also robust against power swing conditions. A novel
adaptive single pole auto recloser is introduced based on the proposed scheme due to its
capability of differentiating transient and permanent faults. System simulation studies show
that the proposed scheme is able tooperate fast and accurately for transmission line
protection.
When disturbances occur in power grid, monitoring, control and protection systems
are required to stop the grid degradation, restore it to a normal state, and hence minimize their
effects. However, in wide area power grid resulting from large extension and interconnection
with neighbor grids, classical systems based on local independent measurements and
decisions are not able to consider the overall power grid disturbances and then they are not
able to avoid the blackout. The introduction of the advanced measurement and
communication technologies in these systems may provide better ways to detect rapidly these
disturbances and protect the overall grid from the propagation of the fast-cascading outages.
Indeed, the observability of the wide area power system dynamics becomes feasible through
the use of these recent developed technologies. Using wide area real-time synchro-phasor
measurement system based on Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs), different types of wide
area protection, emergency control and optimization systems can be designed and
implemented.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever been lost and wished there was an easy way to find out which way you
needed to go? How about finding you out hiking and then not knowing how to get back to
your camp or car? Ever been flying and wanted to know the nearest airport?
Our ancestors had to go to extreme measures to keep from getting lost. They erected
monumental landmarks, laboriously drafted detailed maps and learned to read the stars in the
night sky.
GPS is a satellite based radio navigation system which provides continuous, all
weather, worldwide navigation capability for sea, land and air applications. Therefore, things
are much, much easier today. For less than $100, you can get a pocket-sized gadget that will
tell you exactly where you are on Earth at any moment. As long as you have a GPS receiver
and a clear view of the sky, you will never be lost again.
Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS. Navigation receivers
are made for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand carrying by individuals. Precise
positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference locations providing corrections and
relative positioning data for remote receivers. Time and frequency dissemination, based on
the precise clocks on board the SVS and controlled by the monitor stations, is another use for
GPS. Astronomical observatories, telecommunications facilities, and laboratory standards can
be set-to precise time signals or controlled to accurate frequencies by special purpose GPS
receivers.
Modern power and control systems are complex and extensively interconnected.
Events at a single location in the system can have diverse trickle down effects in other areas
of the larger system. This complexity can make it difficult to analyze and diagnose system
events and problems.
Fortunately, in today system, plenty of Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) are
recording and storing even the minute details of system of operations. This may include
protective relays, communication processors, Digital Fault Recorders (DFRs), Remote
Terminal Units (RTUs), Voltage regulator controls and Programmable Automation
Controllers (PACs). The IEDs log and stamp data from the power system, including analog
waveforms, contact status, internal device binary state, trip and reclose signals and many
more.
Introduction
3
Each IEDs places time stamps on data items related to some internal time source.
Thus, the accuracy of the internal time source is critically important if the recorded data are
to be useful in a larger system analysis.
Power companies and utilities have fundamental requirements for time and frequency
to enable efficient power transmission and distribution. Repeated power blackouts have
demonstrated to power companies the need for improved time synchronization throughout the
power grid. Analyses of blackouts have led many companies to place GPS-based time
synchronization devices in power plants and substations. Typical ratings of commercial
available GPS clocks range from 50ns to 1ms.
By synchronizing the sampling processes for different signals, which may be,
hundreds of kilometers apart it is possible to put their phasors in the same phasor diagram.
Synchronized phasor measurements (SPM) have become a practical proposition. As such,
their potential use in power system applications has not yet been fully realized by many
of power system engineers.
Fig 1.1 GPS satellites in orbit
CHAPTER 2
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
2.1 WHAT IS GPS
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up
of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense that
continuously transmit coded information, which makes it possible to precisely identify
locations on earth by measuring the distance from the satellites. The satellites transmit very
low power specially coded radio signals that can be processed in a GPS receiver, enabling the
receiver to compute position, velocity and time thus allowing anyone one with a GPS
receiver to determine their location on earth. Four GPS satellite signals are used to compute
positions in three dimensions and the time offset in the receiver clock. The system was
designed so that receivers did not require atomic clocks, and so could be made small and
inexpensively.
The GPS system consists of three pieces. There are the satellites that transmit the
position information, there are the ground stations that are used to control the satellites and
update the information, and finally there is the receiver that you purchased. The receiver
collects data from the satellites and computes its location anywhere in the world based on
information it gets from the satellites. There is a popular misconception that a GPS receiver
somehow sends information to the satellites but this is not true, it only receives data.
2.2 PRINCIPLE OF GPS
The principle behind GPS is the measurement of distance (or "range") between the
receiver and the satellites. The satellites also tell us exactly where they are in their orbits
above the Earth. It works something like this-If we know our exact distance from a satellite in
space, we know we are somewhere on the surface of an imaginary sphere with radius equal to
the distance to the satellite radius. By measuring its distance from a second satellite, the
receiver knows it is also somewhere on the surface of a second sphere with radius equal to its
distance from the second satellite. Therefore, the receiver must be somewhere along a circle
which is formed from the intersection of the two spheres. Measurement from a third satellite
introduces a third sphere. Now there are only two points, which are consistent with being at
the intersection of all three spheres. One of these is usually impossible, and the GPS receivers
Global Positioning System (GPS)
5
have mathematical methods of eliminating the impossible location. Measurement from a
fourth satellite now resolves the ambiguity as to which of the two points is the location of the
receiver. The fourth satellite point also helps eliminate certain errors in the measured distance
due to uncertainties in the GPS receivers timing as well.
Fig 2.1 Three measurements place the observer somewhere along the intersection of the three spheres.
2.3 GPS TIME INFORMATION
Satellites are equipped with very precise clocks that keep accurate time to within three
nanoseconds - that is 0.000000003, or three billionths, of a second. This precision timing is
important because the receiver must determine exactly how long it takes signals to travel
from each GPS satellite.
Each Block II/IIA satellite contains two Cesium (Cs) and two Rubidium (Rb) atomic clocks.
Each Block IIR satellite contains three Rb atomic clocks.
Its Composite Clock (CC) gives GPS time. The CC or "paper" clock conforms to all Monitor
Station and satellite operational frequency standards.
The system time is referenced to the Master Clock at the USNO from which system time will
not deviate by more than one microsecond.
2.4 GPS ACCURACY
The accuracy of a position determined with GPS depends on the type of receiver.
Most hand-held GPS units have about 10-20 meter accuracy. Other types of receivers use a
method called Differential GPS (DGPS) to obtain much higher accuracy. DGPS requires an
additional receiver fixed at a known location nearby. Observations made by the stationary
receiver are used to correct positions recorded by the roving units, producing an accuracy
greater than 1 meter.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
6
It furnishes a common-access timing pulse which is accurate to within 1 microsecond at any
location on earth. A 1-microsecond error translates into 0.021for a 60 Hz system and 0.018
for a 50 Hz system and is certainly more accurate than any other application.
2.5 GPS TIME SYNCHRONIZATION
GPS technology can be used as an inexpensive, readily available method for high
precision timing and measurement of event simultaneously. The Global Positioning System
(GPS) provides a method of synchronized tracking that is extremely accessible due to the low
cost and easy set up involved. Most GPS receivers make this adjustment automatically, so the
time reported to the user is UTC. The satellites broadcast regularly recalculated and updated
ephemeredes, so their position in space can be accurately calculated as well. This effectively
provides researchers with an accurate timing system that is a viable alternative to acquiring
and constantly recalibrating a set of atomic clocks.
2.5.1 GPS RECEIVER LEADTEK GPS-9543LP
We used a commercially available GPS receiver, Leadtek Research, Inc. model GPS-
9543. This is a 12-channel GPS receiver chip whose small size and low power consumption
lends itself to easy integration in a hand-held module or circuit board, such as the set-up we
used.
Fig. 2.2. GPS Receiver Module
The basic specifications of this chip are:
1-pulse-per-second (1PPS) signal.
3.3 V power requirement.
Reacquisition time of 0.1 seconds.
The apparatus we used consists of two antennae connected to circuit boards we
designed for the specific purpose of housing the GPS timing chips. Each board includes a pin
for antenna power, PPS signal output, ground connection and connection to an oscilloscope.
The signal output is sent to a serial port, of which each board has two.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
7
2.6 THE NEED FOR TIME SYNCHRONIZATION
Modern power and control systems are complex and extensively interconnected. Events at
a single location in the system can have diverse trickle-down effects in other areas of the
larger system. This complexity can make it difficult to analyze and diagnose system events
and problems.
Fortunately, in todays systems, a plethora of intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) are
recording and storing even the minute details of system operations. These may include
protective relays, communications processors, Digital Fault Recorders (DFRs), Remote
Terminal Units (RTUs), voltage regulator controls and Programmable Automation
Controllers (PACs).
2.7 APPLICATIONS OF GPS
Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute
location, relative movement, and time transfer.
Astronomy: Both positional and clock synchronization data is used in Astrometry and
Celestial mechanics calculations. It is also used in amateur astronomy using small
telescopes to professional observatories, for example, while finding extra solar planets.
Cellular telephony: Clock synchronization enables time transfer, which is critical for
synchronizing its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell
handoff and support hybrid GPS/cellular position detection for mobile emergency calls
and other applications.
Clock synchronization: The accuracy of GPS time signals (10 ns)[71] is second only
to the atomic clocks upon which they are based.
Fleet Tracking: The use of GPS technology to identify, locate and maintain contact
reports with one or more fleet vehicles in real-time.
Navigation: Navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation measurements.
Robotics: Self-navigating, autonomous robots using a GPS sensors, which calculate
latitude, longitude, time, speed, and heading.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
8
GPS enables highly accurate time stamping of power system measurements, making it
possible to compute phasors.Implementation of PMUs for monitoring applications requires a
training program that includes clear explanations, real case studies, and carefully planned
scenarios that will help the engineers and operators not only understand the technology but to
trust the information it provides.
Fig. 2.3 Block diagram of the Phasors Measurement Unit
CHAPTER 3
TIME SYNCHRONIZATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO TIME SYNCHRONIZATION
Time synchronization lets you synchronize the internal clocks of all networked Power
Logic ION meters and devices. Once synchronized, all data logs have timestamps that are
relative to a uniform time base. This allows you to achieve precise sequenceofevents and
power quality analyses. To synchronize clocks, use ION Setup or ION Enterprise software, a
Network Time Protocol (NTP) server, a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or
supported third party protocols to broadcast time signals across the network.
3.2 GPS TIME SYNCHRONIZATION
A dedicated serial network is required to implement a GPS scheme. If you are already
using a serial link for communications with ION Enterprise, you need second serial network
to transport GPS signals. Either RS232 or RS485 networks can be used for GPS time
synchronization, though RS485 is recommended if more than two meters are being
synchronized.
If your GPS receiver output is RS232, use the COM32 or equivalent RS232/RS485
converter that does not buffer communications. The COM128 is not recommended if used
in Repeater Mode.
Fig. 3.1 Time synchronization in GPS
Time Synchronization
10
3.3 CONFIGURING FOR GPS TIME SYNCHRONIZATION
To implement GPS time synchronization, use the Designer component of ION
Enterprise to configure the Clock module and the Communications module:
1. Start Designer (ensure Options > Show Toolboxes selected). Doubleclick the Clock
module.
2. Set the Clock modules Clock Source setup register to COMM.
3. Specify which COM port will receive time synchronization signals by setting the Time
Sync Source setup register in the meters Clock module. Note that Ethernet cannot be used
with GPS time synchronization. Only signals received on the port specified are used for
synchronization.
4. Specify the receiver you want to use by selecting it from the Protocol setup register in
the receiving ports Communications module (see table below). You may need to modify
the Time Sync Type setup register to LOCAL, if a DNP Master is sending time broadcasts
in local time.
3.4 SUPPORTED GPS RECEIVERS
The following receivers are supported. Standard models of these receivers are
sufficient, as long as they have RS232 ports additional options are available, butnot
required:
Tabel 1. List of GPS receiver
GPS receiver Comm Module Protocol Register Setting
Symmetricom XL-DC series(was True
Time XL-DC series)
GPS:TRUETIME/DATUM
Arbiter 1092
GPS:ARBITER
GPS:ARBITER-VORNE
Clark Associates GPS-200-ASCII GPS:TRUETIME/DATUM
3.5 GPS TIME SYNCHRONIZATION FORMAT
Any GPS receiver may be used as a time synchronization source, as long as the
receiver outputs the ASCII time string (shown below) every second and has On Time Mark
(OTM).
Use the table below to select the appropriate protocol register for each OTM type.
Time Synchronization
11
Table 2. Protocol Registers
On Time Mark (OTM) Protocol Register
Start bit of <SOH> GPS :Arbiter
Start bit of<CR> GPS:TRUETIME/DATUM
Start bit of<BEL> GPS:ARBITER-VORNE
During normal operation of a GPS time synchronizing system, time signals are sent
out once per second as an ASCII string containing the time.
The ASCII time string for GPS:ARBITER and GPS:TRUETIME/DATUM is the
following:
<SOH>DDD: HH:MM: SSQ<CR><LF>
Table 3. Explanation of GPS: ARBITER & GPS: TRUETIME/DATUM ASCII Time String
ASCII Time String:<SOH>DDD:HH:MM:SSQ<CR><LF>
<SOH> Start of header (ASCII 01hex)
DDD Day of the year
HH Hours
MM Minutes
SS Seconds
Q Quality flags
<CR> Carriage return (ASCII 0Dhex)
<LF> Line feed (ASCII 0Ahex)
3.6 METHOD OF TIME SYNCHRONISATION
3.6.1 PTP
PTPs operating principle is to exchange message regularly to determine the offset
between master and slave but also the message transit delay through the network. PTP
message exchange. The slave clock requires four-measured values t1, t2, t3, t4 to calculate
delay and offset. These are the send and the receive times of the Sync and the Delay_Req
messages. The Follow_up and Delay_Resp messages transport the values measured
by the master down to the slave. A simple calculation delivers delay and offset:
Time Synchronization
12
Delay + Offset = t2-t1
Delay - Offset = t4-t3
Fig 3.2. Data interchange in PTP
Delay = ((t2-t1) + (t4-t3)) / 2
Offset = ((t2-t1) - (t4-t3)) / 2
The precision of the result depends on the precision of the time stamps. They should
reflect the send and receive time as precise as possible. The slaves offset and delay
calculation is based on the difference of time stamps taken at two different places. Therefore,
the two clocks should use the same scale, i.e. the same tic interval. This is achieved by drift
compensation: the slave clocks rate is accelerated or slowed down by a control loop. A
slightly different tic interval will degrade the result. It is assumed that the message transit
delay is the same for both directions. Ethernet transceiver shave asymmetric transmit and
receive paths. If their timing characteristics are clearly specified within a small range, the
asymmetry can be taken into account by calculation as in bound and outbound latency
correction constants. In the long run, conditions may change due to reconfiguration (leading
to a totally different delay) or environmental conditions (temperature).How fast the clocks
can react depends on the frequency of sync and delay measurement and the dynamic behavior
of the servos controlling the slave clock. To sum it up, performance depends on:
The communication channels symmetry (i.e.; same delay in both directions and
constant over a longer period of time)
Time Synchronization
13
Drift compensated clocks (i.e. adjusted time base in master and slave clocks), time
stamp accuracy, time stamp resolution, sync interval, clock stability, clock control
loop characteristics.
3.6.2 TIME STAMP POINTS
The PTP environment offers different possible time stamp points. In the hardware
assisted approach, time stamps are taken at the Medium Independent Interface(MII) between
MAC and PHY chips, if accessible. To acquire the frames directly on a 100Base-TXwire
pair, functions such as clock recovery, line decoding, descrambling, etc. are required, which
is essentially the purpose of a PHY. The PTP software on the application layer requires an
interface to the time stamping unit to collect the time stamps of transmitted and received PTP
messages plus additional information to correlate time stamps with the corresponding
messages.
Fig 3.3. Different possible time stamp points
CHAPTER 4
SAMPLING
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLING
In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a continuous signal to a discrete
signal. A common example is the conversion of a sound wave (a continuous signal) to a
sequence of samples (a discrete-time signal). A sample refers to a value or set of values at a
point in time and/or space. A sampler is a subsystem or operation that extracts samples from
a continuous signal. A theoretical ideal sampler produces samples equivalent to the
instantaneous value of the continuous signal at the desired points.
Fig 4.1 Signal Sampling Representation.
The continuous signal is represented with a green colored line while the blue vertical
lines indicate the discrete samples. Sampling can be done for functions varying in space,
time, or any other dimension, and similar results are obtained in two or more dimensions. For
functions that vary with time, let s(t) be a continuous function (or "signal") to be sampled,
and let sampling be performed by measuring the value of the continuous function every T
seconds, which is called the sampling interval. Thus, the sampled function is given by the
sequence:
S (nT), for integer values of n.
The sampling frequency or sampling rate fs is defined as the number of samples
obtained in one second (samples per second), thus fs = 1/T. Reconstructing a continuous
function from samples is done by interpolation algorithms. The WhittakerShannon
interpolation formula is mathematically equivalent to an ideal low pass filter whose input is a
sequence of Dirac delta functions that are modulated (multiplied) by the sample values. When
the time interval between adjacent samples is a constant (T), the sequence of delta functions
Sampling
15
is called a Dirac comb. Mathematically, the modulated Dirac comb is equivalent to the
product of the comb function with S(t). That purely mathematical function is often loosely
referred to as the sampled signal. Most sampled signals are not simply stored and
reconstructed. But the fidelity of a theoretical reconstruction is a customary measure of the
effectiveness of sampling. That fidelity is reduced when S(t) contains frequency components
higher than fs/2 Hz, which is known as the Nyquist frequency of the sampler. Therefore S(t)
is usually the output of a low pass filter, functionally known as an "anti-aliasing" filter.
Without an anti-aliasing filter, frequencies higher than the Nyquist frequency will influence
the samples in a way that is misinterpreted by the interpolation process.
4.2 SAMPLING RATE
The analog signal is continuous in time and it is necessary to convert this to a flow of
digital values. It is therefore required to define the rate at which new digital values are
sampled from the analog signal. The rate of new values is called the sampling rate or
sampling frequency of the converter. A continuously varying band limited signal can be
sampled (that is the signal values at intervals of time T, the sampling time, are measured and
stored) and then the original signal can be exactly reproduced from the discrete-time values
by an interpolation formula. The accuracy is limited by quantization error. Since a practical
ADC cannot make an instantaneous conversion, the input value must necessarily be held
constant during the time that the converter performs a conversion (called the conversion
time). An input circuit called a sample and hold performs this task-in most cases by using a
capacitor to store the analog voltage at the input, and using an electronic switch or gate to
disconnect the capacitor from the input. Many ADC integrated circuits include the sample
and hold subsystem internally.
4.3 NYQUIST- SHANNON SAMPLING THEOREM
The NyquistShannon sampling theorem, after Harry Nyquist and Claude Shannon, in
the literature more commonly referred to as the Nyquist sampling theorem or simply as the
sampling theorem, is a fundamental result in the field of information theory, in particular
telecommunications and signal processing. Sampling is the process of converting a signal (for
example, a function of continuous time or space) into a numeric sequence (a function of
discrete time or space). Shannon's version of the theorem states: If a function x(t) contains no
frequencies higher than B hertz, it is completely determined by giving its ordinates at a series
Sampling
16
of points spaced seconds apart. In essence, the theorem shows that a band limited analog
signal can be perfectly reconstructed from an infinite sequence of samples if the sampling
rate exceeds 2B samples per second, where B is the highest frequency of the original signal.
If a signal contains a component at exactly B hertz, then samples spaced at exactly seconds
do not completely determine the signal, Shannon's statement notwithstanding. This sufficient
condition can be weakened, as discussed at Sampling of non-baseband signals below. More
recent statements of the theorem are sometimes careful to exclude the equality condition; that
is, the condition is if x(t) contains no frequencies higher than or equal to B; this condition is
equivalent to Shannon's except when the function includes a steady sinusoidal component at
exactly frequency B.
The theorem assumes an idealization of any real-world situation, as it only applies to
signals that are sampled for infinite time; any time-limited X(t) cannot be perfectly band
limited. Perfect reconstruction is mathematically possible for the idealized model but only an
approximation for real-world signals and sampling techniques, albeit in practice often a very
good one.
The theorem also leads to a formula for reconstruction of the original signal. The
constructive proof of the theorem leads to an understanding of the aliasing that can occur
when a sampling system does not satisfy the conditions of the theorem.
The sampling theorem provides a sufficient condition, but not a necessary one, for
perfect reconstruction. The field of compressed sensing provides a stricter sampling condition
when the underlying signal is known to be sparse. Compressed sensing specifically yields a
sub-Nyquist sampling criterion.
CHAPTER 5
SYNCHRONIZATION OF SAMPLING
5.1 DEFINITION
A distributed signal processing system comprises numerous processor nodes (mostly
based on DSPs) which are interacting with each other to perform real-time data acquisition
and signal processing. An overview of this system is presented. Such systems are also known
as intelligent sensor networks, where processing units are placed near to the sensors.
Distributed DSP systems are used, e.g., in seismic wave measurements. In DSP-based
systems, the nodes are performing online signal processing, i.e., the DSP algorithm is
executed sample by sample. The input data for this algorithm are digital samples of a discrete
signal, usually sampled at the clock rate of the DSP algorithm. Distributed processors and
data acquisition units have separate clocks that may hurt data consistency constraints, due to
their jitter and drift. In distributed embedded systems, data consistency asks for synchronous
data acquisition and representation. This problem does not exist in centralized one-processor
systems, as generally these have only one master sampling clock that schedules all the
sampling processes.
Fig. 5.1.Distributed DSP system
5.2 NEED OF SAMPLING CLOCK IN SYNCHRONIZATION
Interfacing an ADC or a DAC to a fast DSP parallel requires an understanding of how
the DSP processor reads data from a memory-mapped peripheral (the ADC) and how the
DSP processor writes data to a memory-mapped peripheral (the DAC). It should be noted that
the same concepts presented here regarding ADCs and DACs apply equally when reading
and writing from/to external memory. It is assumed that the ADC is sampling at a continuous
rate which is controlled by the external sampling clock, not the internal DSP clock. Using a
Synchronization of Sampling
18
separate clock for the ADC is the preferred method, since the DSP clock may be noisy and
introduce jitter in the ADC sampling process, thereby increasing the noise level.
5.3 PROBLEMS OF DISTRIBUTED SAMPLING
In distributed DSP systems, a problem arises when two or more DSP nodes having
asynchronous clocks are communicating by sending samples of real-time discrete signals.
Consider the case, when the input signal of a certain node (Drain) is the output signal of
another node (Source). This kind of real-time communication presumes that the sample rate
of the data is the same at both nodes. Crystal oscillators usually control the sampling, where
the frequency deviation is typically 50 ppm. The problem arises as its own crystal oscillator
schedules the DSP algorithm of the Drain, but the input samples are sampled by the AD of
the Source. Additionally, if we suppose that the communication is packet-based, and one
sample is sent in one packet, then due to this difference, sometimes two or zero packets arrive
during the period when the Drain expects exactly one packet. In this case, data packets are
lost.
5.4 PROPOSED SOLUTION
Any solution of this problem has to ensure that the samples of the different input data
streams of a certain DSP node are available with the same sampling frequency. In the above
shown example, the data stream (samples of discrete signal) from the Source is expected with
the sampling frequency of the AD of the Drain an obvious hardware solution is to
synchronize the sampling clocks of the ADs by e.g. a PLL. We propose a software solution
for this problem that does not influence the hardware layers of the DSP node, so the sampling
processes of the different nodes remain asynchronous.
5.5 SYNCHRONIZATION OF THE SAMPLING PROCESS
The phasor given uses the sampling instant of the first sample as the reference. The
necessary accuracy of synchronization may be specified in terms of the prevailing phase
angle differences between buses of a power network. Typically, this angular difference may
vary between a few degrees, to perhaps 60" under extreme loading conditions.
Under these circumstances, a precision corresponding to 0.1" seems to be desirable to
measure angular differences corresponding to lightly loaded systems. Allowing for other
sources of error in the measurement system, it seems certain that a synchronizing accuracy of
about1 pulse-per-second would meet the needs of this measurement technique. A superior
Synchronization of Sampling
19
and satisfying solution to the synchronization problem is to use the1 Pulse-Per-Second (PPS)
transmission provided by the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites.
5.6 USES OF SYNCHRONIZED PHASORS
5.6.1 STATE ESTIMATION WITH PHASORS
The collection of all positive sequence bus voltages of a power system is known as its
state vector. Knowledge of the state vector is essential in many of the central control
functions associated with Comm. Port power system operations. The present practice is to
obtain Measurements of various system quantities such as real and reactive power flow over
transmission lines real and reactive power injections, voltage magnitude at system buses, line
the state of power system with a non-linear system estimator.
A state estimation procedure such as that described above can never represent the
dynamic phenomena occurring on the power system during transient power Swings. The data
scan rates in use at present are rather slow, and the non-linear iterative Algorithm contributes
to the slow response time of the estimation process.
5.6.2 PROTECTION WITH PHASOR
Protection is a form of control. Phasors play an important role in protection system
design. In fact, modern phasor measurement techniques originated in the field of computer
relaying. It has now become clear that synchronized phasor measurements can be of great use
in many of the protection applications. Although phasor may be used in many relaying tasks,
their full impact is felt in the new field of adaptive relaying. Adaptive Protection is a
protection philosophy, which permits and seeks to make adjustments in various protection
findings automatic allying order to make them more altered to prevailing power system
conditions. The idea of adaptive relaying is an old one.
CHAPTER 6
APPLICATIONS OF TIME SYNCHRONIZED PMU
6.1 MONITORING EQUIPMENT
By using modern high-speed modems, several utilities have built a centrally locates
master station. The clock synchronization has to be done at the remote site by the utility.
The master station does not synchronize the remote clocks. By synchronization to UTC, any
recorded event on the utility system can be related to any other time-tagged event on another
synchronized power system.
6.2 STATE VECTORS
The complex voltages of substation busses are the state vectors of the power system
and hence are the key in the application of control theory. One purpose of large area
synchronous sampling is to obtain these voltage phasors in real time. Measuring voltage
magnitude is routine. One electrical degree of 60 Hz waveform equals about 56
microseconds. Across short transmission lines, measurements may need to be made equal to
0.1 electrical degrees. This translates to a clock synchronization of about 5 microseconds.
Actual measurement systems use positive sequence voltages.
Fig.6.1 Voltage Phase Angle
Applications of Time Synchronized PMU
21
6.3 STATE ESTIMATORS
The purpose of state estimation is primarily to detect, identify, and correct gross
measurement errors and to compute a good estimate of the bus voltage magnitudes and angle.
Static state estimators have had to infer the voltage magnitude and transmission line active
and reactive power flows. This in turn aids system security enhancement. Direct knowledge
of system phase angles by measurement improves the performance of state estimation. A
keyword in static state estimators is static. In the next generation of system controls, dynamic
controls are envisioned where the control system operates on real-time data and takes action
needed to improve power system security.
6.4 FAULT LOCATION
Knowledge of the severity and relative location of power system short circuit faults
can be used to improve system control. As an example, reclosing into a permanent close-in
multi-phase fault may cause system instability. If this fault is farther away from the
substation, the risk of instability due to reclosing is reduced. To locate powers system faults
in the time domain" time synchronization of less than 1 microsecond is needed. Fault-
induced waves travel at the speed of fight, 300 meters per microsecond. By time-tagging the
arrival of fault-induced pulses at each end of the transmission line to within one microsecond,
the fault can be located to within 300 meters, the typical tower spacing on a high voltage
transmission line.
Fig.6.2 Fault Location
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
Most electric power system operators include a modern form of time synchronization
in new system installations and designs, usually a GPS clock. This provides good device
synchronization moving into the future. However, a large number of existing installations
have not been updated. In some cases, the technology is too old (i.e., electromechanical
relays) to support time synchronization without complete equipment replacement. In these
cases, cost can be an inhibiting factor.
Not having a time-synchronization system in place greatly increases system operating
costs; it increases the labour required to perform post disturbance analysis and system
troubleshooting and maintenance. NERC states, All digital fault recorders, digital event
recorders, and power system disturbance recorders should be time stamped at the point of
observation with a precise GPS Synchronizing Signal. While stated as a recommendation at
the time, future mandates could make the addition of GPS clocks a requirement, perhaps
imposing financial penalties for failure to comply.
For systems with equipment, that supports time synchronization but not originally
designed to include it, there are economical ways to add this capability. Not only does this
reduce the overall system operating costs, it also improves operating efficiency. GPS-
synchronized clocks capable of supplying highly accurate time synchronization to a dozen
devices or more are readily available, starting as low as $550.In most cases, this costs less
than replacing even a single existing device and is more than recovered in operating cost
savings.
While using existing SCADA communications links for time synchronization may
seem attractive due to their low cost, they have proven to be inaccurate and inconsistent.
Time-synchronization accuracy varies erratically from interval to interval, resulting in timing
accuracy with a low level of confidence. Additionally, these methods rely on communications
paths that may have additional unreliability (i.e., poor availability) of their own. These
methods are not sufficient to reduce or eliminate the need for intensive manual data
manipulation in system disturbance and troubleshooting analysis.
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