High levels of electromagnetic radiation will typically only occur if there is a good antenna available to transmit the energy.

If one can learn to identify good antennas, they can learn how to identify potential radiation mechanisms and how to mitigate their effect.

The simplest radiation sources are the Hertzian electric dipole and the magnetic dipole. An understanding of these sources is often used to analyze much more complicated structures. The Hertzian dipole is an infinitesimally small current element.

The radiated fields can be found from the magnetic vector potential generated by the dipole.

These equation give the complete solution for the generated fields both the fields near to the dipole (the near fields) and the fields far from the dipole (the far fields). In discussions about radiation from an antenna, we are typically interested in the far-fields.

When far away from the dipole (in the far-field), the 1/r term dominates. The assumption here is that we are at least 6 wavelengths away (i.e. 2 pi wavelengths) and that the length of the dipole is small compared to a wavelength.

When far away from the dipole (in the far-field), the 1/r term dominates. The assumption here is that we are at least 6 wavelengths away (i.e. 2 pi wavelengths) and that the length of the dipole is small compared to a wavelength.

Fields are proportional to I and f and inversely proportional to r. Electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to one another and to r. The ratio of E to H gives the intrinsic impedance of the medium, which in free space is 0=377 ohms. The field strength for both E and H go to zero directly above or below the dipole.

Electric and magnetic fields generated by an infinitesimally small loop a magnetic dipole can be found in a similar manner to the Hertzian (electric) dipole.

The fields from a magnetic dipole (the small loop) have a very similar form to the fields from the electric (Hertzian) dipole except the direction of E and H are interchanged, the magnetic dipole has an extra term, , out front, and the result is proportional to the loop area (ds) instead of dipole length (dl).

The far-field generated by a magnetic dipole and a Hertzian dipole are similar. For a current loop, the fields are proportional to the loop area and the current and are related to beta squared. For the current dipole, the fields are proportional to the dipole length and the current and are related to beta.

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If a circuit is electrically small (i.e. its largest dimension is much smaller than a wavelength), its radiation can be approximated using the radiation from a dipole. This approximation allows us to come up with a simple approximation for predicting radiation from circuits and to understand how a circuit will radiate under certain conditions. An electrically small circuit with a small impedance can be approximated as a magnetic dipole, with similar radiated fields.

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A high impedance circuit that is electrically small can be roughly be treated as an electrical dipole. To find the current through the circuit at high frequencies, one needs to look at the characteristic impedance of the transmission line created by the circuit. This result gives a crude estimate of the radiated fields we can use to compare the voltage-driven and current-driven circuits.

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The high-impedance case is driven by voltage. The low-impedance case is driven by current. Neither of these radiate well (in part because delta S is small). It takes structures that are electrically large to make good radiators.

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In general, the circuit will look more like an electric dipole than a magnetic dipole when the circuit impedance is large compared to the intrinsic impedance of the medium, and will look more like a magnetic dipole when the impedance is small compared to the intrinsic impedance.

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From this example, it is clear that it is possible for a loop on a board to radiate beyond the FCC limits if you design a board badly, you can easily exceed the limits. However, it does not take much effort to make this loop too small to radiate. If the signal and return wires were run right next to each other, so that the height was on the order of 1 mm or less (for example if the board were to use a return plane), then the radiation from this loop would drop down by 20 db or more, which is well within the limit. In general, it is hard to find loops large enough radiate efficiently (they have to be pretty big). Intentional circuits in printed circuit boards arent typically big sources of radiation. The smaller the size of the circuit (in this case the smaller the size of delta S), the smaller the radiation. Intentional circuits typically have a small size. The troubles typically come from much larger structures that are much more efficient antennas and are driven through a parasitic mechanism. mA of current through a small loop like this one can pass FCC emissions, but uA of current through a resonant dipole will fail!

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While the radiation from the loop was worse in this case, it is more common to see issues from voltage-driven antennas, since it is unusual to have such large loops within a system.

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A wire above a return plane can be dealt with using image theory, so the loop is essentially twice as large (same current).

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An antenna can be approximately represented schematically using a resistance and a reactance. The reactance is associated with energy storage by the antenna (for example, due to the electric field the capacitance between two sides of an electric dipole). The resistance represent power dissipation real energy that is lost by the circuit. The energy is not dissipated by heat, but through radiation. Hence, the energy delivered to the radiation resistance tells you how much energy is radiated by the antenna.

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The more power lost to radiation, compared to power dissipated within the antenna itself, the more efficient the antenna. For a small antenna, it is often the _reactance_ of the antenna the limits the energy radiated by that antenna.

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A dipole source is not a good radiation source, because the radiation resistance is very small it is very difficult to efficiently deliver much energy to the radiation resistance, which is to say it is very difficult to convert energy into propagating electromagnetic energy.

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Small electric and magnetic dipole-type antennas have very small radiation resistance on the order of milliohms or less. This makes them very inefficient sources of electromagnetic radiation.

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The efficiency of a dipole antenna goes up dramatically as the antenna length approaches a half wave-length.

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To be an efficient antenna, structures must generally be on the order of a wavelength. For example, the wavelength dipole antenna is a very good radiator. At around a wavelength, the radiation resistance is about 73-ohms with no reactance. All the energy supplied to this antenna is dissipated as radiated energy.

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The quarter wavelength monopole is virtually the same as the wavelength dipole, since mirror image of the monopole in the ground plane forms the dipole structure. The monopole has half has half the radiation resistance of the wavelength dipole (Rrad = 36.5 ohms). This makes sense, since radiation only occurs in half the space. The electric field strength is the same as for the dipole, because of the reflection from the ground plane.

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The presence of a ground plane can potentially double the magnitude of the maximum electric field. It may not double the field strength at all points in fact the field strength may be smaller at some points, depending on the field polarization and phase. The FCC emissions test is performed in the presence of a ground plane. The antenna is moved and the device rotated in an attempt to capture the maximum field. Note that this doubling allows the 36.5 ohm radiation resistance of a monopole antenna to create the same field strength as a 72 ohm dipole antenna when supplied with the same current (the monopole delivers half the total power but the same E-field above the return plane, as expected). If the antennas are very close to the return plane and oriented appropriately, the return plane can either increase or decrease the field. For example, a current loop antenna very close and parallel to the plane will see an image antenna with fields magnetic fields in the opposite direction. If the two antennas (the actual loop and its image) are close, the fields from the two will tend to cancel one another.

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The impedance of is inversely proportional to level of current at the input. For maximum efficiency, the current should be maximum at the source location (i.e. it is easiest to force radiating current into the antenna).

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As the dipole changes length, the efficiency will also change. The efficiency of a lambda-long antenna is poor because the source is placed at a location where it is difficult to push current onto the antenna.

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For a symmetric dipole, the optimal length is about a wavelength or (2n+1)/2 multiples of a wavelength. As the dipole gets longer or shorter compared to a wavelength, the reactance of the antenna goes up considerably. The radiation resistance, on the other hand, doesnt change much once the antenna is electrically large (Note: Hertzian dipole is not electrically large). As a result, the reactance may significantly limit the ability of the antenna to radiate. As can be seen from these plots, a Hertzian dipole has both a very large input reactance and a very small radiation resistance. Since EMC problems are generally created by unintentional, parasitic voltages which are very small, it generally takes a relatively large and antenna to create the problem. Electrical dipoles are generally a much bigger problem than loop antennas, because it is uncommon to find loops large enough to radiate efficiently.

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The ideal location for the source is where the current is at its peak. As the source is moved away from that location, it becomes harder to push current onto the antenna. If one end of the dipole antenna is small compared to a wavelength, the efficiency of the antenna is determined largely by that small end.

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For a wavelength dipole antenna, it becomes increasingly difficult to efficiently drive current into the antenna as the source moves away from the center of the antenna. The further away from the center of the antenna, the larger the reactance of the antenna and the overall antenna impedance.

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Which side of this dipole antenna limits the radiation? How do you think the radiation will change if the power cable is made longer? What if the PCB is made bigger? How about if another power cable is added to the left of the PCB?

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The majority of EMC emissions problems involve efficient antennas like those described above. These rules of thumb are very useful in narrowing down the radiation mechanism that is causing a problem. For example, by answering the questions what is electrically large enough to cause this emissions problem? What part is being driven against what other part? How could a high-frequency voltage being induced between these parts?.

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An antenna requires two parts driven relative to one another with a noise voltage. To be a good antenna, both parts need to be on the order of a wavelength (say 1/10 ) or larger. At many frequencies of interest, this requires antenna parts that are relatively large (e.g. at 300 MHz, =1 m). Example antennas: a wire driven relative to an enclosure, two wires driven relative to one-another, a wire driven relative to a the return plane of a PCB, a card driven relative to the return plane of a PCB, a heat sink driven relative to a PCB, a long slot in an enclosure (this is a special case, but can be a very good antenna).

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A slot antenna is one possible exception to the rule that a good parasitic antenna needs two large conductors driven relative to one another. A slot antenna can be a very efficient source of emissions from shielded enclosures, especially at high frequencies where slots and seams become electrically large. A slot antenna radiates much like a dipole antenna. A slot antenna is most efficient at about the frequency where its length is a half wavelength.

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Differential mode current is the current that flows down one wire and back on the other. Common mode current flows down the pair of wires and returns somewhere else. Common mode current is often not wanted because that somewhere else may be somewhere you dont want it like through a electromagnetic radiation mechanism. Both common-mode and differential-mode currents can cause radiated emissions. Differential-mode currents, however, are generally associated with small current loops, which make very poor antennas, and hence do not typically cause significant emissions by themselves. Common-mode currents may run on large structures like power cables and may be associated with currents on a dipole antenna. These antennas can be very efficient, so very small common-mode currents may create a significant emissions problem. While differential currents are not generally directly responsible for radiation, there are many mechanisms that may convert differentialmode currents into common-mode currents.

Both common-mode and differential-mode currents can cause radiated emissions. Differential-mode currents, however, are generally associated with small current loops, which make very poor antennas, and hence do not typically cause significant emissions by themselves. Common-mode currents may run on large structures like power cables and may be associated with currents on a dipole antenna. These antennas can be very efficient, so very small common-mode currents may create a significant emissions problem. While differential currents are not generally directly responsible for radiation, there are many mechanisms that may convert differentialmode currents into common-mode currents.

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An active monopole is used to measure low-frequency emissions. It is placed on top of a large conductive plane during measurements.

There are many shapes for biconical antennas (as well as the other antennas shown in the following slides). The basic configuration is two cone-like shapes being driven against one another (or a cone against a return plane). They are used to measure mid-range frequencies.

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The log-periodic antenna provides measurements in the range of several hundred MHz. The hybrid biconilog antenna combines the characteristics of both the bioconical antenna and the log-periodic antenna, giving it the ability to provide measurements from relatively low frequencies to relatively high frequencies.

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High-frequency measurements (to several GHz) are often made using TEM horn antennas.

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To find the field strength from the voltage measured at the antenna requires knowledge of the antenna factor and possibly the cable loss. The field strength can be obtained simply by adding the measurement, antenna factor, and cable loss in dB, as shown in this slide. Note that the antenna factor changes as a function of frequency. Gain describes the directionality of the antenna. It is given by the ratio of the maximum power radiated in a direction by the antenna divided by the power that would be radiated by an isotropic antenna.

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For best performance, an antenna must be well balanced so that the same current flows on either side of the dipole. Balance can be effected by structures close to the antenna (such as the ground plane) as well as many other factors. Baluns, common-mode chokes (such as wound ferrite cores), and ferrite sleeves can all be used to help better ensure the antennas balance. Many EMC antennas come with a balun already in place.

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For optimal performance, the input impedance of the antenna must be matched to the 50-ohm impedance of the coaxial cable, spectrum analyzer, etc. A good approximate match can be achieved using a pad. Many antennas come with the pad already installed.

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