Chapter 5 in-class notes 14 Sensation

in a silent, cushioned, inner world, your brain floats in utter darkness HOW does the world out there get in?!? sensation: perception: -prosopagnosia Sensing: Basic Principles: Psychophysics, absolute thresholds, versus signal detection, subliminal stimulation, research says: priming difference threshold Webers Law, JND, sensory adaptation, transduction

Vision our #1! light energy, spectrum, wavelength, amplitude hue, intensity, brightness (sound: loud, high or low) -transduction: the eye -- all parts, plus accommodation, acuity, near versus farsightedness, LASIK surgery -the retina: all parts, plus order / route of transduction, color / detail / darkness issue -visual information processing: order, events at each level; which brain area, feature detection, association areas / supercell clusters, parallel processing, power / effort of vision, blindsight (the zombie within), synchrony

-color vision: Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory, additive vs. subtractive color mixing, colorblindness, afterimages, then opponent-process theory in thalamus; color constancy

Audition range; sound waves, frequency / pitch, amplitude / loudness; decibels -the ear: all parts; transduction all parts and issues, plus route in the brain -close-up: noise -pitch: place theory, frequency theory, volley principle

-location: stereophonic hearing, sound shadow, JND -hearing loss: conduction versus sensorineural hearing loss, cochlear implant, deafness / deaf culture, sensory compensation -close-up: Living in a Silent World (David Myers and hearing loss) The Other Senses Touch importance! -transduction: at least four distinct skin senses pressure, warmth, cold, pain nerve endings, pressure only has identifiable receptors -combinations: stroke pressure-pressure: tickle; gentle pain: itch; cold and pressure: wetness; cold and warmth: hot! -the brain routes, and PAIN phantom limb sensations, tinnitus, gate-control theory, memory and pain, pain control, firewalking Gustation -- transduction, brain route; 5 receptors sweet, sour, salty, bitter; umami/meaty; others mixtures -chemical sense, agings effect, replacement, locations of receptors, localization; universals and learned likes/dislikes

-sensory interaction, the McGurk effect, synesthesia Olfaction chemical sense, no crossover; all transduction terms, olfactory membrane / epithelium, receptors; combinations; link to memory, anosmia; brain route

Body Position and Movement: kinesthesis, the vestibular sense inner-ear transduction, brain route,

Chapter 5 in-class notes 14 Sensation

in a silent, cushioned, inner world, your brain floats in utter darkness HOW does the world out there get in?!? sensation: perception: -prosopagnosia Sensing: Basic Principles: Psychophysics, absolute thresholds, versus signal detection, subliminal stimulation, research says: priming difference threshold Webers Law, JND, sensory adaptation, transduction Vision our #1! light energy, spectrum, wavelength, amplitude hue, intensity, brightness (sound: loud, high or low) -transduction: the eye -- all parts, plus accommodation, acuity, near versus farsightedness, LASIK surgery -the retina: all parts, plus order / route of transduction, color / detail / darkness issue -visual information processing: order, events at each level; feature detection, association areas / supercell clusters, parallel processing, power / effort of vision, blindsight (the zombie within), synchrony -color vision: Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory, additive vs. subtractive color mixing, colorblindness, afterimages, then opponent-process theory in thalamus; color constancy Audition range; sound waves, frequency / pitch, amplitude / loudness; decibels -the ear: all parts; transduction all parts and issues, plus brain route -close-up: noise -pitch: place theory, frequency theory, volley principle -location: stereophonic hearing, sound shadow, JND -hearing loss: conduction versus sensorineural hearing loss, cochlear implant, deafness / deaf culture, sensory compensation -close-up: Living in a Silent World (David Myers and hearing loss) The Other Senses Touch importance! -transduction: at least four distinct skin senses pressure, warmth, cold, pain nerve endings, pressure only has identifiable receptors -combinations: stroke pressure-pressure: tickle; gentle pain: itch; cold and pressure: wetness; cold and warmth: hot! -the brain and PAIN phantom limb sensations, tinnitus, gate-control theory, memory and pain, pain control, firewalking Gustation -- transduction: 5 receptors sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami / meaty; others mixtures -chemical sense, agings effect, replacement, locations of receptors, localization; universals and learned likes/dislikes -sensory interaction, the McGurk effect, synesthesia Olfaction chemical sense, no crossover; all transduction terms, olfactory membrane / epithelium, receptors; combinations; link to memory, brain route; anosmia Body Position and Movement: kinesthesis, the vestibular sense, inner-ear transduction, cerebellum, into chp. 6 on perception

Chapter 5: Sensations complete chapter notes

Sensing the World: Some Basic Principles Sensory systems enable organisms to obtain needed information. [Frog feeding on flying insects: has eyes with receptor cells that fire only in response to small, dark, moving objects.] Thresholds Our sense are open just a crack, allowing us restricted awareness of this vast sea of energy. Psychophysics- study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. Absolute Thresholds To some kinds of stimuli we are very sensitive. Standing atop a mountain on a dark clear night, we can with normal senses, see a candle flame on another mountain miles away, and can smell a single drop of perfume in a three room apartment. The awareness of these faint stimuli shows our absolute threshold- minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus[light, sound, pressure, taste, odor] 50% of the time. Absolute Threshold tested for sounds, hearing specialist exposes each of your ears to varying sound levels. For each pitch, hearing test defines where half the time you correctly detect the sound and have the time you dont. \ Signal Detection Signal Detection- a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus [signal] amid background stimulation [noise]. Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends party on a persons experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. Exhausted parents of a newborn notice the faintest whimper, but fail to notice louder unimportant sounds. Subliminal Stimulation Controversy over false report that movie audiences were being influenced buy flashed messages to drink coca-cola and eat popcorn More controversy-advertisers were said to manipulate consumers by unnoticeably printing the word sex on crackers and be putting in erotic images in liquor ads. Unconsciously we can sense subliminal [below ones absolute threshold for conscious awareness] stimuli, and that, without our awareness, these stimuli have extraordinary suggestive powers. One experiment subliminal flashed either emotionally positive scenes or negative sense an instant before participants viewed slides of people. People looked better after seeing a positive scene. We can process information without being aware of it. An imperceptibly brief stimulus evidently triggers a weak response that evokes a feeling, though not a conscious awareness of the stimulus. What the conscious mind cant recognize, the heart may know. This subliminal priming phenomenon joins much other evidence in pointing to the powers, as well as the perils, of intuition. Can advertisers really manipulate us with hidden persuasion? No-affect like a placebo an effect of ones belief in them. Subliminal procedures offer little or nothing of value to the marketing preactitioner Difference Threshold To function effectively, we need absolute thresholds low enough to allow us to detect important sights, sounds, tastes, etc. Need to detect small differences among stimuli too. [Parents detecting the sound of heir own kids voice and other kids voices.] The difference threshold just noticeable difference- minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli half the time. Difference threshold increases with the magnitude of the stimulus. Ernst Weber noted that regardless of their magnitude two stimuli must differ y a constant proportion for their difference to be perceptible.

This principle-that the difference threshold is not a constant amount but some constant proportion of the stimulus-Webers law. If the price of a 50 cent candy goes up by 5 cents, shoppers might notice the change. It might take $5000 to a $40000 Mercedes to cause recognition in the raise. Both are raised by 10%. Webers principle: Our thresholds for detecting differences are a roughly constant proportion of the size and the original stimulus. Sensory Adaptation Sensory adaptation- the diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.[Ex: jumping into a swimming pool, you shiver and complain about how cold it is. A short while later a friend arrives and you exclaim, Cmon the waters fine] After constant exposure to a stimulus, our nerve cells fire less frequently. If we stare at an object without flinching, why does it not vanish from sight? Because our eyes are always moving, quivering just enough to guarantee that retinal stimulation continually changes. If we could stop eyes from moving, would sights vanish as the coldness of the pool did? FINISH THIS PART Vision Our body has the ability to convert one sort of energy to another. Sensory transduction- conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses. Your eyes, for example, receive light energy and transform the energy into neural messages that the brain processes into what you consciously see. The Stimulus Input: Light Energy What strikes our eyes is not color but pulses of electromagnetic energy that our visual system experiences as color. What we see as visible light is a thin slice of the whole spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. 2 physical characteristics of light and sound help determine our sensory experience of them. Lights wavelength- the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. determines its hue-the color we experience, such as blue or green. Intensity the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determine by the waves amplitude[height] The Eye Light enters the cornea- protects the eye and bends light to provide focus. Light then passes through the pupil-the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. The pupils size, amount of light entering the eye, is regulated by the iris-a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored proportion of the eye around the pupil that controls the size of the pupil opening. [Iris adjusts light intake by dilating and constricting in response to light intensity and to inner emotions] Behind the pupil is a lens-the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. Accommodation-the process by which the eyes lens changes the shape to help focus images on the retina. The eyeballs light sensitive inner surface, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that being the processing of visual information - retina. Retina doesnt read the image as a whole. Millions of receptor cells convert light energy into neural impulses. Acuity- sharpness of vision- can be affected by small distortions in the shape of the eye. Cornea and lens focus the image of any object on the retina. In nearsightedness-a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina. [ focus light rays from distant objects in front of the retina]

Study shows that 10% of kids who slept in the dark before age 2 later became nearsighted, as did 34% of those who slept with a night light and 55% f those who slept in a lighted room. Farsightedness- the oppose of nearsightedness. A condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina. [The light rays from nearby objects reach the retina before they have produced a focused image.] The Retina Following a single particle of light energy into your eye, you would see that it first makes its way through the retinas outer layer of cells to its buried receptor cells, the rods retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when ones dont respond and cones.-receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. Light energy striking the rods and cones produces chemical changes that generate neural signals. These signals activate the neighboring bipolar cells, which in turn activate the neighboring ganglion cells. Axons from the network of ganglion cells converge to form an optic nerve that carries information from the eye to your brain. Where the optic nerve leaves the eye there are no receptor cells-creating a blind spot. Cones are clustered around the fovea-the retinas area of central focus- only contains cones, no rods. Cones have their own bipolar cells to help relay their individual messages to the cortex, preserving the cones precise information and making them able to detect fine detail. [Rods have no hotline to he brain, they share bipolar cells with other rods, their individual messages get combined] If illumination diminishes, the cones become ineffectual. The rods remain sensitive in dim light, because several rods will funnel their faint energy from dim light onto a single bipolar cell. Cones-detail/ rods-faint light When you enter a dark room, your pupils dilate to allow more light to reach the rods in the retinas periphery. Usually takes 20 min for your eyes to fully adapt. Visual Information Processing The retina processes information before routing it to the cortex. The retinas neural layers help analyze and encode the sensory information. The information from the retinas many receptor rods and cones is received and transmitted by the million or so ganglion cells, whose fibers make up the optic nerve. FINISH THIS PART PG 204 Feature Detection Hubel and Wiesal demonstrated that the brain has feature detector-nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. [Ex. A given brain cell might respond maximally to a bar flashed at 2:00 tilt. If the bar is tilted further to 3:00 position, the cell quiets down. Feature detection cells pass this information to other cells that respond only to ore complex patterns. Perceptions arise from the interaction of many neuron systems, each performing a simple task. The visual cortex passes this information along to the temporal and parietal cortex. [one temporal lobe area behind your right ear enables you to perceive faces-if damaged you wouldnt be able to recognize familiar faces] Perrett identified nerve cells that specialize in responding to a gaze, head angle, posture. Although the same image continues to strike the retina, the brain constructs varying perceptions[Nekcer cube- shifts every few seconds, even if its the same image] The brain activity that underlies perception combines sensory input with our assumptions and expectations. Arguments: some say that the any image, can be broken down into patterns of changing light intensity that can be described mathematically. The brain may actually be processing mathematical like codes that represent a perceived image Neuroscientists are stimulating the activity of the brains interconnected, multilevel neural networks. Goal is to build artificial vision systems that respond in the ways our own visual system responds. [Ex. Their

stimulated neural networks respond as humans do to the illusory image of a triangle that is really made up of three pacman figures, as if they were reacting to a real triangle] Parallel Processing Strange visual disabilities produced by strange brain damage: -Mr. I, after a concussion at 65, can no longer see color, only shades of gray. Unlike most computers which do a step by step serial processing, our brains engage in parallel processingthe processing of several aspects of a problem at the same time; the brains natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. We construct our perceptions by integrating the work of different visual teams, working in parallel. Although brain has slow components, it has a lot of them. The brain must deploy many processing elements cooperatively and run parallel to carry out its activities. The distribution of visual tasks to different neural work teams explains the peculiar cases of visual disability. Having lost a portion of their brains visual cortex to surgery or stroke, people may experience blindness in part of their field of vision, phenom. called blind sight. sight unseen is how Milner describes the brains tow visual systems. 1.One gives us our conscious perceptions, and the one that guides our actions. 2. the zombie within-knowing more than you are aware of. Other senses process information with similar speed .[Ex: Answering the phone, you recognize the friend calling from the moment she says Hi] For this moment, distant brain areas collaborate and the result is something no single neural cluster could achieve: a conscious recognition. Color Vision Tomato is everything but red. It reflects the long wavelengths of red. The color is our mental construction as well. Color resides not in the object but in the theater of our brains. For 1 in 50 people, vision is color deficient-and that person is usually male, because the defect is sex linked. Helmholtz and Young knew that any color can be created by combing the light waves of the three primary colors-red, green, blue. Concluded that the eye must have three types of receptors-one fro each primary color of light-Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory Mixing paints is subtractive color mixing because it subtracts wavelengths from the reflected light. More colors you mix in, the fewer wavelengths can be reflected back. Mixing lights, is additive color mixing because the process adds wavelengths and thus increases lightcombining primary colors produces white light. Most color-deficient people arent color blind-usually lack red/green sensitive cones.[their vision is dichromatic[2 colors] instead of trichromatic, hard to distinguish green/red. W see yellow when mixing red/green light. How can those blind to red and green still see yellow? Hering found a clue in the occurrence of afterimages. When staring at a green square for a while then look at a white sheet f paper, you see red, greens opponent color. Stare at a yellow square and you will later see its opponent color, blue on white paper. Said there were two additional color processes, one for red vs green/blue vs yellow. Herings opponent-process theory- the theory that opposing retinal processes[red-green, yellow-blue, whiteblack] enable color vision. [Ex. Some cells are stimulated[on] by green and inhibited[off] by red, others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green] You cannot simultaneously detect the opposing color at the same time as the original color. Color processing occurs in two stages. The retinas red, green, and blue cones respond in varying degrees to different color stimuli, as the Young Helmholtz trichromiatic theory suggested. Their signals are then processed by the nervous systems opponent process cells, en route to the visual cortex.

Color Constancy Our experience of color depends on something more than the wavelength reflected, it depends on the surrounding context as well. [Ex. If you only part of a tomato, its color will seem to change as the light changes. But if you see the whole tomato as one in a bowl of fresh vegetables, its color will remain constant as the lighting and wavelengths shift]-color constancy-perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. We see color thanks to our brains computations of the light reflected by any object relative to its surrounding objects. Comparisons govern our perceptions Hearing Our hearing, or audition, is very adaptive. We hear best those sounds having frequencies within a range that corresponds to the range of the human voice. Also very sensitive to faint sounds and differences in sounds.[differences in human voices, helping to recognize immediately the voice of almost anyone we know] The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves Hit a piano key non-dominant the resulting stimulus energy is sound waves=jostling molecules of air, each bumping into the next. The ears transform them into nerve impulses, which our brain decodes as sounds. Strength or amplitude of a sound wave determines their loudness. Waves vary in length, and therefore in frequency- the number of complete wavelengths that pass a pointing a given time[ex. Per second] Their frequency determines their pitch- a tones highness or lowness. Long waves have low frequency and low pitch. /Short waves have high frequency and high pitch Decibels are the measuring unit for sound energy. The absolute threshold for hearing is arbitrarily defined as 0 decibels. Normal conversation is 10,000 times louder than a 20 decibel whisper. When prolonged, exposure to sounds above 85 decibels can produce hearing loss. The Ear To hear, we must convert sound waves into neural activity. Human ear does so with a intricate mechanical chain reaction. First the visible outerear channels the sound waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum, a tight membrane that vibrates with waves. The middle ear- the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea a coiled, bony fluid filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses-containing three tiny bones [hammer, anvil, and stirrup] that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochleas oval window. The incoming vibrations cause the cochleas membrane [oval window] to vibrate the fluid that fills the tube. This motion causes ripple in the basilar membrane, which is lined with hair cells, so named because of their tiny hair like projections. At the end of this sequence, the rippling of the basilar membrane bends these hair cells. The movement of the hair cells triggers impulse sin the adjacent nerve fibers, which in turn converge to form the auditory nerve. Sound waves cause the hair cells of the inner ear to send neural messages up to the temporal lobes auditory cortex. From vibrating air to moving piston to fluid waves to electrical impulses to the brain. Damage to hair cells=accounts for most hearing loss. Cochlea has 16000 hair cells. Deflect the tiny bundles of cilia on the tip of a hair cell by the width of an atom and the alert hair cell triggers neural impulses. They are very sensitive, delicate and fragile. If you blast it with incessant jackhammer sounds the hair cells cilia will begin to wither or fuse. We detect loudness by a soft pure tone activating only the few hair cells attuned to its frequency. Given louder sound, sits neighbor hair cells also respond. Can interpret loudness by the number of activated hair cells.

Really loud sounds may seem equally loud to people with and without hearing loss. This is why hard of hearing people dont want all sounds amplified, they like sounds compressed-soft sounds are amplified more than loud sounds. How Do we Perceive Pitch? Helmholtzs place theory-in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochleas membrane is stimulated.[ how we hear high pitched sounds] Frequency theory-in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling nup he auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch[low pitched sounds] the brain can read pitch from the frequency of neural impulses. Problem: individual neurons cant fire fast than 1000 times per second. How can frequency theory explain our sensing sounds w. frequencies above 1000 waves per second. The volley principle-like soldiers who alternate firing so that some could shoot while others reload, a group of neural cells can alternate firing. By firing in rapid succession they can achieve a combined frequency above 1000 times per second. How Do We Locate Sound? The placement of our ears allows us to enjoy stereophonic [3D] hearing. Two ears are better than one because-1. if a car to the right honks, your right ear receives a more intense sound slightly sooner than your left ear. Like visual information, the brain uses parallel processing. Owls process timing differences in one neural pathway ad intensity difference in another before emerging their information to find a sounds location. Because such sounds strike the two ears at the same time, you wont be able to locate the sound very well. It is hard to pinpoint a sound when it comes from directly ahead, behind, above, or below. Hearing Loss and Deaf Culture Problems with the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea cause conduction hearing loss. If the eardrum is punctured of tiny bones of the middle ear lose their ability to vibrate, ears ability to conduct vibrations diminishes. [digital hearing aids help by amplifying vibrations for frequencies in which ones hearing is weakest and also by compressing sound[amplifying soft sounds] Damage to the cochleas hair cell receptors or their associated nerves can cause sensorineural hearing loss [nerve deafness] Usually caused by disease, biological changes linked with again, prolonged exposure to ear splitting noise. Once destroyed, tissues remain dead. Only way to restore hearing for people with nerve deafness is a sort of bionic ear-a cochlear implant. Tanslates sounds into electrical signals that, wired into the cochleas nerves, convey some information about sound to the brain. More than 90% of deaf children have hearing parents, must of whom want their kids to experience their world of sound and talk. Deaf culture argues that deafness is not a disability. Sign is a complete language with its own grammar, syntax, and semantics. Those who learn only sign during childhood have difficulty later learning to read and write. Deafness could = vision enhancement. Those who lose one channel of sensation do seem to compensate with a enhancement of their other sensory abilities. [Touch /visual usually] Those whose hearing as diminished by age or illness-living outside deaf culture- are more likely to describe themselves as having an impairment or disability. 1% were born deaf of the people who experience hearing loss. Those who lose their hearing need not think of themselves as disabled people but that they are persons with a disability. Can be socially disabling if havent learned sign. Helen Keller said that blindness cuts people off from things, deafness cuts people off from people. The Other Senses For humans, major sense are seeing and hearing. Depend on them for communication.

Touch Touch is essential to our development. Premature babies sent home sooner by hand massage. sense of touch is a mix of four distinct skin senses-pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. Within the skin are different types of specialized nerve endings. Touching various spots on the skin with a soft hair, a warm/cold wire, etc reveals that some spots are sensitive to pressure, others to warmth, others to cold, and others to pain. Stroking adjacent pressure spots creates a tickle, repeated gentle stroking of a pain spot creates an itching sensation, touching adjacent cold and pressure spots triggers a sense of wetness, stimulating nearby cold and warmth spots produces a feeling of hot. Pain Pain is your bodys way of telling you that something has gone wrong.-tells you to change your behavior immediately. Rare people born without the ability to feel pain may experience severe injury without ever being alerted by pains danger signals. What is Pain? Pain is a property not only of the sense but of the brain as well. Phantom limb sensations indicate that with pain, as with sights and sounds, the brain can misinterpret the spontaneous central nervous system activity that occurs in the absence of normal sensory input. People with hearing loss experience the sound of silence-phantom sounds- a ringing in the ears sensation known as tinnitus[ even people with disabilities regarding other senses experience these phantom happenings] To see, hear, taste, smell, and feel, we require a body but also a brain. No brain, no pain. There is no one type of stimulus that triggers pain and no special receptors for pain. Melzack and Walls gate-control theory-the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signal or allows them to pass on to the brain. The gate is opened by the activity of pains signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. One way to treat chronic pain is to stimulate gate closing activity in the large neural fibers. Rubbing the area around your stubbed toe will create competing stimulation that will block some of the pain messages. There is more to pain than what stimulates the sense receptors-in your mind as well. There is more to our memories of pain than the pain we experienced. When patients recalled the pain of a colon exam a month later, memories were dominated by the final[and worst] moments, not by how long the pain lasted. Its better to taper down a painful procedure than to switch it off abruptly. Pain Control Should be treatable both physically and psychologically. Lamaze method of childbirth combines relaxation, counterstimulation[massage] and distraction. Distracting people or drawing their attention away from painful stimulation is an effective way to increase pain tolerance Nurse might talk to needle shy patients a shot, patients in hospitals with rooms looking out on trees required less pain medication. Taste Taste sensations are sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. Bitter- sensing and sweet- sensing receptors as well as a receptor for a fifth taste sensation-the meaty taste of umami[flavor enhancer monosodium glutamate] Taste is a chemical sense. In each little bump on the top and sides of your tongue are 200 more taste buds, each containing a pore that catches food chemicals. These molecules are sensed by 50 to 100 taste receptor cells that project ante alike hairs into the pore. Taste receptors reproduce themselves every week or two-incase you burn your tongue, it doesnt matter. As you get older, number of taste buds decreases as does taste sensitivity.

Our emotional responses to taste are hard wired- can see the reaction of something sweet in someones facial expression People with no tongues can still taste with receptors in the back of their mouth. Cant taste nor smell most nutrients-protein, fat, starch.etc. Taste buds essential for taste, but more to taste than meets the tongue. Smell and sight play into the effect. Sensory interaction-the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. Similarly, we perceive the location of the voice directly in front of us because we also see that person is in front of us, not behind, above, or beneath us. Seeing the moth movements for ga while hearing ba we may perceive da-McGurk effect. Seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling are not totally separate channel. The brain blends their inputs. Smell[olfaction] Breaths come in pairs-except at two moments-birth/death. You inhale/exhale about 20,000 breaths of air each day. Bathing your nostrils in a stream of scent laden molecules. You inhale something of whatever or whoever it is you smell Smell, like taste, is a chemical sense. We smells something when molecules of a substance carried in the air reach a tiny cluster of 5 million receptor cells at the top of each nasal cavity. These olfactory receptor cells, respond selectively . they alert the brain through their axon fibers. And then onward to the temporal lobes primary smell cortex and to the parts of the limbic system involved in memory and emotion. Mothers can find their child through smell and form connections Odor molecules come in many shapes and sizes. Takes different receptors to detect them. The ability to identify scents peaks in early adulthood and declines thereafter. Find it hard to describe scents. We each have our own identifiable chemical signature. Animals that have twice as many olfactory receptors use scent to communicate and navigate. Odors can evoke memories and feeling. We have a capacity to recognize long forgotten odors and their associated personal episodes. Body Position and Movement To know just how to move your arms, to grasp someones hand, you need a 6th sense. You need to know the current positions your arms and hands and the be aware of their changing positions as you move them. We come equipped with millions of position and motion sensors. Kinesthesis-the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. Vision interacts with Kinesthesis. [stand with your right heel above your left toes. Now close your eyes and you will probably wobble] Vestibular sense-the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. Monitors the heads position and motion. The biological gyroscopes for this sense of equilibrium are in the inner ear. In the semicircular canals, look like a 3D pretzel, and the vestibular sacs, which connect the canals with the cochlea, substance that move when the head rotates or tilts. This movement stimulates hair like receptors in these organs of the inner ear. Receptors ten send messages to the cerebellum at the back of the brain, enabling us to sense our body position and maintain our balance. If you twirl around and stop all of a sudden, the fluid in your semicircular canals nor your kinesthetic receptors return to their neutral state right away. Aftereffect fools your dizzy brain that youre still spinning. Underlines the discussion of perceptual illusions.