WASTEWATER TREATMENT 5-7 UNIT PROCESSES OF SECONDARY TREATMENT Overview Trickling Filters Activated Sludge Oxidation Ponds Rotating

Biological Contactors (RBCs) 5-8 DISINFECTION 59 ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT Filtration Carbon Adsorption Phosphorus Removal Nitrogen Control 5-10 LAND TREATMENT Slow Rate Overland Flow Rapid Infiltration 5-11 SLUDGE TREATMENT Sources and Characteristics of Various Sludges Solids Computations Thickening Stabilization Sludge Conditioning Sludge Dewatering Reduction 5-12 SLUDGE DISPOSAL Ultimate Disposal Land Spreading Landfilling Dedicated Land Disposal (DLD) Utilization 5-13 CHAPTER REVIEW 5-14 PROBLEMS 5-15 ADDITIONAL READING

311

5-1 WASTEWATER MICROBIOLOGY Role of Microorganisms The stabilization of organic matter is accomplished biologically using a variety of microorganisms. The microorganisms are used to convert the colloidal and carbonaceous organic matter into various gases and into cell tissue. Because cell specific gravity slightly greater than that of water, the resulting tissue can be from the treated liquid by gravity settling.

dissolved tissue has a removed

312

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING It is important to note that unless the cell tissue produced from the organic matter is removed from the solution, complete treatment will not be accomplished because the cell tissue, which itself is organic, will be measured as BOD in the effluent. If the cell tissue is not removed, the only treatment that will be achieved is that associated with the bacterial conversion of a portion of the organic matter originally present to various gaseous end products.1 Classification of Microorganisms By kingdoms. Microorganisms are organized into three broad groups based on their structural and functional differences. The groups are called kingdoms. The three kingdoms are animals, plants, and protista. Representative examples and characteristics of differentiation are shown in Figure 5-1. By energy and carbon source. The relationship between the source of carbon and the source of energy for the microorganism is important. Carbon is the basic building block for cell synthesis. Energy must be obtained from outside of the cell to enable synthesis to proceed. Our goal in wastewater treatment is to convert both the carbon and the energy in the wastewater into microorganisms that we can remove from the water by settling. Therefore, we wish to encourage the growth of organisms that use organic material for both their carbon and energy source. If the microorganism uses organic material as a supply of carbon, it is called heterotrophic. Autotrophs require only CO2 to supply

their ability or inability to utilize carbon oxygen as a terminal electron in needs. acceptor3 O oxidation/reduction reactions. aerobes are rganis Obligate microorganisms that must have ms that oxygen as the rely only &Eddy, Inc., andG. on the 'Metcalf Tchobanoglous, Wastewater sun Engineering: Treatment, for Disposal, Reuse, New York: energy McGraw-Hill, p. 395, 1979. Reprinted by permission. are called 2J. E. Bailey and D. E Ollis, Engineering photot Biochemical Fundamentals, New York: rophs. McGraw-Hill, p. 222, 1977. Chem 3An organic substrate is not otroph directly oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in a single s extract chemical step because there is energy-conserving energy no mechanism that could trap so from much energy. Thus, biological organi oxidation occurs in small steps. c or Oxidation requires the transfer inorga of an electron from the substance being oxidized to nic some acceptor molecule that oxidat will subsequently be reduced. ion/re In most biological systems, ductio each step in the oxidation n reac- process involves the removal of electrons and the tions. two simultaneous loss of two Organ protons (H+). The combination otroph of the two losses is equivalent s use to the molecule having lost two organi hydrogen atoms. The reaction is often referred to as c The electrons materi dehydrogenation. and protons are not released als, into the cell, but are transferred while to an acceptor molecule. The lithotr acceptor molecule will not ophs accept the protons until it has the electrons and thus oxidiz accepted it is referred to as an electron e acceptor. Since the net result of inorga accepting an electron and proton is the same as accepting nic compo a hydrogen atom, such are also called unds.2 acceptors hydrogen acceptors. (C. P. L. Grady and H. C. Lim, By Biological Wastewater their Treatment, Theory and New York: relatio Applications, nship Marcel Decker, 1980.) to oxyge n. Bacter ia also are classif ied by their

WASTEWATER TREATMENT Animals Multicellular Exhibit Tissue Differentiation Motile Plants Multicellular Exhibit Tissue Differentiation Non-motile Protista Procar Unice llula Do Not Ex Bacteria Blue-green Algae

313

Rotifers Crustac eans

Mos ses Fern

r hibit Tissue Differentiation

Eucary Mul l lar Algae tice l Fungi Do Protozoa libit Tissue Not Differentiation FIGURE 5-1 Classification of microorganisms by kingdom. terminal electron acceptor. When wastewater contains oxygen and can support obligate aerobes, it is called aerobic. Obligate anaerobes are microorganisms that cannot survive in the presence of oxygen. They cannot use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor. Wastewater that is devoid of oxygen is called anaerobic. Facultative anaerobes can use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor and, under certain conditions, they can grow in the absence of oxygen. Under anoxic conditions, a group of facultative anaerobes called denitrifiers utilizes nitrites (NO^~) and nitrates (NO^~) as the terminal electron acceptor. Nitrate nitrogen is converted to nitrogen gas in the absence of oxygen. This process is called anoxic denitrification. By their preferred temperature regime. Each species of bacteria reproduces best within a limited range of temperatures. Four temperature ranges are used to classify bacteria. Those that grow best at temperatures below 20C are called psy-chrophiles. Mesophiles grow best at temperatures between 25 and 40C. Between 45 and 60C, the thermophiles grow best. Above 60C, stenothermophiles grow best. The growth range of facultative thermophiles extends from the thermophilic range into the mesophilic range. These ranges are qualitative and somewhat sub-

314

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING jective. You will note the gaps between 20 and 25C and between 40 and 45C. Don't make the mistake of saying that an organism that grows well at 20.5C is a mesophile. The rules just aren't that hard and fast. Bacteria will grow over a range of temperatures and will survive at a very large range of temperatures. For example, Escherichia coli, classified as mesophiles, will grow at temperatures between 20 and 50C and will reproduce, albeit very slowly, at temperatures down to 0C. If frozen rapidly, they and many other microorganisms can be stored for years without a significant death rate. S o m e M i c r o b e s o f I n t e r e s t i n W a s t e

Fungi. For our purpose, we define fungi as multicellular, non-photosynthetic, T heterotrophic protists. Fungi r are obligate aerobes that e reproduce by a variety of a methods including fission, t budding, and spore formation. m They form normal cell material e with one-half the nitrogen n required by bacteria. In a t nitrogen-deficient wastewater, are found to predominate Bacte they over the bacteria.4 ria. The This group of highes Algae. microorganisms are t popula photoautotrophs and may be unicellular or tion of either multicellular. Because of the micro organi chlorophyll contained in most sms in species, they produce oxygen through photosynthesis. In the a waste presence of sunlight, the water photosynthetic production of treatm oxygen is greater than the amount used in respiration. At ent plant night they use up oxygen in will respiration. If the daylight belong hours exceed the night hours to the by a reasonable amount, there bacteri is a net production of oxygen. a. They Protozoa. For our purpose, we may say that protozoa are are that single- single-celled animals reproduce by binary fission celled protist (dividing in two). Most are aerobic chemoheterotrophs, s and they often consume which bacteria. They are desirable in use wastewater effluents because solubl they act as polishers in e consuming the bacteria. food. Condit ions in Rotifers and crustaceans. Both rotifers and crustaceans the aerobic, multicellular treatm are chemoheterotrophs. The rotifer ent derives its name from the plant apparent rotating motion of two are sets of cilia on its head. The adjust cilia provide mobility and a ed so mechanism for catching food. that chemo Rotifers consume bacteria and hetero small particles of organic trophs matter. Crustaceans are predo characterized by their shell

w a t e r

minate. No particular species is selected as "the best."

structu re. They are a source of food for fish and are not found in waste water treatm ent system s to any extent

4Ross E. McKin ney, Micro biolog y for Sanita ry Engin eers, New York: McGra wHill, p. 40, 1962.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT Elect ron Acce Substr ate (waste \ / Energ ^ yf Carrier Energy ^N v Energ yA Carrier 1' New ANABOLIS Raw Materi als

315

/ * Energy / End Products

CATABOLISM

FIGURE 5-2 General scheme of olism.

except in underloaded lagoons. Their presence is indicative of a high level of dissolved oxygen and a very low level of organic matter. Bacterial Biochemistry Metabolism. The general term that describes all of the chemical activities performed by a cell is metabolism. This in turn is divided into two parts: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism includes all the biochemical processes by which a substrate is degraded to end products with the release of energy.5 In wastewater treatment, the substrate is oxidized. The oxidation process releases energy that is transferred to an energy carrier which stores it for future use by the bacterium (Figure 52). Anabolism includes all the biochemical processes by which the bacterium synthesizes new cells. The synthesis process is driven by the energy that was stored in the energy carrier. Decomposition of Waste The type of electron acceptor available for catabolism determines the type of decomposition (that is, aerobic, anoxic, or anaerobic) used by a mixed culture of microorganisms. Each type of decomposition has peculiar characteristics which affect its use in waste treatment. Aerobic decomposition. From our discussion of bacterial metabolism you will recall that molecular oxygen (O2) must be present as the terminal electron acceptor for decomposition to proceed by aerobic oxidation. As in natural water bodies, the oxygen is measured as DO. When oxygen is present, it is the only terminal electron acceptor used. Hence, the chemical end products of decomposition are primarily carbon dioxide, water, and new cell material (Table 5-1). Odiferous gaseous end products are kept to a minimum. In healthy natural water systems, aerobic decomposition is the principal means of selfpurification.

'Substrate is food. For our application, "food" is the organic material from the human digestive tract.

TABLE 5-1 Waste decomposition end products Representative end products S A A A n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n A m i n o a c i

CO C0 + +H H220 0 nitrat 2z es C02 + H20

Pr ote ins an d oth er org ani

F a t s

d A s m N i A O A l l L r o A l L o

i n o a c i d s A

m m C a r b o n d i

o x F

f a t t y a c i d s

Source: After Pelczar and Reid, Microbiology, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958.

r
WASTEWATER TREATMENT 317 A wider spectrum of organic material can be oxidized aerobically than by any other type of decomposition. This fact, coupled with the fact that the final end products are oxidized to a very low energy level, results in a more stable end product (that is, one that can be disposed of without damage to the environment and without creating a nuisance condition) than can be achieved by the other oxidation systems. Because of the large amount of energy released in aerobic oxidation, most aerobic organisms are capable of high growth rates. Consequently, there is a relatively large production of new cells in comparison with the other oxidation systems. This means that more biological sludge is generated in aerobic oxidation than in the other oxidation systems. Aerobic decomposition is the method of choice for large quantities of dilute wastewater (BOD5 less than 500 mg/L) because decomposition is rapid, efficient, and has a low odor potential. For high strength wastewater (BOD5 is greater than 1,000 mg/L), it is not suitable because of the difficulty in supplying enough oxygen and because of the large amount of biological sludge that is produced. In small communities and in special industrial applications where aerated lagoons (see Section 5-7) are used, wastewaters with BOD5S up to 3,000 mg/L may be treated satisfactorily by aerobic decomposition. Anoxic Decomposition. Some microorganisms will use nitrate (NO^~) as the terminal electron acceptor in the absence of molecular oxygen. Oxidation by this route is called denitrification. The end products from denitrification are nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide, water, and new cell material. The amount of energy made available to the cell during denitrification is about the same as that made available during aerobic decomposition. As a consequence, the production of cells, although not as high as in aerobic decomposition, is relatively high. Denitrification is of importance in wastewater treatment where nitrogen must be removed to protect the receiving body. In this case, a special treatment step is added to the conventional process for removal of carbonaceous material. Denitrification will be discussed in detail later. One other important aspect of denitrification is in relation to final clarification of the treated wastewater. If the environment of the final clarifier becomes anoxic, the formation of nitrogen gas will cause large globs of sludge to float to the surface and escape from the treatment plant into the receiving water. Thus, it is necessary to ensure that anoxic conditions do not develop in the final clarifier. Anaerobic decomposition. In order to achieve anaerobic decomposition, molecular oxygen and nitrate must not be present as terminal electron acceptors. Sulfate (SO4-), carbon dioxide, and organic compounds that can be reduced serve as terminal electron acceptors. The reduction of sulfate results in the production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and a group of equally odiferous organic sulfur compounds called mercaptans.

318

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The anaerobic decomposition (fermentation) of organic matter generally is considered to be a two-step process. In the first step, complex organic compounds are fermented to low molecular weight fatty acids (volatile acids). In the second step, the organic acids are converted to methane. Carbon dioxide serves as the electron acceptor. Anaerobic decomposition yields carbon dioxide, methane, and water as the major end products. Additional end products include ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and mercaptans. As a consequence of these last three compounds, anaerobic decomposition is characterized by an unbelievably horrid stench! Because only small amounts of energy are released during anaerobic oxidation, the amount of cell production is low. Thus, sludge production is low. We make use of this fact in wastewater treatment by using anaerobic decomposition to stabilize sludges produced during aerobic and anoxic decomposition. Direct anaerobic decomposition of wastewater generally is not feasible for dilute waste.6 The optimum growth temperature for the anaerobic bacteria is at the upper end of the mesophilic range. Thus, to get reasonable biodegradation, we must elevate the temperature of the culture. For dilute wastewater, this is not practical. For concentrated wastes (BOD5 greater than 1,000 mg/L), anaerobic digestion is quite appropriate. Population Dynamics Bacterial growth requirements. In the discussion of the behavior of bacterial cultures which follows, there is the inherent assumption that all the requirements for growth are initially present. Since these requirements are fairly extensive and stringent, it is worth taking a moment to recapitulate them. The following list summarizes the major requirements that must be satisfied: 1. A terminal electron acceptor 2. Macronurrients a. Carbon to build cells b. Nitrogen to build cells c. Phosphorus for ATP (energy carrier) and DNA 3. Micronutrients a. Trace metals b. Vitamins are required by some bacteria 4. Appropriate environment a. Moisture b. Temperature c. pH

6Some researchers are exploring the use of anaerobic systems for treatment of dilute wastes, especially groundwater contaminated with hazardous waste.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

319

Growth in pure cultures. As an illustration, let us examine a hypothetical situation in which 1,400 bacteria of a single species are introduced into a synthetic liquid medium. Initially nothing appears to happen. The bacteria must adjust to their new environment and begin to synthesize new protoplasm. On a plot of bacterial growth versus time (Figure 5-3), this phase of growth is called the lag phase. At the end of the lag phase the bacteria begin to divide. Since all of the organisms do not divide at the same time, there is a gradual increase in population. This phase is labeled accelerated growth on the growth plot. At the end of the accelerated growth phase, the population of organisms is large enough and the differences in generation time are small enough that the cells appear to divide at a regular rate. Since reproduction is by binary fission (each cell divides producing two new cells), the increase in population follows in geometric progression: 1 -* 2 -* 4 -> 8 -* 16 -* 32, and so forth. The population of bacteria (P) after the nth generation is given by the following expression: p = p0(2y (5-1) where P0 is the initial population at the end of the accelerated growth phase. If we take the log of both sides of Equation 5-1, we obtain the following: (5-2)

logP = logP0 + n log2 3

y z " o y i 1 0 r D / r r e . v... : ---- - I------i ' L G r o r t h a

,---

r I* t / /

m
4

A l d L y ^ m * c 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Time (h) FIGURE 5-3 Bacterial growth in a pure culture: The "Log-Growth Curve."

320

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

This means that if we plot bacterial population on a logarithmic scale, this phase of growth would plot as a straight line of slope n and intercept Po at to equal to the end of the accelerated growth phase. Thus, this phase of growth is called the log growth or exponential growth phase. The log growth phase tapers off as the substrate becomes exhausted or as toxic byproducts build up. Because of this, at some point in time, the population becomes constant either as a result of cessation of fission or a balance in death and reproduction rates. This is depicted by the stationary phase on the growth curve. Following the stationary phase, the bacteria begin to die faster than they reproduce. This death phase is due to a variety of causes that are basically an extension of those which lead to the stationary phase. Growth in mixed cultures. In wastewater treatment, as in nature, pure cultures of microorganisms do not exist. Rather, a mixture of species competes and survives within the limits set by the environment. Population dynamics is the term used to describe the time-varying success of the various species in competition. It is expressed quantitatively in terms of relative mass of microorganisms.7 The prime factor governing the dynamics of the various microbial populations is the competition for food. The second most important factor is the predator-prey relationship. The relative success of a pair of species competing for the same substrate is a function of the ability of the species to metabolize the substrate. The more successful species will be the one that metabolizes the substrate more completely. In so doing, it will obtain more energy for synthesis and consequently will achieve a greater mass. Because of their relatively smaller size and, thus, larger surface area per unit mass, which allows a more rapid uptake of substrate, bacteria will predominate over fungi. For the same reason, the fungi predominate over the protozoa. When the supply of soluble organic substrate becomes exhausted, the bacterial population is less successful in reproduction and the predator populations increase. In a closed system with an initial inoculum of mixed microorganisms and substrate, the populations will cycle as the bacteria give way to higher level organisms which in turn die for lack of food and are then decomposed by a different set of bacteria (Figure 5-4). In an open system, such as a wastewater treatment plant or a river, with a continuous inflow of new substrate, the predominant populations will change through the length of the plant (Figure 5-5). This condition is known as dynamic equilibrium. It is a highly sensitive state, and changes in influent characteristics must be regulated closely to maintain the proper balance of the various populations. 7If each individual organism of Species A has, on the average, twice the mass at maturity as each individual organism of Species B, and both compete equally, we would expect that both would have the same mass but that there would be twice as many of Species B as there would be of A.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT 321 Substrat Attached BacteriaSewage '/^_ Freee in * " ** Bacteria in Efflue Consuming Effluent swimming Ciliates (Prey) J if \ 0.Carnivorous n R 0. 0. J "S w g 1 0. 0. C T3 3 1 cn 1 J d 0 50 > 1 40 a. 8 C 30 -a 0 0 D C 20 a: 4 O o 2 O 10 > C 0- C c u -----------1--------100 Time (h) FIGURE 5-4 Population dynamics in a closed system. (Source: Curds, "A Theoretical Study of Factors Influencing the Microbial Population Dynamics of the Activated Sludge Process-I." Water Resources, vol. 7, p. 1269, 1973.) J "Bb

T 3 _ 3 55

" Sewage Crawling Ciliatesin Effluent 5 6 3 - Bacteria S 5

20 Attached *' \ / ' 15 10 Sewage in Effluent 250 150

8 T 3 C D C <

"6b 30 6 S 20

10

0 -I

Time (h) FIGURE 5-5 Population dynamics in an open system. (Source: Curds, "A Theoretical Study of Factors Influencing the Microbial Population Dynamics of the Activated Sludge Process-I." Water Resources, vol. 7, p. 1269, 1973.)

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INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The Monod Equation. For the large numbers and mixed cultures of microorganisms found in waste treatment systems, it is convenient to measure biomass rather than numbers of organisms.8 In the log-growth phase, the rate expression for biomass increase is dX It where dX_ = (JLX (5-3)

= growth rate of the biomass, mg/L t fi = growth rate constant, t ! X = concentration of biomass, mg/L

Because of the difficulty of direct measurement of k in mixed cultures, Monod9 developed a model equation that assumes that the rate of food utilization, and therefore the rate of biomass production, is limited by the rate of enzyme reactions involving the food compound that is in shortest supply relative to its need. The Monod equation is M where fim = maximum growth rate constant, t_1 S = concentration of limiting food in solution, mg/L Ks = half saturation constant, mg/L = concentration of limiting food when ju, = 0.5fim The growth rate of biomass follows a hyperbolic function as shown in Figure 5-6. Two limiting cases are of interest in the application of Equation 54 to wastewater treatment systems. In those cases where there is an excess of the limiting food, then S Ks and the growth rate constant, fi, is approximately equal to /tm. Equation 5-3 then becomes first-order in biomass. At the other extreme, when S <sz Ks, the system is foodlimited and the growth rate becomes zero-order with respect to biomass, that is, it is independent of the biomass. frequently, this is done by measuring suspended solids or volatile suspended solids (those that burn at 550C). When the wastewater contains only soluble organic matter, the volatile suspended solids test is reasonably representative. The presence of organic particles (which is often the case in municipal wastewater) confuses the issue completely. 9J. Monod, "The Growth of Bacterial Cultures," Annual Review of Microbiology, vol. 3, 1949. Ks+S (5-4)

WASTEWATER TREATMENT 323

Limiting food concentration S, mg/L FIGURE 5-6 Monod growth rate constant as a function of limiting food concentration. Equation 5-4 assumes only growth of microorganisms and does not take into account natural die-off. It is generally assumed that the death or decay of the microbial mass is a first-order expression in biomass and hence Equations 5-3 and 5-4 are expanded to dX dt kdX (5-5) Ks+S where kj = endogeneous decay rate constant, t _1 . If all of the food in the system was converted to biomass, the rate of food utilization (dS/dt) would equal the rate of biomass production. Because of the inefficiency of the conversion process, the rate of food utilization will be greater than the rate of biomass utilization, so dt where Y = decimal fraction of food mass converted to biomass = yield coefficient, jflffXd Combining Equations 5-3, 5-4, and 5-6, _dS _ 1 /xmSX (5-7) It ~ Y Ks +S Equations 5-5 and 5-7 are a fundamental part of the development of the design equations for wastewater treatment processes. 1 dX Y~dt (5-6)

324

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

5-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER Physical Characteristics Fresh, aerobic, domestic wastewater has been said to have the odor of kerosene or freshly turned earth. Aged, septic sewage is considerably more offensive to the olfactory nerves. The characteristic rotten egg odor of hydrogen sulfide and the mercaptans is indicative of septic sewage. Fresh sewage is typically gray in color. Septic sewage is black. Wastewater temperatures normally range between 10 and 20C. In general, the temperature of the wastewater will be higher than that of the water supply. This is because of the addition of warm water from households and heating within the plumbing system of the structure. One cubic meter of wastewater weighs approximately 1,000,000 grams. It will contain about 500 grams of solids. One-half of the solids will be dissolved solids such as calcium, sodium, and soluble organic compounds. The remaining 250 grams will be insoluble. The insoluble fraction consists of about 125 grams of material that will settle out of the liquid fraction in 30 minutes under quiescent conditions. The remaining 125 grams will remain in suspension for a very long time. The result is that wastewater is highly turbid. Chemical Characteristics Because the number of chemical compounds found in wastewater is almost limitless, we normally restrict our consideration to a few general classes of compounds. These classes often are better known by the name of the test used to measure them than by what is included in the class. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) test, which we discussed in Chapter 4, is a case in point. Another closely related test is the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test. The COD test is used to determine the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter that can be oxidized by a strong chemical oxidizing agent (potassium dichromate) in an acid medium. The COD of a waste, in general, will be greater than the BOD5 because more compounds can be oxidized chemically than can be oxidized biologically, and because BOD5 does not equal ultimate BOD. The COD test can be conducted in about three hours. If it can be correlated with BOD5, it can be used to aid in the operation and control of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) is a measure of the total organic and ammonia nitrogen in the wastewater.10 TKN gives a measure of the availability of nitrogen for building cells, as well as the potential nitrogenous oxygen demand that will have to be satisfied.

10Pronounced "kell dall" after J. Kjeldahl, who developed the test in 1883.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT TABLE 5-2 Typical composition of untreated domestic wastewater Weak Mediu Stron m except g Constituent (all mg/L settleable Alkalinity (as 50 100 solids) 200 13 CaCo ) BOD53 100 200 300 Chloride" 30 50 100 COD 250 500 1,000 Suspended solids 100 200 350 Settleable solids, 5 10 20 Total dissolved 200 500 1,000 Total Kjedahl 20 40 80 Total organic carbon 75 150 300 Total phosphorus (as 5 10 20 P) a To be added to amount in domestic water supply. Chloride is exclusive of contribution from water softener backwash.

325

Phosphorus may appear in many forms in wastewater. Among the forms found are the orthophosphates, polyphosphates, and organic phosphate. For our purpose, we will lump all of these together under the heading 'Total Phosphorus (as P)." Three typical compositions of untreated domestic wastewater are summarized in Table 5-2. The pH for all of these wastes will be in the range of 6.5 to 8.5, with a majority being slightly on the alkaline side of 7.0. Industrial wastewater composition may be significantly different from domestic wastewater. 5-3 ON-SITE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS

Without Water Carriage The pit privy. Although most modern environmental engineering texts would skip this subject, the mere existence of 10,000 of these or their modern equivalent in the United States is just too much for us to ignore. Furthermore, the facts of the matter are that junior engineers are the most likely candidates for designing, erecting, operating, dismantling, and closing the beasts. Figure 5-7 provides most of the information you will ever want to know about the construction of an outhouse. The slab is usually poured over fiat ground on top of roofing paper. The riser hole is formed using 12-gauge galvanized iron. Once the slab has set, it is lifted into place over the pit. The concrete is a 1:2:3 mix, that is, one part Portland cement, two parts sand, and three parts gravel less than 25 mm in diameter. The principle of operation of the pit privy is that the liquid materials percolate into the soil through the cribbing and the solids "dry out." A pit of the dimensions shown in Figure 5-7 should last a family of four about ten years. Rainwater is to be prevented from entering the pit. A cup of kerosene at weekly intervals

'! k i!

----25"---------1 l HI , | ------1- ---J 1i 1 21" | " 1 1 1 . 1 :.|.: ' Side Elevation

FIGURE 5-7 Construction details of the pit privy: (a) cross section; (b) plan of concrete slab; and (c) details of riser form. (Source: Ehlers and Steel, Municipal and Rural Sanitation, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1943.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

327

will discourage mosquito breeding, and odors are reduced by the use of a cup of hydrated lime. Unfortunately, this will also slow the decomposition of paper. Therefore, the use of lime is not encouraged. Disinfectants should never be used. The vault toilet. This is the modern version of the pit privy. Its construction is the same as that of the pit privy with the exception that the pit is formed as a watertight vault. A special truck (fondly called a "honey wagon") is used to pump out the vault at regular intervals. Because of the liquefying action of the bacteria and incipient anaerobic decomposition, vault toilets are much more odiferous than the old pit privies. Many masking agents (perfumes) and disinfectants are available to mitigate the stench. Unfortunately, most of them have unpleasant odors themselves. If electricity is at hand, an ozone generator, set to vent into the gas space above the waste, will perform near-miracles in odor reduction. The chemical toilet. The airplane toilet, the coach-bus toilet, and the self-contained toilets of recreation vehicles are all versions of the chemical toilet. The essence of the system is a strong disinfectant chemical used to carry the waste to a holding tank and render it inoffensive until it can be pumped from the holding tank. While these vehicular systems are quite effective, the chemical must be selected with an eye toward its impact on the treatment system which ultimately must receive it. The chemical toilet has not found wide acceptance in permanent installations. This is due to the cost of the chemical and to the impracticality of maintenance. With Water Carriage Septic tanks and tile fields. A typical septic tank and tile field arrangement for a residential dwelling is illustrated in Figure 5-8. The septic tank and tile field are a unit. Neither part will function as intended without the other. The main function of the septic tank is to remove large particles and grease which would otherwise clog the tile field. Heavy solids settle to the bottom where they undergo anaerobic decomposition. Grease floats to the surface and is trapped. It is only slightly decomposed. Since the septic tank is not heated, little reduction in BOD5 occurs. Rather, the solid organic material which settles out is liquified. It then passes to the tile field. Since not all of the solid material can be liquified, the tank must be pumped at periodic intervals. The time interval between pumping depends on the amount of use and the objects which find their way to the tank. Toilet paper is easily degraded; however, plastic-lined disposable diapers cannot be degraded within a reasonable time. A family of four with young children can expect to have their septic tank pumped every two years. A household of two may not have to have its septic tank pumped in five or ten years of use. Grease accumulation is often the major factor in determining the frequency of cleaning. In the past, the volume of the septic tank has been a function of the number of bedrooms in the dwelling. Current practice suggests that a 24-hour hydraulic

328 i t

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING <; r i I i i MI I i II Ii i I 1 1 1 1__i I___i I 1 i i i i Tile Field 1 1 1 1 1 Distribution Box 1 1 1 1 1 I i

Hou se Water 100 mm Untreated Table or / Septic min. Sludge Building Paper Tank 150 mm Joint

Plan View Longitudinal Section FIGURE 5-8 Schematic layout of a septic tank and tile field. Cros s Sect ion

detention time at design flow be used. In any case, the tank should not be less than 4.0 m3 in volume. In the tile field, the waste flows out of the joints between the tiles and through the gravel layer. The gravel serves to trap some of the solids that escaped from the septic tank. It also provides a storage area for holding the liquid while it seeps into the soil. Bacteria on the gravel degrade some of the trapped particulate matter. Bacteria in the soil aerobically degrade the liquified organic material. The treated water percolates into the groundwater system. A septic tank and tile field can be used only when soil conditions are favorable. One method used to determine whether or not a tile system may be installed is the soil percolation test, better known as the perc test (or sometimes perk). In simple terms, the test is performed by digging a hole of prescribed size, filling it with water, and measuring the rate at which the water percolates into the soil. An alternative, and preferred, method for determining the suitability of the soil is to dig a trench in the area proposed for the tile field and visually inspect it. The inspector looks for unsuitable soil (clay, for example) and the presence of mottled (discolored) soil. Mottled soil indicates that the groundwater table has, at some

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

329 TABL E 5-3 Maxi mum accept able applic ation rates for tile fields

Percolatio Soil texture and Coarse and medium sand and loamy sand Fine Sandy loam Loam and sandy clay Loams Clays, silts, muck, peat, marl po int in ti m e, ris en to a le ve l w hi ch w ou ld int er fe re wi th th e op er ati on of th e til e mm/h a 150 75-150 50-75 35-50 <35 35

0 0 1

ab le la ye r m us t no t be les s th an 1. 25 m. 6. Th e ea rth co ve 3. The tile r field pl must be ac located ed more ov than 30 er m from th any well, e surface ab water, so footing rpt drain, or io storm n drain. til 4. The tile field e must be located m at least 3 m from us any property t line. no 5. The t minimum be distance les between s the th bottom an of the 0. absorptio 3 n trench m and the no groundw r ater table m or any or imperme e

field and, perhaps more important, bring the groundwate r into direct contact with sewage. The information in Table 5-3 is then used to detennine the size of the tile field. Further limitations on the use of a septic tank tile field system usually include the following:

than 0.6 m deep. 7. A clean aggregat e graded between 12 and 36 mm must be placed around the tile pipe. It must be a minimu m of 50 mm above the pipe and 150 mm below the pipe, with a total depth of not less than 300 mm. Most states limit septic tank/tile field installation to facilities producing less than 40 m3/d of wastewater. This limits their use to single family residences, small apartments, freeway rest areas, parks, and isolated commercial establishme nts. Examp le 5-1. John and Mary

J o n e s a r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p u r c h a s e o f a p l o t o f l a n d o n w h i c h t o b u

ild a retirem ent home. Based on their water bills for the past five years, their averag e daily water consu mption is about 0.4 m3. What size septic tank and tile field should they expect to put on the lot if it perks at 1.00 min/m m? Solutio n. If the septic tank must provid e a detenti on time of 24 h, then its volume should be

d v o l u m e i s 4 . 0 m
3

. G o o d s e p t i c t a n k d e s i g n p r a c t i c e c a V= l m l d = 0.4 s m f o r l e n

Howev er, the minim um recom mende

gth to width (1/w) ratios greater than 2 to 1 and a minim um

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INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING liquid depth of about 1.2 m. Using these criteria and a 4.0 m3 volume, the liquid surface area would be A, = 4^0 3.33 m2 1.2 If we choose a width of 1.15 m and a length of 3 m, we will have a wellsized tank of 4.14 m3 and a 1/w ratio of 2.61 to 1. From Table 5-3 we find that a perk rate of 1.00 min/mm will allow an application rate of 0.02 m3/m2 of trench. The bottom area of trench should then be about 0 .4 m
3

A=

0. 0 2 m 3 / m
2

= 2 0. 0 m
2

One trench 1.0 m wide and 20.0 m long would meet the requirements; however, our preference is to use a 0.6 m trench width and three trenches about 12 m in length. Barriered landscape water renovation system (BLWRS). In the summer of 1969, Dr. A. Earl Erickson demonstrated the efficacy of utilizing a BLWRS (pronounced "blowers," like "flowers") to denitrify water containing 100 mg/L of nitrate. Subsequently, he and his

associ edge of the barrier, it may be ates collected in drains or be demon allowed to recharge the aquifer. strated The mound is constructed of a that fine sand. In many respects it the resembles the famous sand BLW filters of the Lawrence RS Laboratory in Massachusetts. could The dimensions of the BLWRS be depend on the soil texture and used expected wastewater to application rates (Table 5-5). A renova 0.15 m layer of topsoil is used te bothto cover the sand. A waterdairy hardy grass (quack grass or cow volunteer weed cover) must be and established on the surface and swine banks to maintain the soil's feedlot permeability and stability. The waste major difference between this water filter system and Hazen's at the (Table Lawrence Lab is the 5-4).n installation of a carbon source The that penetrates the anoxic zone system that forms along the barrier. is, ofThe carbon source is a mixture course of one part corn and 100 parts , peat. equall The wastewater is spread y on the top of the mound by a applic sprinkler. As the wastewater able topercolates down, the organic domes particles are filtered out and tic remain on the surface. The waste particles are oxidized by soil water. microorganisms. The soluble T organics and other ions move he into the aerobic soil zone. Most BLWRof the soluble organic matter S consist s of anA. E. Erickson, B. G. Ellis, J. mound M. Tiedje, A. R. Wolcott, C. M. of soilHausen, F. R. Peabody. E. C. underl Miller, and J. W. Thomas, Soil for ain byModification Denitrification and Phosphate an Reduction of Feedlot Waste imper (Environmental Protection vious Agency Report No. EPAWashington, water 66O/2-74-057), DC: U.S. Government Printing barrier Office, 1974. (Figur es 59a and 5-9b). As the renova ted water passes beyon d the

WASTEWATER TREATMENT TABLE 5-4 BLWRS wastewater renovation efficiencies Average Average influent effluent concentratio concentratio (rng/L) (mg/L) Swine waste" BOD5 1,131 18.9 P 18 0.02 SS 3,000 NIL TKN 937 187.4 Dairy BOD5 1,637.0 18.9 P 38.5 0.23 SS 4,400.0 NIL TKN 917.0 27.5 " Average application rate of 15 mm/d for 503 d. Average application rate of 8.8 mm/d for 450 d. Supplemental Original .3 to .8 m Soil Surface Energy Source Efficie (%) 98.3 99.9 -100.0 80.0 98.8 99.4 -100.0 97.0

331

Waste Added Here Phosphate Adsorber 12 to 18 m (a) Waste Energy Soil Drain Surface Source

FIGURE 5-9 (a) Common dimensions of barriered landscape water renovation system (BLWRS); (b) water chemistry change in a BLWRS.

ted Water Barrier (b)

Renova
2

332

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

TABLE 5-5 Example BLWRS soil characteristics and application rates Total Perc Percent sand perce ent Applic Perc Ver Coar Medi Fin Ve ation ent y ry se um e rate clay coar fin 9 mm/d 79. 7. Surfac 4. 18 38. 10. 7.6 12.9 7 4 e 8 .8 2 4.2 3 5.5 92. 2. Subsur 1. 17 54. 18 2. 4. 23. 14. Surfac 52. 35. 12. mm/d 8.8 1 3 3 e 4 9 1 0 2.8 0. 0. 30. 45. Subsur 80. 17 2.1 Notes: L Soil characteristics are U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Textural Classes. m, that 2. Surface refers to depth from 0.0 to 0.15 m; subsurface is, the refers to depth from 0.15 m to l.l bottom of the BLWRS.

is oxidized by bacteria in the highly active aerobic soil. The phosphate ions are held on the clay fraction of the soil and sand bed. (Iron slag and/or limestone can be used to enhance the phosphorus adsorption capacity.) The ammonium ions are held on the soil until they are nitrified to nitrate. The downward movement of the nitrified water is stopped by the barrier. The water then is forced to move laterally through the anoxic layer. Denitrification occurs as the waste passes out of the carbon source. The BLWRS must be operated in a cyclic fashion to allow the soil microorganisms time to degrade the waste and to maintain aerobic conditions in the soil. Application rates between 9 and 18 mm of wastewater per day may be used provided that the BLWRS is "rested" for one-third of the time. The physical conditions of the soil govern the application rates. The soils used in the original research with their respective application rates are characterized in Table 5-5. Ponding on the surface indicates excessive application rates. 5-4 MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS This discussion of municipal wastewater treatment systems follows the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency publication, Environmental Pollution Control Alternatives: Municipal Wastewater.12

12U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Pollution Control Alternatives: Municipal Wastewater (Environmental Protection Agency Technology Transfer Publication No. EPA-625/5-76-012), Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.