Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
WATER TREATMENT
Page 1
Water is a great blessing for us. It is very important in every field of life. Without it the life of any creature is impossible. The water that we obtain from rivers, seas and other sources cannot be used directly for drinking purposes. Water treatment is necessary to meet the requirement of the public and to save our people from lethal scourges. Life is possible on this earth because of the presence of water all around us. Nearly two -third of the surface is covered with water. There are many ways in which we can change the water properties with respect to the desired process. These process are studied under the heading of WATER TREATMENT
WATER IS THE DRIVER OF NATURE Leonardo da Vinci WATER IS LIFES MATTER AND MATRIX, MOTHER AND MEDIUM.THERE IS NO LIFE WITHOUT WATER Albert szent gyorgy
Page 2
CONTENTS
When we hear the word water treatment many questions arise in our mind that what does it mean??? Which parameters deal with it??? Following assignment is the answer to all the questions.
What is WATER TREATMENT? Why Water Treatment is important? Water Sources. Industrial water supplies. Impurities and their types. Pure Water and Its properties. Water Quality Parameters (for domestic, boiler feed water and cooling tower) Comparison of national and international standards of quality of water. Treatment steps for domestic use. Water treatment methods. Membrane Filtration. Chemical Precipitations Ion Exchange method. Conclusion.
Page 3
The process to make water more drinkable, by following process Decontamination Clarifying Softening Deodorizing
Basically, Water treatment characterizes those industrial-scale operations used to make water more adequate for a covet end-use. These can involve use for: Drinking water Industry Medical etc
WHY WATER TREATMENT IS IMPORTANT? Water treatment is very important because we required different type of water for different purposes e.g. for domestic purposes, industrial use, medical use etc. this water may be waste water or sea water or may be fresh water, we adjust the concentration of minerals and other impurities in water for desired process. For example for drinking water there must be some amount of minerals otherwise this water will be harmful for human beings and if there is some amount of hard metals is present then it will also cause many diseases like this water treatment is also very important for industrial processes for example most of the processes required distilled water to perform. The efficiency of work done of different machines also depends upon water used in it. For example, the impurity free water is send into the boiler if there is some amount of mineral is present in water then it decreases the efficiency and also the life of boiler because the solids present in water can melt on high temperature and start deposit on the wall of boiler it may rust the boiler material and decrease its life. Same is the case in cooling tower also the raw water purify before sending it into tower, and for domestic purpose. Thats why, water treatment of raw water have a great importance on domestic as well as industrial level.
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 4
Both can use for the water treatment. Surface water means the rain water or canal or pool water. Ground water means that water which aquifer (level of water) by the use of well. Ground water has fewer amounts of impurities then the surface water. INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES: There are different sources for industrial water supplies but no source provide us pure water, the three basic sources of it are following: Municipal Private Hybrid
MUNICIPAL: Simply municipal means controlled by local authority. This source provides municipal water which has some minerals and hard metals in some quantity. This water can be used for water treatment for boiler or cooling tower and for domestic use. This is ground water. PRIVATE: private source means there is any mechanical mean(e.g. motor) for getting a water so this water also use for the water treatment but at high level it become very difficult to get water by this mean because in industries metric tons of water is required for this purpose we use hybrid source anyways this source can also use but only at laboratory level. This is ground water source. HYBRID: Hybrid source means there is any pool or canal is used for getting a water for desired purpose. This source is used on industrial level because metric tons of water are used for water treatment. This is surface water source. These all sources use for water treatment but with respect to the level of water treatment if we required water treatment at industrial level so use that source which fulfil the quantity of water.
Page 5
These are some impurities present in raw water but the question rises what is the pure water/fresh water??????? Which type of properties it have???????? PURE WATER The pure or fresh water is that which is colourless, tasteless and odourless. PROPERTIES OF FRESH WATER: Free from pathogenic organisms. Colourless. It is not saline. Free from displeasing or smell/odourless. Free from elements that may be harmful. Do not damage any place.
Page 6
Page 7
It gives the measurements of following: Acid neutralizing capacity. Basic PH. Anions.
ACID NEUTRALIZING CAPACITY: The ability of water sample to neutralize the strong acids known as acid neutralizing capacity. BASIC PH: The PH greater than the 7 is known as Basic PH. ANIONS: Any molecule or an element that has negative charge on it known as anion.
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 8
MEASUREMENT OF ALKALINITY: The alkalinity is measure by the double titration method that is addition of an acid to a water
sample to the phenolphthalein whose end point (PH 8.3) and the methyl orange whose end point (PH 4.4). The titration to the phenolphthalein measures hydroxides and carbonates and titration to methyl orange measures hydroxide, carbonates and bicarbonates. Now question raises that if anions neutralize the acids then what is the function of cations of any impurity????
So, the answer is that cations (calcium, small amount of iron and magnesium ions) produce hardness in water. Lets see what is hardness??? HARDNESS: Hardness in water is the measure of total concentration of magnesium and calcium and sometimes iron. There are two types of hardness i.e. Permanent Hardness Temporary Hardness.
Page 9
Page 10
Page 11
National Standards <15TSU No objectionable No objectionable 5NTU 0.2-1kg/cm2 <1kg/cm2 >8.5 9.6-12 8.3-9 <3ooppm No detectable 0.05ppm 0.05-0.3ml 100-700ppm 100-350ppm
International Standards 5TSU No objectionable No objectionable 0.5NTU 0.03-0.1kg/cm2 0.02-0.1kg/cm2 6.5-8.5 10-11 9-12 0.05-0.5(French units 0ppm 0ppm 0.01-0.03ml 125-500ppm 125-300ppm
TURBIDITY
PH
HARDNESS
ALKALINITY
Page 12
SEDIMENTATION Sedimentation is also use in water treatment process. In sedimentation process, the velocity of waste water becomes lower than the suspension velocity and the particles settle down to the due to the action of gravity. The clear water is taken out from the tank. Slug is removed from the bottom of the tank.
PROCESS DIAGRAM:
DRAWBACK: From sedimentation, small particles do not remove efficiently because they settle down to the bottom of water too slowly. COAGULATION
Page 13
PRIMARY COAGULANTS: Primary coagulants are always used in coagulant process. These coagulants neutralize the water so that small particles combine to each other to form crowed. Some primary coagulants are: Alum Sodium aluminate Ferric sulfate
COAGULANT ACIDS: Coagulant acids are used to increase the density of low settling aggregates and add toughness to aggregates so that aggregate do not break out while settling. Some coagulant acids are: Lime
Page 14
ULTRA-FILTRATION: Membrane with pore size approximately 0.002-0.1 microns It like MF removes bacteria, viruses and other micro-organisms Water can easily pass at low pressure
NANO-FILTRATION: Pore size membrane of approximately 0.001 microns Requirement of high pressure so that water can pass through this small pore size In addition to micro-organisms elimination it also purifies the water from alkalinity More energy is needed as compared to the all above
REVERSE OSMOSIS: This is the most common and the most reliable type, so we will discuss it in detail. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION The membrane filtration process works on the principle of reverse osmosis.
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 15
The pressure that the water applies on the membrane to enter in the concentrated region is known as the osmotic pressure. MEMBRANE STRUCTURE: The membrane used in the osmosis allows only the particles that are smaller in diameter than the human hairs dia, to pass through not others because its structure is made up of a cluster of fibres that has the dia equal to the diameter of a human hair. Normally the material of which these membranes are made are either polymeric or ceramic material.
REVERSE OSMOSIS
DEFINITION:
Reverse osmosis is the process whose basis lies in the process of osmosis.
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 16
EXPLANATION:
Due to osmosis, the water enters the concentrated region by applying pressure on the membrane.with this the pressure keeps on increasing in the concentrated region and there comes a point where the osmotic pressure becomes equal to the pressure in the concentrated region.as a result the water movement ceases and thus we say that the equilibrium has reached. now if the pressure is increased in the concentrated region the reverse process will occur. the water will move from the concentrated to the dilute solution or from high pressure to low pressure. this phenomenon is known as reverse osmosis. This process is carried out only in case of very high pressure that is established in the high pressure region.
TYPICAL REJECTION CHARACTERISTICS OF R.O. MEMBRANES Given below are some of the components and there rejection percentages by the reverse osmosis membrane. nearly all the dissolved and the suspended solids are rejected by this membrane except the few quantities.
Chloride
85-92%
magnesium 94-98% zinc iron lead manganese barium selenium Nitrate sulfate 95-98% 94-98% 95-98% 94-98% 95-98% 94-96% 60-75% 96-98%
Page 17
WORKING OF THE REVERSE OSMOSIS PROCESS The reverse osmosis process consists of the following components Pre filter Large cylinders for storage Reverse osmosis membrane Booster pump Automatic shut off valve Check valve Pressure gauges Post filter
PROCEDURE;
First of all the pre treatment of the raw water is done.pre treatment requires the removal of some of the solids before sending the water to the membrane because it can cause damade to it.this pre treatment involves the elimination of dust particles using sand filters,chlorine removal that can cause oxidation of membrane using carbon filters,adition of acid for minimum alkalinity otherwise can cause fouling of the membranoes structure and maintenance of ph by running water through 10 micron prefliter. the reverse osmosis membrane requires the ph of 6.0.
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 18
Page 19
PARAMETERS:
Some of the important parameters of reverse osmosis process are as follows Salt rejection% Salt passage% Recovery% Concentration factor
SALT REJECTION:
It is given by the formula Salt rejection%= 100
Page 20
SALT PASSAGE:
This is simply the reverse of salt rejection% Salt passage%=1-salt rejection% The higher is the value of salt passage %, the lower is its effiency.this can mean that the membranes need to be cleaned or the pretreatment done was not accurate.
%RECOVERY:
This is given by the formula %recovery= 100
%recovery is the amount of fluid that is not sent to the drain but has rather participated in the product stream. in other words we can say that it is the recovered water.
CONCENTRATION FACTOR:
This can be calculated by making use of the expression given below Concentration factor= The concept behind that the more water which is recovered as the permeate leads to the more contaminents collected in the concentrate stream.this is one of the major cause of membrane fouling and scaling.
Page 21
INTERNAL TREATMENT OF WATER: FOR HARDNESS: The water that enters the boiler comprises of some dissolved solids which cause hardness.these dissolved solids are removed by blowdown.blowdown is the discharge of boiler water taking along many dissolved solids. FOR SILICA: If there is presence of silica in the feed water than due to high temperature it precipitates out and cause the scaling of boiler.in silica treatment,the boiler water alkalinity is kept very high so that the silica remains in solution and doesnot accumulate on the walls of the boiler. FOR SLUDGE DISPOSAL: Internal treatment results in the formation of insoluble precipitates that form sludge.this sludge can deposit on the wall of the boiler. conditioners keep these solids away from depositing.these sludge conditioners include Tannin is effective for hard feed water Lignin for phosphate sludge Starches for silica feed water Synthetic polyners useful for almost all kinds of sludge removal
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 22
It is a simple procedure Safe Efficiency is improved Prevents tube failures Scales and corrosion is minimized Reduced energy consumption Reverse osmosis process for water provided to cooling tower: REVERSE OSMOSIS AND THE COOLING TOWER: The water in the cooling tower is continuously being fed to make up for the water being evaporated or drained.this make up water comes from the natural source like rivers wells etc so this water contains a higher percentage of dissolved and suspended solids.this makeup stream is fed into the tower after regular intervals. This water needs to be treated before entering the cooling tower otherwise the salts deposition can cause the fouling and scaling of the cooling tower. Like for drinking water and boiler feed water pre treatment is important.reverse osmosis is proved beneficial for the water treatment in the cooling tower.the ph of this water should be maintained between 8-8.5 otherwise alkalinity factor can disturb bthe performance The water unlike boiler feed is not 100% desalined because here some impurity percentage is non objectionable and does not cause any serious damage to the apparatus Industries using reverse osmosis water: Pharmaceutical Boiler feed Food and beverge Semi conductor finishes Metal finishes etc
Advantages of reverse osmosis phenomenon: Best technique for contaminants elimination Improves taste,odor and appearance energy consumption is low Low production cost
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 23
CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION Chemical precipitation is a method to remove metals, suspended solids, gases, oil inorganic and organics substances from water. A chemical reaction, start by the reagent cause the dissolved matter to form solid precipitates. By changing the water composition, we form insoluble metal complex. Filtration mechanism can be used to remove precipitate from water. Performance of this process depends upon concentration of metal, type of metal and reagent. Solution with dissolved ion clear water + insoluble complex
Metals are precipitated as carbonates, sulfites and carbonates precipitate. In some process, the specie which we want to be removed must be oxidized. Fluorine can be removed by using calcium chloride and phosphate can be removed by the use of aluminum salt. Advantage and disadvantage of chemical precipitation
ADVANTAGES: Chemical precipitation is well-founded technique with readily availability of many chemicals and equipment. Sometimes, the chemicals that are used for operations are inexpensive i.e. lime.
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 24
DISADVANTAGES: Large amounts of chemicals are required to be conveyed to the required place.
LIME PROCESS Lime softening method is considered to be an effective method to lower the magnesium and calcium hardness in water by adding calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide and sodium carbonate to form calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide which precipitate out. PRETREATMENT: Pretreatment of water for lime softening consists of either pre sedimentation or aeration. Pre sedimentation is used for very muddy surface waters, in order to create a more consistent. Aeration is performed for those waters that have high CO2 concentrations, such as ground water. It will also remove carbon dioxide from water. Other impurities present in water such as manganese, iron, fluoride, heavy metals, total dissolved solids, silica and chloride are also removed by pouring limestone only or with the combination of other chemicals like sodium silicates, alum etc. The rise pH required in the process also inactivates many microorganisms. PH VALUE: In order to produce magnesium hydroxide or calcium carbonate, the pH of the water must be elevated by the addition of lime. Magnesium compounds require a pH of 10.0 to 10.5 while calcium compound require a pH of 9.0 to 9.5.The pH adjustment is maintained by adding sulfuric or hydrochloric acid into the waste stream with a metering pump PROCESS DIAGRAM: .
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 25
DESCRIPTION: When soda ash and lime are added, hardness producing salts form almost insoluble precipitates. Magnesium hardness is precipitated out as magnesium hydroxide (Mg (OH) 2). Calcium hardness is precipitated out as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). PRECIPITATE REMOVAL PROCESS: These precipitates are then removed by liable processes of sedimentation, filtration, and coagulation. Because precipitates are present in very small quantities, some hardness remains in the water at about as CaCO3. This hardness level is compulsory to prevent corrosion problems linked with water being too soft and having little or no hardness. METHOD: First of all, we add lime in the water to form calcium hydroxide, or Ca (OH) 2. The reaction between calcium and carbon dioxide take place as a result, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) precipitate out. The optimum pH for this process is about 10.3. REACTIONS: Removal of calcium hardness CO2. + Ca (OH) 2 Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH) 2 Removal of magnesium hardness Magnesium precipitates out in the form of magnesium hydroxide, Mg (OH) 2. The optimum pH for this reaction in from 11.0 to 11.3. This pH can be obtained by using further lime. Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH) 2 CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O
Page 26
Carbon dioxide does not produce any type of hardness but it take some amount of lime to react with before the lime start to reduce the hardness of water. CO2. + Ca (OH) 2 CaCO3 + H2O
In this way, precipitate form which are collected and water is free from hardness. RE CARBONATION: To remove carbonate and bicarbonate hardness of water, high pH is required and produces water having high concentration of dissolved calcium carbonate and lime. If we enter this water to supply system in this state, due to higher pH, corrosion will occur on boiler tubes. Excess calcium carbonate would precipitate out, producing scale. In order to avoid this type of difficulties, the pH of the water must be lowered. Re carbonation is the process to produce stable water by lowering the pH of water and excess calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and lime (CaO) precipitate out. After this process, water will be available in such a composition of calcium carbonate that would be neither dissolve (cause corrosion) nor tend to precipitate out from water (causing scaling). This is usually done by pumping carbon dioxide (CO2) into the water. Excess lime reacts with carbon dioxide, making calcium carbonate:
CaCO3 + H2O
Lime process produces large amounts of sludge. In fact, for five pound of lime used, about ten pounds of sludge are formed. SLUG HANDLING: Landfill disposal is the most common process to dispose slug. Sludge may sometimes be sent to sanitary drains. Lime sludge has a high pH and has progressively been disposed of by applying it to farmed land to increase the pH of acidic soils. CHEMICALS USE IN LIME SOFTENING
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 27
Both types of lime are used to soften the water in the same way, but the apparatus required for the two types of lime is different. HYDRATED LIME Hydrated lime (Ca (OH) 2) is known as calcium hydroxide or slaked lime. Hydrated lime can be added to water without needing any special equipment, so it is a general choice for small water treatment plants. QUICK LIME: Quicklime (CaO) is also known as calcium oxide. It must be slaked before it is used. Slaking is the process of changing quicklime to hydrated lime by addition of water. CaO + H2O Advantage and disadvantage of lime process DISADVANTAGES: The temporary and permanent hardness of magnesium can be significantly removed but the permanent hardness of calcium cannot be removed. This process cannot be used where permanent hardness is required to be removed. Large quantity of slug is produced from this process. Ca (OH)2
TREND OF HARDNESS: Concentration of calcium hardness decrease with the increase in lime dosage but concentration increases if we use dosage more than 90 percent. Hardness of magnesium decreases with the increase in lime dosage especially, when calcium hardness was increase if we use dosage more than 90 percent. PH increase with the increase in lime due to the formation of hydroxyl ions (OH). SODA ASH PROCESS
Page 28
CaSO4 CaCl2
+ +
+ + +
Ca (NO3)2 +
REACTION OF MAGNESIUM: In order to reduce magnesium hardness, it acquires some amount of calcium hydroxide MgSO4 + Na2CO3 + Ca (OH) 2 MgCl2 + Na2CO3 + Ca (OH) 2 Mg (NO3)2 + Na2CO3 + Ca (OH) 2 CaCO3 + Mg (OH) 2 + Na2SO4 CaCO3 + Mg (OH) 2 + 2NaCl CaCO3 + Mg (OH) 2 + 2NaNO3
CAUSTIC SODA PROCESS Caustic soda (NaOH) is known as sodium hydroxide. It can also be used to remove the hardness of water. The treatment process using caustic soda uses the same steps as that of lime and ash softening. Firs of all, carbon dioxide reacts with the caustic soda to make water and sodium carbonate. CO2 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O
Then the remaining caustic soda can react with magnesium bicarbonate and calcium bicarbonate. Ca (HCO3) 2 + Mg (HCO3)2 + 2NaOH 2NaOH CaCO3 + Na2CO3 + 2H2O MgCO3 +Na2CO3 +2H2O
ADVANTAGES: It produces less amount of slug. Permanent hardness of calcium is also removed by using soda lime.
DISADVANTAGE: This process is very expensive. This process is uneconomical. Caustic soda is very dangerous to operator and cause severe action to skin. It may produce caustic embrillitement LIME SODA PROCESS It is very popular and important process for softening of water. PRINCIPLE: When lime and soda are added to the hard water, soluble calcium and magnesium are precipitate out as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium hydroxide (Mg (OH) 2). Then we add some chemicals to collect these precipitates. In the last, we apply filtration technology to remove these precipitate. FUNCTION OF LIME: Lime is used to remove permanent magnesium hardness, temporary hardness, dissolved iron and magnesium salt, dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and mineral acids in water. Removal of permanent magnesium hardness: MgSO4 + Ca (OH) 2 Mg (OH) 2 + CaSO4
MgCl2
Ca (OH) 2
Mg (OH) 2
CaCl2
Removal of temporary hardness: Mg (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH) 2 Ca (HCO3)2 + Ca (OH) 2 CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Page 30
2Fe (OH) 2 + 2H2O + O2 Removal of aluminum salts: Al2 (SO4)3 + 3Ca (OH) 2 Removal of dissolved carbon dioxide: CO2 +Ca (OH) 2 Removal of hydrogen bisulfite: H2S +Ca (OH) 2 Removal of sulfuric acid: H2SO4 + Ca (OH) 2 Removal of hydrochloric acid: 2HCl + Ca (OH) 2 Function of Soda:
CaCO3 +H2O
CaS + 2H2O
CaSO4 +2 H2O
CaCl2 + 2H2O
When lime is used to remove hardness, it can be seen that permanent calcium hardness like, calcium sulfate (CaSO4) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) is introduced in to water. Soda is very efficient to remove permanent calcium hardness of water. CaSO4 + 2NaOH Ca (OH) 2 + Na2SO4
PROBLEM IN PROCESS: At room temperature the precipitate like, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)are very small and do not settle down at the bottom of water of water container. So in this case, filtration becomes challenging. These small particles may take part in corrosion and clogging in case of boiler tubes and pump SOLUTION: These drawbacks may be removed by adding some chemicals as a coagulant like sodium aluminate and alum. Advantages and disadvantages of lime soda processes
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 31
Typical Softener water analysis table Based CaCO3 ppm Magnesium hardness Calcium hardness Total hardness PH SIO2 pAlkalinity on Raw water in Removal of Lime soda Lime soda Lime calcium softening softening softening alkalinity cold hot cold cold lime 60 85 145 10.3 19 27 44 46 35 81 10.6 18 37 55 5 15 20 10.5 1-2 23 40 5 115 120 10.4 1-2 18 28
MAlkalinity I50
Lime soda process is divided in two processes depending upon temperature. 1. Cold lime soda process 2. Hot lime soda process COLD LIME SODA PROCESS Cold soda lime process provides water containing a remaining hardness of 50 to 60 ppm. The desired amounts of soda and lime are added to water at room temperature. Small quantities of coagulants like alum and sodium aluminate are also provided to foam aggregates of small precipitate like calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide. Sodium aluminate helps to remove oil and silica, if present in water.
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 32
METHOD: The apparatus used in cold lime soda is shown in figure. The calculated amount of soda and lime is added to the water to be treated with a small amount of coagulant. This mixture is added from the top of the inner circular cylinder. The inner cylinder is fitted with the rotating shaft having number of paddles. When the chemicals and raw water flow down, there is continues mixing and vigorous stirring take place. Here chemical reactions occur and hardness of the water is removed by changing hard water in to soft water. The insoluble precipitates settle at the bottom and form heavy slug which is then taken out from the outlet at the bottom of the apparatus from time to time. The treated water goes to the outlet chamber and rise up. It passes through the filtering media to remove remaining slug. The filtered water finally comes out constantly through the outlet at top. The soft water contains remaining hardness of 50 to 60 ppm. HOT LIME SODA PROCESS It is a fast process to remove the hardness of water at higher temperature. The temperature is keep to be 90-1000C. This temperature is the boiling point of water therefore, reactions take place very fast. The precipitation and filtration technique also carried out easily and rapidly. APPARATUS: The apparatus used in hot lime soda process consists of three parts
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 33
METHOD:
Calculated amount of lime and soda is dropped from the top of the reaction tank in to the water to be treated, where it is mixed with stirrer. This mixture is heated with super-heated steam. Reactions take place and hardness of water is removed. Treated water along with slug goes in to a conical sedimentation vessel where slug settle down and impurities are removed to the bottom of the tank. The treated water rises up and passes through the sand filter to remove remaining impurities. The soft water comes out at the outlet. Treated water contains remaining hardness of about 15-30 ppm. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COLD AND HOT SODA LIME PROCESS Hot soda lime process. Filtration is very rapid and easy. It is done at high temperature. It is fast process. Its softening capacity is high. Cold soda lime process Filtration is difficult. It is carried out at room temperature. It is slow process. Its softening capacity is low.
Page 34
Advantages of hot soda lime process over cold lime soda process Viscosity of treated water is lower, so filtration becomes easy. Slug forms rapidly so it does not require any type of coagulant. Softer water has residual hardness about 15-30 ppm. Reactions occur very fast due to temperature in hot lime soda process.
BOILER FEED WATER FROM CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION: Three elements are very dangerous to lower the boilers life. Oxygen Carbon dioxide Solids
ACID CORROSION: Acid corrosion occurs in boiler due to the presence of carbon dioxide. As carbon dioxide react with water to form carbonic acid which is the reason of acid corrosion. In chemical precipitation, the carbon dioxide is removed successively. CO2 +H2O SCALE: Due to the presence of hardness, salts are present in water. H2CO3
Page 35
Page 36
Weak Acidic Cation Exchange Resin (WAC)---Organic They have functional group of Carboxylic Acid (COOH) The solutions that contain Alkalinity, divalent ions can be removed with the help of H+ ions.
Anions Exchange Resins:(AER) These resins have cations fixed on their polymeric structure, while anions are free to move and are able to replace with other anions. Strong Basic Anion Exchange Resin (SBA)---Inorganic They have functional group of Quaternary Ammonium (N(CH3)3+ OH) They can replace all anions from OH- in hydroxyl form In chloride form they can replace sulphates, nitrates and other anions from Cl-
Weak Basic Anion Exchange Resin (WBA)---Organic Functional group is amines (N(CH3)2) They cannot remove weak acids (CO2, SiO2) They can eliminate anions like sulphates, chlorides, nitrates, etc after cation exchange
Page 38
Zeolite Ion Exchange Resin: Aluminosilicate framework Porous structure Crystalline solid Inorganic in nature Sodium zeolite (Na-Zeolite) is most common example Working principal is same as that of cation exchange resin
Ion Exchange Processes: Ion exchange method includes various applications for water purification that are: Decationization---Removal of cations Dealkalization---Removal of Bicarbonates Softening---Removal of hardness Demineralization---Removal of all ions Nitrate removal Mixed bed---Polishing Selective removal---of various components
CATION REMOVAL: In this process all the cations are eliminated from water using strong acidic cation resin in its H+ ion form. This process is called Decationization CER-H + Na+ 2 CER-H + Ca++ CER-Na + H+ (CER)2-Ca + 2 H+
Where CER stand for Cation Exchange Resin By using strong acid the process can be used to regenerate resin CER-Na + H+ R-H + Na+
Page 39
Applications: This process is used in: Start of demineralization Mixed bed process is proceeded by this process
BICARBONATE REMOVAL: Alkalinity can be removed by using weak acidic cation exchange resin. CO2 produced in the process can be removed by degasifier tower. This process is called Dealkalization 2 CER-H + Ca++(HCO3)2 (CER)2-Ca + 2 H+ + 2 HCO3 H+ + HCO3 CO2 + H2O
Process can be reversed by adding acid to regenerate resin Applications: It is used in: Initial stages of demineralization Breweries Boilers running at decreased pressure Water filers on small scale usually at home The removal of temporary hardness Lessen the alkalinity
HARDNESS REMOVAL: Metal cations like Ca2+, Mg2+, Ba2+, Sr2+, etc are the cause of hardness in water. The latter two are insoluble and can cause scale to form. These ions can be eliminated from water by passing strong acid cation exchange resin in its Na+ form. This process is called Softening. 2 CER-Na + Ca++ (CER)2-Ca + 2 Na+
When these metals cation are concentrated in resin NaCl is added to increase the concentration of Na to regenerate resin R2-Ca + 2 Na+ 2 R-Na + Ca++
Page 40
DEMINERALIZATION: This process is also called Deionization because this method is used to remove all the ions. Many applications need water that is free from any type of ion. Concentration of ions in water is increased by heating, due to evaporation, which can be removed by this method. For this purpose two types of resins used in the same system. Cation exchange resin is used for removal of cation in hydrogen form (H+) and anion exchange resin used for the removal of anion in hydroxyl form (OH-). Firstly water is to pass through cation exchange resin where all types of cations are eliminated. CER-H + Na+ 2 CER-H + Ca++ CER-Na + H+ (CER)2-Ca + 2 H+
In the next step anion exchange resin is used to eliminate anions AER-OH + Cl 2 AER-OH + SO4= Where AER stand for anion exchange resin AER-Cl + OH (AER)2SO4 + 2 OH
The above reactions are reversible and can be regenerated with a strong acid
CER-Na + H+
R-H + Na+
Page 41
NITRATE REMOVAL: Nitrates can be eliminated from water using strong basic anion exchange resin in Cl form. Majorly it is used for nitrates but some other anions are also removed during the process. i.e. Sulphates, Bicarbonates, etc. resin can be regenerated by increasing Cl concentration using NaCl.
AER-NO3 + Cl
Process where low cost is available Water treatment for metropolitan system
MIXED BED POLISHING Mix bed polishing is usually used after deionization, i.e. when a very small amount of impurities left the product from the unit is extremely good with no impurities. In mixed bed unit strong acidic cation exchange resin and strong basic anion exchange resin are combined. But in this process regeneration is difficult because the resins need to apart first through backwash and then regenerate. Also the need of chemical is large thats why it is used after demineralization Applications: This process is used in: Condensate purification Semiconductor industries to produce ultra pure water
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 42
SELECTIVE REMOVAL This method is usually used to take away different heavy metals and other contaminants from drinking water using special chelating resins that produce stable complexes. This method depends upon the relative affinities of ions with the resin. The ions that have greater affinity will remove first than that which have less affinity. The sequences of selectivity or affinity are: For anions For cations Applications: This process is used to make drinking water: Boron (Boric Acid) Nitrates Per chlorates Heavy metals like: Fe, Ni, Cr, Pb, Cd, Zn, Hg, etc SO4= > NO3 > Cl > HCO3 > OH > F Pb++ > Ca++ > Mg++ > Na+ > H+
Page 43
PROCESS
IMPURITIES
ION EXCHANGE RESIN Strong Acid Cation Na+ Exchanger Weak Base Anion ClExchanger Weak Acid Cation H+ Exchanger Strong Acid Cation H+ Exchanger Strong Base Anion OH- Exchanger
PRODUCT MINERALS Na2SO4 & NaHCO3 NaCl & NaCl H2CO3 H2CO3 & H2SO4 H2O & H2O
Ca(HCO3)2 & CaSO4 Na2SO4 & NaHCO3 Ca(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 & CaSO4 H2CO3 & H2SO4
Table For Basic processes Product D & E collectively called Demineralization Product B is also a Demineralized product Same method follow for nitrates and other anion as followed in process B & E
Page 44
ION EXCHANGE METHOD AND COOLING TOWERS WATER: Ion exchange method is used at little extent because it yields very soft water as required in cooling tower. Specifically ion exchange method is used for the removal of some special anions from cooling towers water using anion exchange resins. Firstly cation exchange resin allows water to pass through it. This will cause the unwanted cation to separate. Then water that is free from hazardous cation has to pass through the anion exchange resin. Targeted anions make ionic bond with resin by replacing less hazardous anion. This method is specifically used for the elimination of: ASO4-3 CrO4-2 SeO4-2 SeO3-2 ClO4-1
Some components removed automatically due to their selectivity like: PO4-3 NO3-1 F-1
Chelating ion exchange resin removes heavy metals by making covelant bond for stable complexes with them. They are highly selective for heavy metals mostly divalent like: Cu Ni Cd Cr3+ Hg
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 45
ION EXCHANGE METHOD AND BOILER FEED WATER: Ion exchange water treatment method finds its way in the treatment of boiler feed water, where water with least impurities is required. Boiler feed water cannot be efficient if it contain large or moderate amount of impurities, a very small amount is tolerable as present in ion exchange treated water. The reason of small amount of impurities is that water have to converted into steam in the boiler. This process is accompanied by evaporation. As water evaporates, the residual water becomes more concentrated with impurities. If the impurities are in huge concentration, they can cause scaling in the boiler and eventually leads to the malfunctioning of equipment. Water from ion exchanger is best for boiler. Usually cation exchange resin is used which remove hardness causing cations i.e. Ca2+ and Mg2+. Anion exchange resin can also be used to remove alkalinity i.e. HCO3-1 A problem may occur if water contain large amount of sulphates (SO42-). They along with Ca2+ ions form CaSO4 which is insoluble in water at high temperature, as boiler always operates at high temperature so concentration of this salt increases and cause scaling in the equipment. The best method for avoiding this problemis the removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions so that soluble salts of sodium formed instead of insoluble salts of calcium and magnesium. Some specifications for boilers are: For high pressure boiler dematerialized water is used because impurity contents in demineralized water are least i.e. free from all types of ions, particles, gases and other contaminants. As high pressure tent to high temperature that leads to greater evaporation so if any impurity present it may cause damage very quickly Decataslized and dealkalized water is used in low pressure boiler, where temperature is low thus evaporation rate is also low and concentrating process is slow so a considerable amount of ions is acceptable, as these two processes not remove all ions but cation or anion
ADVANTAGES OF ION EXCHANGE METHOD: Ion exchange method is environmentally a safe process Small assembly is required Take away toxic contaminant from drinking water Less power requirement Remaining impurities are less than 0.5 ppm or sometimes not measureable It can be used with varying flow rates. Economical process Post treatments are not required Very useful in nuclear and thermal power station Resin can be easily regenerated Processed water has high flow rate Better quality is achieved Production of semiconductor, display systems and computer chip is very useful application Initial investment of is low
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE Page 46
DISADVANTAGES OF ION EXCHANGE METHOD: The waste from the exchanger is highly concentrated and needs to be handled carefully Deionization consumes high cost especially for a raw water containing high concentration of solids Pretreatments are needed otherwise suspended impurities will cause problems: fouling of resin with colloidal matter can cause degradation, it also create problems in degeneration Processing or operating cost is very high CaSO4 fouling Microorganism adulteration This process cannot takeaway particle, bacteria and pyrogens Cationic resin in its Na form not eliminate silicates, salinity and undissolve solids If the concentration of TDS is very high then this process is not suitable\ Organic matter adsorption Usually some initial treatments are required for surface water Organic and Cl adulteration There is a possibility of corrosion in cationic resin in its H form due to acidic pH
Page 47