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A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the SCHOOL OF MUSIC In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
1 9 8 1
As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by entitled RONALD JERONE SHERROD
and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS .
1Tj&A,
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Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate's submission of the final copy of the dissertation to the Graduate College.
I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement.
Di .jpertation Director
Date
n/n/fit '
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be grated by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
SIGNED
ACKNOWLEDGMENT My sincere appreciation is extended to Dr. John Fitch of the University of Arizona School of Music for his time, availability, and valuable assistance with this dissertation.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ABSTRACT 1. INTRODUCTION The Need for the Study Fingering Defined Purpose Review of the Literature Articles Method Books Books Dissertations Questions Arising from the Lack of Literature Musical Excerpts 2. NOTATION AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Letter Notation of Pitch Left Hand Notation Basic Left Hand Position Name of Positions Stretch and Squeeze Positions The Bar Hinge-Bar Right Hand Notation Basic Right Hand Position Rest Stroke and Free Stroke Summary 3. LEFT HAND FINGERING: SINGLE STRING MELODIES ON A 64 64 64 65 71 73 76 76 81 vii xvi 1 1 4 6 11 13 16 17 20 21 25 28 28 28 30 32 36 39 41 50 52 54 62
General Considerations Timbre Guitaristic Effects Technical Factors Physical Factors Specific Fingering Principles Basic Position Minimum Movement
iv
vi TABLE OF CONTENTSContinued
Page
7.
APPLICATIONS, EXCEPTIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Application Exceptions Suggestions for Future Research A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1. 2. 3. Letter Notation of Pitch Left Hand Finger and String Designations .... Application of Finger and String designations to Music Notation Page 29 29 30 31 31 33 34
4., Le Roy, Branle de Bourgoine (Measures 1-4) ... 5. 6. 7. 8. Basic Positions for the Left Hand Coste, Study in A Major (Measures 9-12) .... Paganini, Caprice, Op. 1, No. 21 (Measures 1-4) Scarlatti, Sonata, L. 463 (Measures 1-5), With Indications for Playing in Second Position Bach, Prelude for Lute, BWV 999 (Measures 3-6) Tarrega, Study in E Major (Measures 9-12) ... Beethoven, Variations on a Theme of Paisiello (Measures 21-24) A Chord Requiring the Use of Barring Technique
35 36 37 38 39
Samples and Explanations of Bar Notation .... 40 Samples of Bar Notation Used in This Dissertation Corbetta, "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor (Measures 1-4) Corbetta, "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor (Measures 1-4) Using Bar Notation 41 42 43
vii
ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued
Figure 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. Coste, Etude in E Minor (Measures 1-4) .... Tarrega, Study in A Major (Measures 1-3) ... Carcassi, Study in A Major, Op. 60, No. 3 (Measures 1 and 2) "El Noy de la Mare" (Measures 1-4) Played on the First String "El Noy de la Mare" (Measures 1-4) Played on Strings One, Two, and Three Ascending Ligado Descending Ligado Llobet, Scherzo-Vals (Measures 19 and 20) . . . Arrastres (Ascending and Descending) Portamenti (Ascending and Descending) Tarrega, Pavana (Measures 1-4) Robinson, Parajo Cantor (Measures 1-5) .... Sor, Study in E Minor, Op. 60, No. 22 (Measures 1 and 2) Sor, Variations on a Theme of Mozart Op. 9 (Measures 1-4) Dowland, Fantasia (Measures 1-4) Albeniz, Sevilla (Measures 77-80) Sagreras, El Colibri (Measures 9-13) Logy, Capriccio (Measures 3-8) "O Ewigkeit, Du Donnewort" (Measures 1-3) Using Stretch Position Page 59 60 61 65 65 66 67 68 68 69 70 71 72 72 77 78 79 80 81
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued
Figure 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. "O Ewigkeit, Du Donnewort" Measures 1-3) Maintaining Basic Position Guerau, El Invierno (Measures 1-4) Moving to Eleventh Position Guerau, El Invierno (Measures 1-4) Moving to Ninth Position Robinson, Prelude (Measures 1-4) Carulli, Nocturne, Op. 90 (Measures 12-14) Without Guide Fingers Carulli, Nocturne, Op. 90 (Measures 12-14) Utilizing a Guide Finger Cutting, Fantasia (Measures 1-5) Cutting, Fantasia (Measures 1-5) With First Phrase Ending in Measure 2 Cutting, Fantasia (Measures 1-5) With First Phrase Ending in Measure 3 Fingerings Corresponding to the Natural Accents of the Music "Viento de Primavera" (Measures 5-8) Muscles Controlling the Fingers of the Hand . . Extensor Tendons Controlling the Fingers ... Phillips, Bon Jour Mo Cueur di Orlando (Measures 11 and 12) Using Weak Fingers .... Phillips, Bon Jour Mo Cuer di Orlando (Measures 11 and 12) Using Strong Fingers ... Paganini, Sonata No. 12, Op. 3, No. 6 (Measures 1 and 2) Paganini, Sonata No. 12, Op. 3, No. 6 (Measures 1 and 2) Showing an Overlapping of Sounds Page 81 82 83 84 85 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 93 94 94 98
98
xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued
Fingers 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. Tarrega, Danza Mora (Measures 22-24) Utilizing Open Strings Tarrega, Danza Mora (Measures 22-24) Showing Dampening of Open Strings Tarrega, Danza Mora (Measures 22-24) Fingered to Eliminate Open Strings Purcell, "Minuet" from Suite No. 1 in G (Measures 1-4) Utilizing Open Strings Purcell, "Minuet" from Suite No. 1 in G (Measures 1-4) Fingered to Eliminate Open Strings Carcassi, Study No. 18 from Melodic and Progressive Studies, Op. 60 (Measures 1-4) With Left Hand Movement Carcassi, Study No. 18 from Melodic and Progressive Studies. Op. 60 (Measures 1-4) Without Left Hand Movement G Major Scale as Played by Andres Segovia . . . "Nieve Blanca de la Sierra" (Measures 1-4) Employing a Simultaneous Change of String and Position "Nieve Blanca de la Sierra" (Measures 1-4) Utilizing a Single String for the Change of Position Bach, "Fugue" from Sonata No. 1 in G Minor for Unaccompanied Violin (Measures 93 and 94) . Schentz, Etude Fur Violin (Measures 1-8) Moving Away from the Final Goal of Twelfth Position Schentz, Etude Fur Violin (Measures 1-8) Utilizing Direct Movement to the Final Goal of Twelfth Position Page 99 100 100 101
102
75.
103
76.
103 106
77. 78.
107
79.
108 109
80. 81.
110
82.
Ill
113
84.
114
85.
123
94.
123 124
95.
148
116.
149
117.
150
118.
XV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSContinued
Figure 127. 128. 129. 130. Zipoli, Fugue in A Minor (Measure 1) Containing Awkward String Crossings Zipoli, Fugue in A Minor (Measure 1) Containing Secure String Crossings ....... Mudarra, Fantasia (Measures 17-20) Telemann, Concerto in A Ma.ior for Four Violins (Measures 20 and 21) Containing Awkward String Crossings Telemann, Concerto in A Ma.ior for Four Violins (Measures 20 and 21) Containing Secure String Crossings Call, Minuet (Measures 30-34) Containing Awkward String Crossings in Measures 2 and 4 . . Call, Minuet (Measures 30-34) Containing Awkward String Crossing and Wide Reach in Measures 1, 3, and 5 Call, Minuet (Measures 30-34) Containing Secure Reaches and String Crossings Sor, Study in B Minor, Op. 35, No. 22 (Measures 19-22) Giuliani, Study in C Major (Measures 1-4) . . . Page 161 161 162
163
131.
163 164
132. 133.
ABSTRACT
An important area of guitar education, whether in a private studio or a public school classroom, is that of guitar "fingering"the exact, well-planned, and deliberate Knowledge,
understanding, and application of basic fingering principles will aid students in such parameters as technical proficiency, expression, phrasing, memorization, and performance security. This dissertation supplies the teacher
with a theoretical basis from which to present this important topic. The basis is built on two sets of principles:
(1) the physical properties of the guitar and its tone production (guitar size, distance between the frets, sustaining quality of the strings, and varying timbre of the strings), and (2) the physiological structure of the human hand and arm (length of the fingers, alignment of hands with the strings, strong and weak finger combinations, changing positions, fatigue, and string crossing). This study is divided into seven chapters. first serves as an overview of the currer.' The
status of
guitar education and provides an introduction to the topic of fingering. Chapter 2 describes the notation used
xvi
the names of positions, stretch and squeeze positions, the bar and hinge-bar, and rest and free strokes. Chapters
3, 4, 5, and 6 present information that constitutes the main conclusions of this study. They deal with the left
hand fingering of melodies played on a single string, left hand fingering of melodies played on two or more strings, left hand fingering of homophonic and contrapuntal music, and right hand fingering. Included in. these areas of
discussions are basic left and right hand positions, minimum movement, pivot and guide fingers, position playing, changing positions, strong and weak finger combinations, and fingerings which compliment musical phrasing and expression. Chapter 7 summarizes the major concepts presented in the dissertation, gives guidelines to teaching the topic of guitar fingering, and supplies suggestions for future research in this subject area.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The Need for the Study In the elementary and secondary schools of the United States guitar classes are rapidly becoming a regular part of music programs. The reasons for this are two-fold.
First, the guitar is extremely popular among young people; they readily identify with this instrument and are eager to gain the ability to perform on it."'" Thus, the guitar
offers a reliable means of getting the students' attention focused on music. Guitar study involves musical skills
that may be pursued and developed, and it provides a bridge to all aspects of musicstyle, theory, and history Second, as a result of the concert performances of great artists such as Andres Segovia, Julian Bream, and John Williams, the guitar in the United States is considered worthy of serious study. Guitar instruction has been
offered in colleges and universities since 1963, and guitar is now accepted on a par with other solo and orchestral
1. Vahdah Bickford, "Guitar Forum," American String Teacher (Winter, 1973), pp. 26 and 35.
2
instruments.
in lower grades and has allowed guitar classes to be formed either as part of regular elementary, junior high, and senior high school curriculums or as a supplementary part of general music and fine arts classes Nevertheless, a perplexing discrepancy exists today between the high interest in and enthusiasm for the instrument and the low quality of guitarists who complete public school guitar programs. A primary reason for this discrepA survey conducted
by the Guitar and Accessory Manufacturers Association of America in cooperation with The American String Teachers Association shows that in 1978 only 12% of all school guitar classes were taught by individuals whose primary or secondary instrument was the guitar. The remaining 88% were taught
by band directors, choir directors, and general music 3 teachers whose performance medium was not guitar. Often
such teachers, although well-qualified musically, are acquainted with neither the mechanics and techniques of the guitar and guitar playing nor guitar literature. Again, the above-mentioned research shows that 66% of 2 Thomas Hartman, "The Guitar: Then and Now," Perspectives in Music Education (Washington, D.C.: Music Educators National Conference, 1966), p. 454. 3. Fact Sheet: Results of the 1978 GAMA/ASTA School Guitar Survey, Guitar and Accessory Manufactor Association of America, Chicago, Illinois.
3
American guitar teachers in the schools are self-taught.4 In reviewing this figure, Peter Miller of James Madison University states, "It follows logically then that the 5 basic folk-style is the most common style taught." This
statement is supported by research which shows that classical style and technique are taught in only 48% of the schools offering guitar.
g
Callahan of the College Conservatory of the University of Cincinnati states: When a public school student signs up for study on the violin, trumpet, piano or any other instrument, he is taught basic technique, not 'pop' violin, 'western' trumpet, or 'folk' piano. When he signs up for study on the guitar, what is taught? Basic guitar technique is rooted in classical guitar technique. For some reason, this realization can elicit a fear from teachers and students that they will have to play the classics exclusively. Classic technique is equated instantly with classical repertoire and dismissed as too difficult or irrelevant. This attitude is not found in the beginning study of any other instrument, but on the guitar it is allowed to prevail.^ 4. Fact Sheet: Results of the 1978 GAMA/ASTA School Guitar Survey, op cit. 5 Peter Miller, "Promoting Quality Public School Guitar Programs," (an unpublished paper presented to American String Teachers Guitar Symposium) Lubbock, Texas (October 1979), p. 2. 6. Fact Sheet: Results of the 1978 GAMA/ASTA School Guitar Survey, op. cit. 7. Clare Callahan, "The School Guitar Class: A Need for Redirection," The Instrumentalist (June, 1978), p. 60.
4
Likewise, Peter Miller states, "We need to inform the public and educators alike that the classical technique is the foundation block on which all other forms evolve."
O
From the foregoing statements, it is clear that there exists a need to improve the quality and change the direction of guitar instruction in public school education. This may be accomplished in part by production of adequate classroom material and improvements in teacher training. Efforts are being made in these areas. Worthwhile guitar
methods suitable for classroom use are beginning to appear; more and more guitar ensemble music is available to the teacher; and graded lists of classical solo literature are being published. Workshops, methods classes, seminars, and
master classes are being conducted at national, regional, and local levels. However, there exists a need to break
the elements of guitar playing into small, individual units in order that the teacher be able to present them accurately and confidently to the students. guitar fingering is one of these units. Fingering Defined "Fingering" in this study is defined as the exact, well-planned, and deliberate designation of fingers to a given musical passage. 8. The teaching of this methodical and The topic of
5
meticulous choice of fingers is of utmost importance in order that students become completely familiar with the instrument, feel secure in a performance situation, and present an authentic and artistic performance of the music. This is verified by comments such as: C. P. E Bach More is lost through poor fingering than can be replaced by all conceivable artistry and good taste. Facility itself hinges on it, for experience will prove that an average performer with well-trained fingers will best the greatest musician who because of poor fingering is forced to play against his better judgment,9 Carl Czerny You will already have remarked how necessary correct fingering is in playing. A single illchosen finger may often cause the complete failure of a whole passage, or at least, make it sound coarse, unequal and disagreeable.10 Carl Flesch The term 'fingering' may be defined as the choice of the finger used to produce a certain tone . . fingering represents a bridge, linking the personal taste of the performer with the intentions of the composer.H 9. C. P. E. Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, trans, and ed. by William Mitchell (New York: Norton & Co., 1948), p. 41. 10. Carl Czerny, Letters to a Young Lady on the Art of Playing the Pianoforte, trans, by J. A. Hamilton (London: R. Cocks & Co., 1842), p. 24. 11. Carl Flesch, Violin Fingering, ed. by Boris Schwartz (New York: Da Capo Press, 1979), p. 5.
Richard Greene
The way a passage of music is fingered and positioned can greatly change the way it is perceived by the listener. . . . Finding good fingerings is as important as finding the right notes. William Newman The choice of, and adherence to, a fingering on a keyboard instrument can make or break a piece. It can profoundly affect memorizing, stage poise, technical mastery, speed of learning and general security at the piano.13 David Oistrakh Fingering is one of the most important branches of the violinist's art. The choice of the correct fingering can simplify technical difficulties and open up new artistic possibilities. . . .14 Franklin Taylor Among the essentials which contribute to the formation of a good technique, none can be of greater importance than a practical and systematic method of fingering. Purpose This dissertation presents a study of many considerations regarding guitar fingering in order to help guitar
12. Richard Greene, "Guitar Forum," American String Teacher (Spring, 1979), p. 40. York: 13. William Newman, The Pianist's Problems (New Harper & Row, 1950), pp. 75-76.
14. David Oistrakh, quoted in I. M. Yampolsky, The Principles of Violin Fingering (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), Preface. 15. Franklin Taylor, Technique and Expression in Pianoforte Playing (London: Novello & Co., 1897), p. 27.
instructors at every level in their endeavors to teach students to play with security, a minimum of effort, and in a legato style. Security and minimum effort are discussed
throughout this document; some comments on legato playing are presented in the following paragraph. The legato touch qualitythe smooth, flowing connection of notes and phrasesis the one most often desired in musical composition and performance. (Staccato and non-
legato touches usually constitute the elements of contrast to the singing-like connection of notes.) With guitar, as
with other instruments, "The basic task of teaching tech16 nique to a beginner is teaching legato playing." As Pepe
Romero states, "... the ideal of modern guitar playing is 17 to . . . carry a beautiful legato line,," Execution of
the legato style is of equal value in the homophony of a melody supported by accompaniment and the polyphony of simultaneous melodies where the full independence of voices can be realized only when each note is held for its entire duration. But this style of musical expression is difficult
to teach on plucked instruments such as the guitar because the sound begins to decay almost as soon as it is 16. Jozsef Gat, The Technique of Piano Playing (London: Collet's Holding Ltd., 1965), p. 269. 17. Pepe Romero, quoted in Allan Kozinn, "Pepe Romero," Guitar Player (January, 1981), p. 33.
8
produced.
18
fingering principles can enhance the teaching of legato playing. Due to the similarities of all guitars and the structure of all human hands, a theoretical basis for guitar fingering can be established to accomplish the stated objective of this paper. This basis is founded upon the physical
properties of the instrument and its tone production (guitar size, distance between frets, sustaining quality of the strings, and varying timbre of the strings) and the physiological structure of the human hand (length of fingers, alignment of hands with the strings, strong and weak finger combinations, changing positions, fatigue, and string crossing). Fingering principles will be drawn from this
theoretical foundation. Such a statement of purpose presupposes that other elements of guitar playing and musical expression will be taught simultaneously with the topic of fingering Students
should be required to 1) practice music reading skills in order that they be familiar with the notes throughout the entire fingerboard and able to read homophonic and contrapuntal music, 2) refine technical skills in order to execute
18. George Sakellariou, in Ronald Sherrod, Guitar Master Class (Melville, New York: Belwin Mills Publishing Corp., 1980), p. 8.
9
the correct notes at the correct time, and 3) develop interpretive skills in order to express themselves musically. The area of interpretive skills includes a study of history, style, and performance practice. As Julien Musafia
points out, "The correct understanding of the musical objective in a given passage will determine the correctness of 19 the fingering to be used." Thus, knowledge of fingering
principles (and knowledge of the results if the principles are not adhered to) will allow the conscientious guitar instructor to teach his/her students to select between alternatives and arrive at the best solution for any given passage according to the interpretive understanding of that passage. Failure to bring students to this realization may Several points of attention
in this area are summarized as follows : 1. Many musicians blindly follow the fingering provided
in printed editions of compositions not realizing that this reproduces the interpretations of the editor and demands the editor's technique.^ 2. mentum: Fingerings are often added to the music sine instruthe fingerings look good on paper but have never
been tried on the instrument, or those that have been tried 19. Julien Musafia, The Art of Fingering at the Piano (New York: MCA Music, 1971), p. 3. 20. Willian Newman, op. cit., p. 77.
10
may not have been done "up to tempo."
21
Likewise, a given
passage when repeated may be executed more efficiently if fingered differently the second time.
22
sage may be written in such a manner that the fingers are coming from a particular placement, but on a subsequent appearance the same passage is approached from a different placement. Thus, a different fingering may be required.
Also, a passage may be more effective musically if a change in timbre occurs the second time the passage is heard* different position on the guitar, requiring a different 23 fingering, may accomplish this change. These alternate A
fingerings are seldom notated in printed music. 3. The choice of fingerings depends on the performance For a player who performs in a large hall, the
situation.
room itself acts as part of the instrument in aiding legato 24 and covering slides, A musician (especially a guitarist)
performing in a smaller room has the advantage of a greater use of dynamics and timbre. It should be noted from this
reinforcing the statement in No. 1 abovethat while most students buy and study the music editions of players such 21. 22. 23. Ibid. Carl Flesch, op. cit, p. 285. Ibid.
24. Warren Benfield, The Art of Double Bass Playing (Evanston, Illinois: Summy-Birchard Co., 1973), p. 36.
11
as Andres Segovia, Julian Bream, and John Williams, these students do not perform in the same environment as these masters. It is extremely important for students and their
teachers to realize this difference and adapt fingerings appropriate to the individual situations. As the principles presented in this writing are applied to all types of guitar compositions, it will be discovered that the same fingering principles used to produce a legato style can be used in most situations to execute all other styles of articulation. In playing the
guitar, the hands are held in close proximity to the strings and can stop a string's vibration either by touching it or releasing its tension. Thus, a note which can be held for
a long duration can be easily shortened, but the converse is not true. A fingering that can produce only a staccato
touch, for example, cannot produce a legato touch. Review of the Literature An examination of writings regarding guitar fingering shows that a thorough and systematic study of the topic has not been conducted. Guitarists before the twentieth
and late nineteenth centuries have made comments regarding fingering. Many of the statements, such as those found in
25 Fernando Sor's Method for the Spanish Guitar, are 25. Fernando Sor, Method for the Spanish Guitar trans, by A. Merrick (New York: Da Capo Press, 1971), p. 48.
valuable; but discussions of fingering applied to the contemporary classical guitar must express caution when analyzing the works of guitarists before the establishment of the Antonio Torres guitar as a model. With the adoption
of this instrument as a standard for size arid dimensions, guitar technique and, consequently, fingering principles changed. 1. The changes in technique included the following:
A change in sitting position due to the instrument's "From his (Francisco Tarrega) time the
support of the instrument on the left leg became standard. This playing position is in part a consequence of the larger instrument initiated by Torres." 2.
26
hand thumb due to the wider fingerboard: One aspect of technique advocated in a number of tutors is the use of the left hand thumb to stop down notes on the bottom string. This was made possible by the narrower fingerboard of the early nineteenth-century guitar; it would be an extremely awkward movement on the larger fingerboard of the modern instrument and is no longer employed. 3. The elimination of the practice of planting the lit-
tle finger of the right hand on the face of the guitar due to the raised fingerboard and the higher bridge and saddle: Tarrega . . . established the use of the apoyando stroke. To incorporate this into right hand technique necessitates the abandonment of the practice
26. Harvey Turnbull, The Guitar from the Renaissance to the Present (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974), p. 106.
13
of supporting the hand by resting the little finger on the table; in order to play either apoyando or tirando with any of the fingers as the texture of the music demands, the right hand must be poised over the strings with complete freedom. A further Torres' innovation may have contributed to this. The fingerboards of the small nineteenth-century guitars were either flush with the table . . . or at most c. 2 mm deep; the fingerboards of modern instruments are much deeper6-7 mm. With the modern bridge and saddle the height of the strings above the table is raised, which makes the supported position more awkward, particularly when complex music is performed.2 An overview of twentieth century writings which pertain to the teaching of guitar fingering will be found in the following paragraphs. Articles References to guitar fingering may be found in such statements as, "Points to be stressed here are: Alternation of
i
. ..
29 right hand, no matter what the left hand is doing," "The bass F sharp is muted and shortened to an eighth note to finish the phrase and to permit an expressive left-hand 30 fingering of the next entry," and 28. Ibid., p. 106.
29. Robert Mayeur, "Classroom Guitar Forum," Soundboard (May, 1981), p. 98. It?" 30. Charles Duncan, "The Segovia Sound: Guitar Review (Fall, 1977), p. 30. What Is
14
The difference between this scale . . . and those in the older tuition manuals, is an important one. The scales taught in the older manuals included certain notes played on 'open strings,' where the bone 'nut' acted instead of a finger. These scales are 'fixed scales': they cannot be played anywhere except in the 1st position because of the use of the open strings. They must be learned, of course, but they are useful only in 1st position. The scale patterns I will set down for you do not use any open strings. Each note must be fingered, it is therefore possible to move the pattern to a different part of the fingerboard without destroying its shape or altering the pattern,31 Richard Greene, in "Guitar Forum" of American String Teacher, offers several comments on guitar fingering such as: . . in chording, sliding fingers can be of great help as 'guide' fingersanchoring the hand and helping to set the position . . . avoid using the same finger twice consecutively on different strings. . . . Try to follow the natural alignment of the fingers to strings when changing strings [referring to the right h a n d ] . . . . Do not use three fingers when two will do as well [right hand].... at faster speeds or in more complicated textures, repeating a finger will often distort the tempo and cause tension (right hand.) It is noted, however, that Mr. Greene does not elaborate on how these principles were arrived at or why they are beneficial. Some comments by Mr. Greene which deal more with
technique and interpretation than with specific fingering principles are valuable to an overall view of the topic and guitar playing in general: 31. Terry Usher, "Scale Playing," Guitar Review (Fall, 1955), p. 21. 32. Richard Greene, "Guitar Forum," American String Teacher (Spring, 1979), p. 40.
15
Use all of your fingers. Do not shy away from using the fourth finger. . . . Try to keep fingers in the vicinity of their next uses ... be careful with slides. In single lines, using the same finger on two frets of the same string can be messy, noisy, and uncontrolled. Slide only if there is no other solution, or if the slide is interpretive. . . . Finger 'backwards'. When planning a fingering, start at the point where you want to end up, then work backwards from there to see how to get there . . . Use right hand patterns that are easily remembered. 3 3 Emilio Pujol, in the Guitar Review of 1954, provides enlightening information regarding the rest (supported) stroke as employed by Francisco Tarrega. 34 Also included
are examples of right hand fingerings as employed by Tarrega.3^ Also included are examples of right hand finger"Tarrega . . .
never failed to specify the correct fingering for either hand. Whether in dealing with the right hand or the left,
he always strove to establish a logical order of fingering in accordance with the physiological possibilities of the hand and the organic nature of the instrument." 35
33.
Ibid.
34. Emilio Pujol. "The 'Supported' Stroke," Guitar Review, 1954, pp. 3-4. 35. Ibid.
16
Method Books Method books commonly used in guitar education
36
which present the classical style based on the techniques 37 developed by Francisco T^rrega include the following: Noad, Frederick. Solo Guitar Playing. York: Schirmer Books, 1976. New
Parkening, Christopher. The Christopher Parkening Guitar Method. Chicago: Sherry Brener, 1973. Pick, Richard. First Lessons for Classic Guitar. Chicago: Forster Music Publisher, Inc., 1971. Pujol, Emilio. Escuela Razonada de la Guitarra, vol. 1-4. Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1952, 1954, 1956. Sagreras, Julio. Las Primeras Lecciones de Guitarra. Translated by Bernard A. Moore. Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1975. Shearer, Aaron. Classic Guitar Technique, vol. 1 & 2. Melville, New York: Franco Colombo Publications, 1963 & 1964. Each book discusses elements which apply directly or indirectly to guitar fingering. Included in this area are basic
left and right hand positions, position playing, rest stroke and free stroke, alternation of right hand fingers, guide and pivot fingers, ligados, arrastres, portamenti, and the bar. The authors of these books indicate fingerings in the
36. "Curriculum in the Elementary, Junior High and Secondary Schools." Panel Discussion, Jerry Snyder, moderator. National Guitar Convention, San Jose, California, 1973. 37. See "Musical Excerpts," p. 21.
17
music examples that" are congruous with the principles discussed in this paper. They do not discuss fingering as an
isolated topic, however, and give very little rationale for the fingerings they have marked onto the music. Books Two books, while not discussing fingering, give information which pertains to all areas of guitar playing: Duarte, John. The Bases of Classic Guitar Technique. Borough Green, Great Britain: Novello & Co., Ltd., 1975., Duncan, Charles. The Art of Classical Guitar Playing. Princeton, New Jersey: SurnmyBirchard Music, 1980. Numerous references to these books are made throughout this dissertation. The guitar teacher may gain substantial insights into the values and principles of guitar fingering by reading works written on the topic of violin fingering. Both
the guitar and the violin are stringed instruments and both are played with the same four fingers of the left hand. Thus, both instruments will have in common certain physical characteristics of a vibrating string, and the playing of both is related by the physiological structures of the fingers. Additionally, the two instruments employ music A guitarist can easily read the
musical examples presented and grasp the points illustrated. Two useful books which deal with violin fingering are:
18
Flesch, Carl. Violin Fingering. Translated by Boris Schvvarz. London: Barrie & Rockliff, 1966. Yampolsky, I. M. The Principles of Violin Fingering. Translated by Alan Lumsden. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. The material of special interest to the guitarist might include discussions of anatomical peculiarities of the performer in the build of the shoulder, hand and fingers, the individual timbres of each string, the natural fall of the fingers to the fingerboard, vertical and horizontal movement of the hand in relation to the fingerboard; position playing; and fingering as applied to interpretation. The
following comments by Carl Flesch are typical of violin writings relevant to guitar playing. The fourth finger is recommended . . . because by its use the change of strings is made to coincide with a relatively strong accent. ... A leap is less precarious if, as a result of a preceding short note, a natural pause arises. . . [The] fingering [in the excerpt] introduces a musically justified portamento. . . . The use of the A-string forms a welcome interruption, appropriately emphasizing the subsequent crescendo on the D-string. When a repeated musical phrase calls for increasing intensity there is even greater justification for a change of timbre.38 The thoughts on fingering piano music are of value to the guitar teacher because on both the piano and guitar the sound begins to decay soon after it is produced. The
players can neither increase the volume nor control the rate 38. Carl Flesch, op. cit., pp. 10, 140, 204, and
285.
19
of decrease in volume of a sustained pitch. Also, similari-
ties between the physiological movements of the fingers on both the piano and guitar and the psychological aspects of fingering both instruments may be found. One work which discusses musical, physiological, and psychological factors pertaining to fingering at the piano is The Art of Fingering at the Piano by Julien Musafia. The book is based on the following statements which are given 39 as "explicative of the function of fingering." It may be
noted that these also relate to the function of guitar fingering. 1. The function of a good fingering is to secure the maximum musical expression with a minimum of effort. Expression results from skillful manipulation of note durations and intensities of the given pitches. Note durations are the components of rhythm and tempo, legato and staccato Intensitiessoft and loud playing, accents, crescendo and descrescendoare the main components of phrasing Effort in piano playing is both physical and mental. Minimum physical effort is that which results from the least amount of motion and the least amount of muscular strain.
2.
30 4.
5. 6.
39. Julien Musafia, The Art of Fingering at the Piano (New York: MCA Music, 1971), p. 1.
20
7. Minimum mental effort, on the contrary, results from a maximum of mental activity directed towards the organization of all the elements 4Q involved in performance into simple patterns.
Many references to Professor Musafia's work are made throughout this dissertation. Dissertations In recent years a number of dissertations have been written on topics related to the guitar. It is noted that
these documents do not address the topic of guitar fingering specifically, but they do give a vast amount of information that may be of interest to the guitar teacher. of musicology, the following are available: 1. Sasser, William G. "The Guitar Works of Fernando Sor." The University of North Carolina, 1980. UM order no. 60-6995. Hudson, Richard G. "The Development of Italian Keyboard Variations on the 'Passacaglio' and 'Ciaccona" from Guitar Music in the 17th Century." University of California-Los Angeles [UCLA], 1967. UM order 71-16249. Heck, Thomas F. "The Birth of the Classic Guitar and Its Cultivation in Vienna, Reflected in the Career and Compositions of Mauro Giuliani (d. 1829)." Yale University, 1970. UM order no. 71-16249. Pinnell, Richard, "The Role of Francesco Corbetta (1615-1681) in the History of Music for the Baroque Guitar. Including a Transcrintion of His Complete Works." UCLA, 1976. UM order no. 77-1675. Cox, Paul W. "The Evolution of Playing Techniques of the Six-stringed Classic Guitar as Seen Through Teaching Method Books from ca. 1780-ca. 1850." Indiana University, 1978. UM order no. 7909683. 40. Ibid. In the field
2.
4,
5.
21
6. Pennington, Neil. "The Development of Baroque Guitar Music in Spain, Including a Commentary on and Transcription of Santiago de Murcia's 'Passacalles y Obras' (1732)." University of Maryland, 1979. UM order no. 80-02075. Of possible special interest to the educator is: "The Development and Testing of a Guitar Method to Enable Educators to Play and Teach the Guitar in the Schools" by Roy E. Petschauer (University of Oregon, 1972, UM order no. 73-7943). As the abstract of this work states:
The purpose of this study was to plan, develop and test a guitar method which would enable classroom teachers and music specialists to incorporate the guitar into the school music curricula with confidence and authority. Specifically, a method was designed which presented the basic elements of guitar technique to help the educator acquire the skills and understandings needed to accompany class activities and to instruct others in playing both folkstyle and classic-style guitar. Questions Arising from the Lack of Literature Considering the lack of specific information on the topic of guitar fingering two questions naturally arise: "If principles of fingering do exist, why have they not been discussed previously?" "If principles of fingering are used
by master guitarists, how did these guitarists learn them?" Some responses to these questions are as follows: 1. As discussed previously, the placement of guitar A guitar division
22
established until 1972.
41
channels of communication between guitarists were open, the primary transmitter of guitar information was the Guitar Review (first published in 1947); but it was directed, as a survey of material in this publication shows, toward the performer and historian. Thus, it might be concluded that
there has not been enough time for all issues of guitar education to have been organized and expressed in formal writings. Likewise, in terms of publications, the guitar
has become beneficial only recently to commercial enterprise. "The Book-of-the-Month Club, which began by selling,
books, has turned to selling . . . guitar records. . . . The Columbia Broadcasting System, in 1965, paid more money to acquire a guitar-making firm than it had paid to buy 43 control of the New York Yankees. " This recent move of
the guitar into a position of commercial profit has placed publication of guitar information behind that of other instruments. The library of the University of Arizona, The library has obtained 165
41. "ASTA Opens Ranks to Classic Guitar," The School Musician (April, 1973), p. 52. 42. Soundboard. Date founded is printed on each issue of
43. Fredrick Gruenfield, The Art and Times of the Guitar (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1969), p. 2.
23
piano books and eighty-one violin books which contain texts related to instruction, methods, performance, and interpretation. 2. There are only twenty-four similar guitar books. The placement of the guitar into a public school
situation often results in a non-guitarist teaching large 44 classes. The private studio, with a guitarist as teacher,
allows for fingering principles to be discussed in isolated environments and with individual pieces. Also, the student
may learn as much through observing the teacher and listen45 ing to the teacher play as through verbal instruction. There would seem to be little need for organizing largescale fingering principles in this situation and commiting these principles to print. Only now that the instrument is
taught by non-guitarists to large groups of people does the need arise to transmit large amounts of information to teachers and students by verbal and written means. 3. Another question might be submitted in support of "Is there
the idea that basic fingering principles exist: anything that master guitarists have in common?"
Christopher Berg states that, ". . . guitarists are aware of the necessity of moving smoothly and accurately from one 44. Peter Miller, op. cit., p. 2.
45. Charles Duncan, The Art of Classical Guitar Playing (Princeton, New Jersey: Summy-Birchard Music, 1980), p. 105.
24
string to another.'.'
46
moment, he (the master guitarist) is completely relaxing those fingers which are not in use. He uses exactly the He does more Thus,
it seems that at least three common qualities of fine guitarists are that they play smoothly, accurately, and effortlessly. This dissertation will support the premise that
these qualities are only achieved by the application of certain fingering principles. (Instead of the terms
"smoothly," "accurately," and "effortlessly" this paper will use the phrases "in a legato style," "with security," and "with the least amount of effort," respectively.) But did
master guitarists obtain these qualities by the conscious application of fingering principles? Not necessarily. It
may have been that just as gravity was in effect long before it was named and studied, so the use of fingering principles was in effect long before they were identified. It will be
shown that performance security and musicality, learned by the master guitarists through performing and listening, demand the adherence to certain fingering principles. Thus,
46. Christopher Berg, quoted in Ronald Sherrod, Guitar Master Class (New York: Belwin Mills Publishing Corp., 1980), p. 43. 47. Lee Ryan, quoted in Ronald Sherrod, Guitar Master Class (New York: Belwin Mills Publishing Corp., 1980), p. 33.
25
all master guitarists use fingering principles in common with other master guitarists. Musical Excerpts The musical examples presented in this paper are drawn from elementary and intermediate guitar literature. Some excerpts from such sources as vocal music, chorales, and folk songs are used as illustrations because of their ease in clarifying specific points. The performance of the musical excerpts requires a knowledge of basic guitar technique. This knowledge may be
acquired from the study of any of the guitar method books described previously in "Review of the Literature." All of
these books follow the fundamental technical concepts (sitting position, left hand approach to the fingerboard, and basic right hand approach to the strings) founded by Francisco T&rrega. This master's influence on guitar playing
is discussed in an article by Theodorus Hofmeester, Jr. in 48 the Guitar Review of October, 1946. As Harvey Turnbull states, "It was T^rrega who laid the foundations of modern 49 technique." 48. Theodorus Hofmeester, Jr., "Is There a School of Trrega?," Guitar Review (October, 1946), pp. 2-4. 49. Harvey Turnbull, op. cit., p. 106.
26
To some public school teachers, the excerpts presented in this dissertation may seem too complex. these teachers might consider the following: 1. By surveying the aforementioned method books, it However,
will be discovered that none of the musical examples in this dissertation exceed the technical levels arrived at in these manuals. As was indicated earlier, there exists a need to
change the direction of public school guitar education from the most commonly taught folk style technique to classical style technique. It is the desire of this writer that
guitar teachers seriously analyze their programs with the following questions in mind: "Are adequate demands being
made of the students in order that they might reap every possible benefit from the study of the instrument?" qualified to teach guitar as I am other subjects?" 2. The words "elementary" and "intermediate" as used "Am I
above are congruous with Guitar Music Index, a graded list50 ing of music in print for classical guitar and lute. Every musical passage drawn from guitar literature in this dissertation is included in this index. At no time does an
example exceed the level of performance indicated as "medium." Another indication of "intermediate" level may
be found in Charles Duncan's comments relating to 50. George Gilrnore and Mark Pereira, Guitar Music Index (Honolulu, Hawaii: Galliard Press, Ltd., 1976).
27
Andres Segovia's arrangement of "Sarabande" from Partita No. 1 for Unaccompanied Violin by J. S. Bach.51 3. In order to present the topic of guitar fingering, a
level of proficiency must be maintained in order that the topic be thoroughly presented. For example, should the
topics of "rest stroke and free stroke," "changing positions," "the use of the bar," or "playing contrapuntal music" be left out of this writing because a certain number of teachers have not had experience with them? hardly be justifiable in a research document. This would Rather, it is
hoped that this work will encourage educators to explore these areas if not already familiar with them. It should be
emphasized,.however, that the application of the considerations presented in this dissertation are not restricted to the same technical level required to perform the musical excerpts. The principles are equally valid for elementary
and advanced guitar performance and, as discussed in Chapter 7 of this document, should be presented at all levels of guitar instruction. 51. Charles Duncan, "The Segovia Sound: Guitar Review (Fall, 1977), p. 30. What is
It?"
CHAPTER 2 NOTATION AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS This chapter briefly outlines guitar notation and presents technical elements which have a relationship to the fingering of guitar music A thorough discussion of guitar
technique is not included, however, because such a discussion is beyond the scope of this dissertation topic. Method
books, such as those cited in "Review of the Literature" in Chapter 1, may be consulted for that purpose and, unless otherwise noted, constitute a primary source for the information contained herein. Letter Notation of Pitch When it is necessary to identify exact pitches within text material, the designations of octave registers as shown in Figure 1 will be used throughout this writing. It is to be noted that the guitar sounds one octave lower than written or stated. Left Hand Notation A number placed beside a note designates the left hand finger to be used. A circled number or, less commonly,
a number in parenthesis near a note designates the string on which the note is played. Figure 2. These notations are summarized in
28
29
Figure 1.
<D or
or or or or
Figure 2.
30
to designate the string. Thus, there might be located near In Figure
3 the 2nd finger of the left hand is used to depress the e^ on the third string.
Figure 3.
If several notes are to be played on the same string, a circled number to indicate the string and a horizontal line to designate the notes to be played on that string may be used. The notation used in an excerpt from
Branle de Bourgoine by Adrian Le Roy serves as an example (Figure 4). Basic Left Hand Position Basic position for the left hand is a span of four adjacent frets. As can be seen in Figure 5, if the 1st fin-
ger is in the area behind the first fret, the 2nd finger is held within the area behind the second fret, the 3rd finger is held within the area behind the third fret, and the 4th finger within the area behind the fourth fret. This
31
Allegro
(D A 2
i 0( D 1
i_
iii
it
(D| 1 2
1 i + f
d>31
Figure 4.
=d
4i
,
L _ ^ _
Figure 5.
32
cudruplo. There are many instances when, because of
countermelody, chords, phrasing, or expression, the basic position cannot be maintained Also, because of the differ-
ent distances between frets along the fingerboard (the frets become closer together proceeding from the head of the guitar toward the bridge), some variance from basic position may be employed. But, as will be emphasized in Chapter 3, guitar
masters have adopted the four-fret position as the basis of their technique and fingering. Name of Positions Positions are given names according to the location of the 1st finger of the left hand. In basic position, if
the 1st finger is behind the first fret, the player is said to be in "first" position. If the 1st finger is behind the
seventh fret, the player is said to be in "seventh" position The passage given in Figure 6, from Napoleon Coste's In Figure 7,
Caprice, Op. 1, No 21, by Niccolo Paganini, two positions are usedthe second and the fourth. The shift occurs
between beats three and four of measure two. Some guitarists indicate the position used for playing a passage of music with Roman numerals, abbreviations for the Spanish ordinal numbers, or abbreviations for c.udruplo. An excerpt from a sonata, L. 463, by Dominico
33
Moderato
<2>
<D
Figure 6.
34
Andante
CD
1 (2)i O
1 <3>
| M u l
J-Jijlfj
Shift
(3)
I'
' ^
1 1L r
r1
Figure 7.
The
notations in Figure 8, even though they would allow the guitarist to move to the correct position at a glance, have not been widely adopted This is due possibly to the obser-
vations that 1) the notation of string and finger as discussed previously is sufficient to place the guitarist in the desired position, 2) the notation might be confused
35
Tempo dl ballo
0 P
-4
EI
Hi=J=i
*
IU
4
2a <9
jr F
m. ^L_
-f Cplo 2
^
L-U
"
N=
*
i fj-
=&=:
* *
i
n
Figure 8.
Scarlatti, Sonata, L. 463 (Measures 1-5), With Indications for Playing in Second Position
with notation for the bar discussed on the pages which follow, 3) notation of the frequent position changes within even a few measures of most guitar compositions would cause the music paper to appear cluttered, and 4) the use of notation to indicate position would necessitate the use of another notation to indicate stretch and squeeze positions. (Stretch and squeeze positions are discussed below.) Positions will not be indicated in the guitar notation used in this dissertation.
36
Stretch and Squeeze Positions When the left hand fingers roust spread wider than the four frets of basic position they are said to be in a "stretch," "extended," or "expanded" position. This is
illustrated in a portion of the Prelude for Lute, BWV 999, by Johann Sebastian Bach (Figure 9). Where the word
"stretch" first appears in measure three, the player must place the first finger two frets behind the 2nd finger instead of on the adjacent fret.
Presto
/ .
1 .
f #l r f V*
4 .
J 0 J
4 J- j 4 7
J-
-If-.
stretch
Stretch
iretch b1
atr
k>
tI
J1
;:t
. +\ M
1
t uah
1
L F
<s>
bf
Figure 9.
37
The opposite of the stretch position is "squeezing" the fingers into less than four frets. This is commonly The squeeze
squeeze Allegro
squeeze
squeeze
Figure 10.
The measures given in Figure 11, from Variations on a Theme of Paisiello by Ludwig van Beethoven, utilize the squeeze position in measure two and the stretch position in measure four.
38
<2>
Q>~
L
b If u / 0 1 ft
V
^ A
i; J+
u 11
squeeze
i
k
<3)
a.
J- J
Q> I
i
*
Figure 11.
39
The Bar One finger placed across and depressing two or more strings simultaneously is known as the "bar." Except in
rare instances the bar is executed with the 1st finger of the left hand. The finger may extend over as many as six An example of the use of the bar
Figure 12.
A survey of guitar music shows that there are many ways used to notate the bar. Some guitarists distinguish
between the bar and the "half-bar" in their notation. Others indicate bar, half-bar, and "small-bar." However,
there is no standard description or definition of these terms. Some of the possibilities of notating the barring
40
Cj2
CI] iC2
0 0
)j2
0
-62
0-
(W
-0
I!
ii II
L ll
11
BII
-0
Ii
BII
0 -
H
BIIV
11
iB2
fa
-0
MC2
0
c2
0
B2
0~
M
m i
ii
it
it
ii
II
6H
0 -
p
-0-
DBII
0
b2
0 -
II
-0
II
ii
ll
ii
ll
ii If
'It
Cj, Ca = Spanish "ceja" (bar, literally "ridge") C = Spanish "ceja" or Italian "capotasto" (literally, "head of the fingerboard") jrCf >> MC = media-ceja or mezzo-capotasto (half-bar) c = cejilla or capotastino (small-bar) B = French "barre" (bar) -g-B, t ft* DB = demi-barre (half-bar) b = petite barre (small-bar)
Figure 13.
41
Throughout this dissertation a large "C" will indicate the bar and a Roman numeral will indicate the fret at which the bar occurs (Figure 14). Also, as demonstrated in
Figure 14, brackets may be used to clarify the number of strings included under the bar.
pv
-&
41 V
cv O" 4f p
VL# ft)
Figure 14.
Hinge-bar A subtle technique called the "hinge-bar" is used by advanced guitarists. It consists of using a portion of the A part
of the "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor by Francisco Corbetta serves as an example (Figure 15). In measure three, the 1st
finger is required to play different notes (b^ and f^) on beats one and two. notes, the f_
O
42
Tempo di gavotte
^ i = 4h*ik,' ^ r j r T
-JL _.. a -ti* 4i
! ?r
J/f *
J-h r f
. rL U J
=1
Figure 15.
2-
s34J
TT I
Qjj
f r =f tr
to the hand.
As the music continues, beat three requires a bar; but in order to sound the open d"*" on beat four, another hinge-bar is required in order to simultaneously sound the _f 2 1 and the d . It
There is no standard notation for the hinge-bar. has generally been left to the guitarist to discover and apply opportunities to use the hinge-bar. In Figure 15 it
appears that the tip of the 1st finger moves from the b
to
43
the f o in measure three. This action would cause a break in is pro-
duced would cease to vibrate when the 1st finger moved away from the bb and toward the f2 Therefore, in order to hold
each note for its correct duration, the only solution is the hinge-bar. regular bar. Another notation for the hinge-bar is that of the This can be seen in Figure 16. This notation
Tempo c Li gavotte
-for
J IJ J J RT R R F R R F
Q
CJ . .
, .,
R
Figure 16.
,i
DnJ.
RR
F OB
Corbetta, "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor (Measures 1-4) Using Bar Notation
44
This dissertation will indicate the hinge-bar by adding a small "h" (hinge) to the notation of the bar. method of notation is shown in Figure 17. This
It will be noted
that when the hinge-bar is executed before the regular bar, the "h" is placed before the notation of the bar. When it
is executed after the regular bar, the "h" is placed after the notation of the bar.
-M'
(o
J | j J }=\ 1 t f 'r f r f r T
ju
U u r-j ^ r
hc ;i,c
,0
Jf j f 'lj
Figure 17.
Corbetta, "Gavotte" from Suite in G Minor (Measures 1-4) Using Hinge-bar Notation
45
Excerpts from Toy by Francis Cutting (Figure 18), Study in A, Op. 60, No. 25, by Mateo Carcassi (Figure 19), Asturias by Isaac Albniz (Figure 20), and Sonate, 0p 15, by Mauro Giuliani (Figure 21) demonstrate additional types of hinge-bars.
Animato
Civi.,
on h -___
i ii
a
MJ
1
'ij
-J
z:
f
'r-Tf
lT
f'T
W
J
'I I r
I I I I N rr i "
Figure 18.
46
ME
3 ^30
CII
Mfc 3
0 4
G> 1 -T ^ 0 3-1 3
<3> _-=
- f f f l
' ; i -0w ' Q
Figure 19.
47
Moderato
CVII
Figure 20.
48
h<
Allegro spiritoso I 4 10 10
31 0 2 i -^
J / m4
7J
f. ^Ti u_ r
w
J ';
0
v *
h p *
, m
Ljt-
T r T
Figure 21.
Another use of the hinge-bar is in melodic playing. In a passage from the chorale "Der Lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht" (Figure 22), if the "tip" of the 1st finger were
U A H -t: 0
g, , ! l l ' / n l 1 * = . * - 1 HZ * ' J -1 1 ^ 3 1 4
^I'r 1 f
> i
r i
\ 3f
11
rr r
Lf f
1
LI
Figure 22.
49
used for both the g 1 and c 2 in measure one, a break in the
sound would occur because of the time it takes to move the 1 2 tip of the first finger from the g to the c . If a bar
were used to play the two notes, as in Figure 23, the g1 o would continue to sound when the c is produced, thus causing the melody notes to ring together. problems is the hinge-bar. A solution to these
1 2 tially across both the g and c is rocked away from the g1 at the instant when the c require that the c 2 2 is sounded. This action will
1st finger, but it will smoothly connect the melody notes. This use of the hinge-bar is shown in Figure 24.
3
s
r
f
%
1 Ji r r f 1J 1 1 f 1 r U ;' i / 1 Mgs r Q r
1
3 1 3 1 4
Figure 23.
"Der Lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht" (Measures 9-12) Using Bar Notation
50 cv11 *
t : {fV a 3 f
f
3 I I f f
It 1
1 m
f J 1 J J 3 1 A
3
f
r r t * 2
IP W
Figure 24.
11
Lf
f=
"Der Lieben Sonnen Licht und Pracht" (Measures 9-12) Using Hinge-Bar Notation
Right Hand Notation The thumb and three fingers of the right hand are used in guitar performance. These fingers are notated by
letters which correspond to their Latin derivations (Figure 25). In guitar music these letters appear as demonstrated
middle = m ring = a
Figure 25.
51
in Divertissments Pour La Guitarre, Op. 40, No. 4, by Mauro Giuliani (Figure 26).
Allegretto . m i X % 4 )4 % ^ \
* J
A
^ f
r r Z
i p
p i p
i p i p
r tj=J IM u=U
4
*~
_J
*-
j
r p
i P
Figure 260
Another system of notating the right hand fingers consists of the use of a "+" (or sometimes "x") to designate the thumb and dots to designate the index (.), middle (..), and ring (.. or .'.) fingers. An example of this notation
is given in "Andantino" from Metodo Per Chitarra by Mateo Carcassi (Figure 27). This method of right hand notation,
while widely used in the past, is seldom seen in recent publications and will not be utilized in this dissertation.
52
Andantino
ISH
>,'> f
n
m m
A f
M
+
Jt-
&
-Y+
f
+ +
-r-
Figure 27.
Basic Right Hand Position Basic position for the right hand fingers is considered to be the placement of fingers i^ (index), m (middle), and a (ring) on the third, second, and first strings, respectively, and the thumb on either the fourth, fifth, or sixth string., This is shown in Figure 28a, 28b, and 28c.
i
Figure 28.
i
Basic Right Hand Position
53
As illustrated in Francisco Trrega's Prelude in A Minor (Figure 29) and Fernando Sor's Study in D, Op. 35, No. 17 (Figure 30), the natural position of the hand when approaching the strings in this manner can be observed in the construction of many guitar works.
Moderato CV_ .
HU" 2
4J
MUL.
IE
J.
m
A.
m =3=
m i
fF
Figure 29.
Allegro grazioso a ma
a
:n
fitlr yJJ
H 71
p
J>| j . m
p
r.
p
Figure 30.
2)
Rest Stroke and Free Stroke The maximum volume and fullest tone of a guitar string is produced when the. string is set into motion in a direction parallel with the soundboard.^ In order to cause
a string to vibrate in this manner, the finger, after striking a string, must touch an adjacent string. The
finger will, in fact, come to rest on the adjacent string. This is appropriately called the "rest" stroke Fingers i_,
m, and a will rest on the next lower-pitched string; will rest on the next higher-pitched string. The terms "sup-
ported stroke," "top stroke," "hammer stroke," or the Spanish word apoyando (literally "leaning) are frequently used in place of the term "rest stroke." The rest stroke
may be utilized throughout the portion of Sevilla by Isaac Alb^niz given in Figure 31. A right hand stroke which contrasts the rest stroke allows the finger to set a string into motion while missing (or "moving free of") adjacent strings. "free" stroke. This is called the
word tirando ("flinging" or "casting away") is frequently used instead of the term "free" stroke. The free stroke
1. John Duarte, The Bases of Classic Guitar Technique (Borough Green, Great Britain: Novello & Co., Ltd., 1975), p. 17.
55
Molto legato
Figure 31.
from Study in A Minor, Op. 35, No. 3, by Fernando Sor (Figure 32). The sound of the free stroke probably will be weaker than that of the rest stroke because the angle of attack "displaces the string from the sidewise plane in which much 2 of its natural vibration takes place." But the rest stroke
is not always practical to execute due to the physiology of the hand and because the rest stroke would dampen any 2. Charles Duncan, The Art of Classical Guitar Playing (Princeton, New Jersey: Summy-Birchard Music, 1980), p. 37.
56
Larghetto -
-+=:
r
* ' 3
Hrfzzt
-'-2
T
-J
*
7= r
Figure 32.
r 7T
Jl, ^-2 y
Also, musical
interpretation and expression based upon contrast may be enhanced by the different, yet complementary sound qualities of the two strokes. It is suggested, however, that teachers
persuade their students to follow the example of Trrega by executing free strokes which produce full, round tones similar to those produced by the rest stroke. "Indeed by
developed the precision and sensitivity of his fingertips to such a degree that even when playing without supporting the finger on the next string he was able to produce a volume of sound comparable to that obtained by using the supported
3 stroke."
cuting the free stroke as his diagram (Figure 33) indicates; and he states that the guitarist "... will eventually develop a core sound that is the same whether played rest stroke or free stroke, and this can be varied at will for interest."
4
free stroke
rest stroke
>
Figure 33.
3. Emilio Pujol, "The 'Supported' Stroke," Guitar Review (1954), pp. 3-4. 4. 5. Charles Duncan, op. cit., p. 107. Ibid.
58
There is no standard notation to designate rest stroke or free stroke. At times the direction of stems, the
placing of accents, expression markings, or some other visual sign may be a signal that a particular kind of stroke is needed; but generally it is left to the performer to analyze the music and decide upon the type of stroke to use. Pujol
states that Trrega "... used the supported stroke not only for scales or for the notes of a melody, but as a general rule for all the notes which did not form part of a chord or rapid arpeggio where the use of the supported stroke would interfere with the sustaining of the note played on the next string below."
6
use of the rest stroke ". . . most guitar playing consists of free stroke work. ..."
7
chords and arpeggios in support of scales and melodies than for the actual scales and melodies themselves. However, it
is suggested that guitar teachers emphasize the importance of developing rest stroke technique and the ability to combine rest strokes with free strokes. Figures 34-36 demonIn Figure
34, an excerpt from Etude in E Minor by Napoleon Coste, the melody notes (stems going up) may be played with rest strokes for added emphasis. 6. 7. All other notes are played with
59
Allegro
Figure 34.
free strokes.
free stroke depends on the musical wishes of the performer. Those who use rest strokes for measures one and two would emphasize that this passage is from a late nineteenth century Spanish work and that, in all likelihood, TSrrega would have used rest strokes.
g
free strokes for this passage point out that it is a minuet. 8. Emilio Pujol, op. cit.
60
Tempo di ninuetto
Figure 35.
This implies a "graceful," "whimsical," "dance-like" char9 10 acter which is best achieved with the free stroke. Figure 36 is a portion of Study in A Major, 0p 60, No 3 by Mateo Carcassi. The rest strokes are indicated.11
9. Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2d ed. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press, 1973), p. 532. 10. Charles Duncan, op. cit.
11. Suggested by Michael Lorimer in Ronald Sherrod, Guitar Master Class (Melville, New York: Belwin Mills Publishing Corp., 1980), p. 11.
The rest
rest strokes
Figure 36.
62
Summary This chapter presented fundamental guitar notation and basic technical concepts. as follows: 1. Guitar music includes, along with indications of Briefly summarized they are
pitch and duration common to other instruments, the use of Arabic numbers to designate left hand fingers, letters to designate right hand fingers, and circled Arabic numbers to designate strings. 2. Basic position for the left hand fingers is a span Variants of this position consti-
tute the "stretch" position (more than four frets) and the "squeeze" position (less than four frets). 3. Positions are given numerical names according to Generally,
the position used is not included in guitar notation. 4. The technique of barringdepressing two or more
strings simultaneously with a single fingeris notated by a letter "C" to indicate Ceja (bar). This letter is followed
by a Roman numeral to indicate the fret on which the bar occurs. The hinge-bar, a variant of the bar, uses the same
notation as the bar with the addition of an "h" to indicate "hinge." 5. Basic right hand position consists of placing the
first strings, respectively, while the thumb rests on either the fourth, fifth, or sixth string. 6. Two types of right hand strokes are used in fundaA "rest" stroke results when the
finger of execution comes to rest on a string adjacent to the string sounded. With the "free" stroke, the finger of
ON A SINGLE STRING The study and fingering of melodic passages played on a single string is important for two main reasons. First, there are musical and technical advantages to playing some melodic passages on one string. Second, in analyzing
various concepts of playing a melody using only one string, factors that apply to all aspects of guitar playing, such as basic position, minimum movement, and finger combinations will be discussed. General Considerations Timbre A consistent timbre is maintained when a melody is played on a single string, whereas a change in tone color occurs when the melody is played on two or more strings. "*" This can be observed in different versions of four measures of the Catalan melody "El Noy de la Mare." Figure 37 shows Figure
38 is the same melody played on strings one, two, and three. 1. Fredrick Noad, Solo Guitar Playing (New York: Schirmer Books, 1976), p. 117.
64
65
Andante
<D-
i
Figure 37.
-3
f tif r
f I
Figure 38.
"El Noy de la Mare" (Measures 1-4) Played on Strings One, Two, and Three
Guitaristic Effects Several expressive sounds which are idiomatic to the guitar can be produced on a single string and would be impossible to imitate if more than one string were used.. The "ligado," "arrastre," and "portamento" are examples of
66
these. The following brief descriptions may be augmented
by the discussions of these terms in guitar method books. Ligado (literally "tied"): Two types of ligados
existthe ascending ligado (also called "slur") and the descending ligado (also called slur or "snap"). In the
execution of an ascending ligado the right hand strikes the first note only; the second note is sounded by the left hand finger responsible for that note. The finger is placed
(driven) onto the string with enough force to cause the string to vibrate without the use of the right hand. In
Figure 39 the second note is sounded by the force of the 3rd finger being driven to the string.
Figure 39.
Ascending Ligado
In the execution of the descending ligado the right hand strikes the first note only; the left hand finger used to hold the first note then plucks the string to sound the second note. (The right hand is not used in the production
67
of this note.) In Figure 40 the second note is sounded by the 3rd finger plucking the string.
Figure 40.
Descending Ligado
A ligado may occasionally occur across two strings. This type of ligado is called a ligado de vibracion (vibra2 tion slur). It is generally avoided due to lack of control
of volume and timbre, but it is acceptable in rapid passages. The ligado de vibracidn is used in Scherzo-Vals by Miguel Llobet (Figure 41). (The sole purpose of the bar at the sixth fret in this example is to give a "clean" sound and more volume to the ligado de vibracic5n.)
2. (New York:
Vahdah Bickford, Method for Classic Guitar Peer International Corp., 1964), p. 72.
68
Allegro vivace
CVI _
i
Figure 41. Llobet, Scherzo-Vals (Measures 19 and 20) Arrastre (literally "dragged"), also called glissando ("gliding" or "slide"): In the execution of the
arrastre, the right hand strikes the first note only; the second note is sounded by quickly sliding (dragging) the left hand finger to the new position. arrastre are given in Figure 42. Examples of the
i!
Figure 42.
i
Arrastres (Ascending and Descending)
The portamento
is a ligado followed by an arrastre, or an arrastre followed by a ligado. As indicated in Figure 43, specific notation
must be used in order to determine whether the ligado or arrastre is executed first The indicated notation for the
portamento, while used throughout this dissertation, is not adopted universally by writers and editors of guitar music. As Emilio Pujol points out, some confusion exists in the notation of the portamento: "Los autores de musica para
guitarra en general, lo indican con una lfnea recta como O el arrastre o con una lfnea curva como el ligado" (The writers of music for the guitar in general indicate it [the portamento] with a straight line as for the arrastre or with a curved line as for the ligado.) This lack of distinction between portamento and arrastre, or portamento and ligado, seems unfortunate since the portamento differs
Figure 43.
3. Emilio Pujol, Escuela Razonada De La Guitarra, vol. 1 (Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1956), p. 69.
70
in sound from both the others and since all three of these technical devices may be desired in a single composition. An except from Pavana by Francisco Tarrega combines the ligado, arrastre, and portamento (Figure 44).
Moderato
1
1 3 .
,II c
-fj
'
f t^ r
CIV
3 J1
0
f?
, Q
.p^-O
r-')
lEfcJ'
Figure 44.
The intentional composition or arrangement of a passage to be played on a single string can result in an effect which would not be present if played on two or more strings. This can be seen in an arrangement by James Robin-
71
Grazioso
Figure 45.
Technical Factors Playing a melody along a single string leaves the other strings free for use in accompaniment or countermelody. This advantage has been used by many composers and In an excerpt by Fernando Sor,
Study in E Minor, Op. 60, No. 22, the accompaniment is easy to execute because the melody is confined to the first string (Figure 46). In a portion of another work by Sor,
Variations on a Theme of Mozart, Op. 9, a "campanella" (bell) effect is produced by the constant, recurring sounds of the second string (Figure 47).
72
Allegro noderato
^^ 1' ^ ' p r i j i
Aj,
J>
' ^ r ^ P
Figure 46.
Andante noderato
/
^ }
1 -^TTt h ^f ^ f r
2 U ni 1 c D 4t
=is==
V7
^ Y
1 r~r
s. < ^ ^ * -J. = M r ^ r
ffc-=v
y1
Figure 47.
= m =
73
Physical Factors As the following quotations indicate, the ideal performance is that which produces the best musical results with the least amount of movement and/or physical exertion; Carl Flesch The rule of minimum effort precludes any movement that does not actually contribute to the production of the desired tone quality or that detracts from it; such movements are superfluous and represent a waste of energy.4 Julio Sagreras Respecto a . . . mano, poco tengo que decir, sino que, en general se deben evitar todos los movimientos intitiles. . . .^ [With respect to . . . (the) hand, I have little to say, except that, in general one ought to avoid all unnecessary movements. . . .] Louis Kentner It is generally agreed that modern pianoforte technique is based on the idea of relaxation, weight and economical use of shoulders, arms, hands and fingers, uii3 operative word 'economical' meaning that as little effort as possible should get the greatest possible results, in terms of speed, accuracy and volume. 4. Carl Flesch, op. cit., p. 5.
5. Julio Sagreras, Tecnica Superior De Guitarra (Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1922), p. 2. 6. Louis Kentner, Piano (New York: 1976), p. 60. Schirmer Books,
74
Jozsef G&t
. . . a cramp of any part of the body, even the clenching of one's lip, will hinder the appropriate functioning of the muscles.'''
Yehudi Menuhin The violinist's enemy is any tightness of hold, whether of fingers, hands, arms, shoulders, head, neck, chest (right or left side), shoulder-blades, waist, hips, knees, ankles or feet; in fact, any impediment whatsoever to the instantaneous translation of a total impulseemotional, physical, spiritual or intellectualinto the reality of sound.8 Thus, the lack of any physical exertion, i.e., a state of rest, would be ideal for a performer. If it were possible
to "think" the strings into vibration or shorten the length of a string by thought, such elements as missed notes, slides, and buzzes would not exist. "One of the reasons
conductors seem more musical than many solo performers is that their musical thought is not: handicapped by the physical limitations of producing the music.However, physical effort, the contraction of muscles, is required; and when a signal is sent from the brain to a contracting muscle, sending a finger toward its destination, the possibility is 7. J6zsef Gat, The Technique of Piano Playing (London: Collet's Holding, Ltd., 1965 ), p. 2. 8. Yehudi Menuhin, Violin and Viola (New York: Schirmer Books, 1976), p. 42. 9. Julien Musafia, The Art of Fingering at the Piano (New York: MCA Music, 1971), p. 4.
75
introduced that the brain may "have miscalculated the precise location of the desired fret and string. This is often the
case, in fact, requiring what J6zsef Gat terms as "adapting movements"the movements which bring the fingers into proper striking position.1 "There are many kinds of these move-
ments, but a common feature of all of them is that they are always decided by the momentary requirement as to what [sic] and to what extent they must be utilized. It follows
logically that the farther a particular finger must move to reach its goal, the more adapting movements are necessary. John Duarte concurs with this as he states : "The further a
finger is from the strings, the further it has to travel in returning to the fingerboard to depress a string; this makes timing more difficult, since the necessary journey is longer, and increases the risk of inaccuracy, as it is obviously easier to 'hit' a target that is close than one that is further away."12 Because each of these adapting movements
require the use of muscles, it can be concluded that a small amount of movement requires less physical effort than and is preferable to a large amount of movement. In the material
which follows, this concept is the basis for the principles of "Basic Position" and "Minimum Movement." 10. 11. Jozsef Gt, op. cit., p. 33. Ibid.
12. John Duarte, The Bases of Classic Guitar Technique (Borough Green, Great Britain: Novello & Co., Ltd., 1975), p. 29.
76
Specific Fingering Principles Basic Position When the average human hand is completely relaxed there is a span of approximately five centimeters between the playing portion of the tips of the first and fourth
fingers.-^
between frets five and eight, there is a distance of approximately five centimeters between the playing areas of any four adjacent frets. It follows that within the middle area of
the fingerboard the fingering which keeps the fingers within four adjacent frets, i.e., basic position, requires the least amount of physical effort. Some muscle contraction is
required to keep the hand in basic position at other areas of the fingerboard, but the principles of least physical exertion and minimum movement generally result in the use of of basic position. As Emilio Pujol states:
Llamamos 'posicion,' aquella en la cual cada dedo ocupa el traste que le corresponde en orden de numeracidn,o sea, en un cuadruplo cualquiera el dedo 1, ocupa el traste I; el dedo 2, el traste II; el dedo 3, ocupa el traste III y el dedo 4, el traste IV.^
13. Measurements taken by the author of 25 students at the University of Arizona, Tucson, May, 1981. 14. Emilio Pujol, Escuela Razonada de la Guitarra, vol. 2 (Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1952), p. 23.
77
[We (guitarists) call 'normal position' that in which each finger occupies the fret that corresponds in numerical order to it. That is to say, in a group of four adjacent frets, whenever the 1st finger occupies the first fret, the 2nd finger occupies the second fret; the 3rd finger, the third fret; and the 4th finger, the fourth fret.] Pujol's term "normal" indicates that basic position is the rule; stretch and squeeze positions constitute the exceptions. The consistent maintenance of basic position is
shown in the fingerings for Fantasia by John Dowland, Sevilla by Isaac Albdniz, El Colibri by Julio Sagreras, and Capriccio by Johann Anton Logy (Figures 48-51).
-jjUjlf-j, f
11 F
1 1
f it r
! _
1
1 i
3 - p
;iv I 1 * 2 2
r r r rT
4 M 4 =F 5+
. it>
^
Figure 48.
78
Molto legato
Figure 49.
79
Allegro
Figure 50.
80
Allegro
} 'I
J
^ Li
iH3 J i H H
i sr
r L
f A,
2L5
-4H y
( ju ,
j
r i
Lf T
T o r
'
/j I '
n i fl = ' r r
Figure 51.
In an excerpt from the chorale "0 Evvigkeit, Du Donnewort," the fingering given in Figure 52, while striving to connect the notes, creates tension in the hand because of the muscles required to hold the hand in the stretch position. The fingering given in Figure 53 requires
81
1
$ ^
i
2
41 1
*:
f-
P T ^ fr
-
Figure 52.
"l
ig
1
1 Figure 53.
r-
fit f i f T f 1 -*
Minimum Movement As melodies are played on a single string utilizing basic position, shifts of position are likely to be required. In such instances the concept of minimum movement can be applied in the following ways: 1) The smallest number of
shifts necessary should be used; 2) shifting farther than necessary should be avoided; and 3) guide fingers should be utilized. These principles can be observed in previous
82
excerpts (Figures 48-51, for example) but are clarified specifically as follows: In a portion of El Invierno by
Francisco Guerau, three shifts create excessive left hand movement (Figure 54). Additionally, it will be noticed in
Allegretto
G>-
As demonstrated in Figure 55, the Guerau passage can be played with only two shifts with the hand never going beyond the ninth position.
83
Allegretto
Figure 55.
A "guide" finger is one that lightly remains on a string during a shift from one position to another. As
John Duarte indicates, constant contact with the strings adds to the player's security, confidence, and accuracy. The sensation of steadiness and stability originates in the proper development of the use of the hands as compact power units; it is emphasized by the contact of the hands with the strings and with the back of the instrument's neck in the course of playing. Its endpoint is the establishment of a feeling of unity between player and instrument, negating the sensation that the hands are things which are held 'outside' the guitar and from which fingers are 'sent out' to make contact as and when requiredlike satellites radiating signals. In the case of the left hand. . . . The practice of lifting left-hand fingers only when necessary, of using pivot fingers during chord changes,
84
and of using guide fingers when making changes of position, assist in reinforcing this feeling.15 In a portion of Prelude by John Robinson (Figure 56) the 1st finger should act as a guide finger during the shift from fourth to eighth position, remaining in constant contact with the string. however.) (The pressure on the string is released,
Maestoso
In two versions of Nocturne, Op. 90, by Ferdinando Carulli (Figures 57 and 58), both fingerings keep the hand in basic position and both use three shifts. The second fingering
(Figure 58) is stronger, however, because of the use of a guide finger. 15. John Duarte, op. cit., p. 36.
85
Allegro
CD
2
=H
-c*
"1 l=M
=(
M n f
.4 9
^f=
0 jgk
Figure 57.
Figure 58.
86
When shifts are required, the music should be analyzed in terms of expression and phrasing before the fingering is added. This is because, "Large movements (changes of
positions) . . . are more time consuming than small ones, and, thus, can easily be used to create a slight break in the musical line. The measures given from Francis Cutting
Moderato
i i
Figure 59. Cutting, Fantasia (Measures 1-5) 16. Julien Musafia, op. cit., p. 3.
87
In the two views shown in Figures 60 and 61, the fingerings complement the indicated phrasing and help reflect the musical thought of each. The basic principle utilized in
Figures 60 and 61 is that a change of position on the guitar can easily be used to produce a slight accent to draw
Moderato
Q>
Figure 60.
88
Moderato
Figure 61.
62 use exactly the same notes and both are played on the same string. But their inherent character is distinctly The given
fingerings correspond to the natural accents of the music and bring out these musical elements of each. It can be
observed that the stretch position was used in Figure 62 in order to smoothly connect the notes. (The use of the
89
Allegretto
Q
(
K i
; tirjrrir
Allegretto
ik
2*. 2
stretch
Finger 62.
stretch position in this instance should be compared with that in Figure 52.) At times, the squeeze position is
also valuable in this respect, as is shown in an arrangement of the Mexican folk song "Viento de Primavera" (Figure 63).
90
Allegro c
;ante
* 1
.bile
squeeze
s queeze
0
2 ^ '
A 2
1/
A V
I
^
i
2
Mgf 1
%
1 f=\ F=f= f
Figure 63,
Finger Combinations Even though all fingers should be exercised and made as strong as possible, certain fingers and combinations of fingers will always be stronger than others. This can be
realized through a brief description of the physiology of the fingers and hand. The left hand fingers used in guitar playing are controlled by the muscles shown in Figure 64. From this
figure it is observed that the index finger and the small finger have four more controlling muscles than the middle and ring fingers. This makes the index and small fingers
more independent than the other two.17 17. Otto Szende and Mihaly Nemessuri, The Physiiology of Violin Playing (London: Collet's Publishers, Ltd., 1971), p. 59.
91
finger index
muscle flexor digitorum profundus flexor digitorum superficialis interossei dorsales interossei palmares lumbricales extensor indicis adductor pollicis abductor pollicis brevis abductor pollicis longus flexor digitorum profundus flexor digitorum superficialis interossei dorsales interossei palmares lumbricales flexor digitorum profundus flexor digitorum superficialis interossei dorsales interossei palmares lumbricales flexor digitorum profundus flexor digitorum superficialis flexor digiti minimi brevis interossei dorsales interossei palmares lumbricales extensor digiti minimi abductor digiti minimi opponens digiti minimi
niddle
ring
small
Figure 64.
92
The middle finger is the strongest because its muscles are larger than the muscles of the other fingers. Similarly, the small finger is the weakest of the fingers because its muscles are smaller. and ring fingers is about equal. The strength of the index However, the independence
of the ring finger is greatly restricted because, as can be seen in Figure 65, its extensor tendon is connected to the tendon of the middle and small fingers.
18
"This anatomic
characteristic of the hand does not limit the flexing capability of the ring finger (its playing power) but impairs 19 its lifting ability when the adjacent fingers are down." Thus, it can be concluded that: 1) the alterna-
ting abilities of finger combinations 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 are strong; 2) finger combination 2-4 is moderately strong; and 3) finger combinations 2-3 and 3-4 are weak. In the fingering of guitar music, if all other factors are equal, the use of strong finger combinations instead of weak ones will result in more controlled playing. This can be observed in the differing versions of
Bon Jour Mo Cueur di Orlando by Peter Phillips (Figures 66 and 67). The second version (Figure 67), even though it
requires shifts, is better because of the use of a stronger finger combination in executing the thirty-second notes. 18. 19. Julien Musafia, op. cit., p. 1. Ibid.
93
Kiddle
Little Thumb
Figure 65.
94
Adagio
( f
;)_o >-2*
* * A
J 1
>I -e
A
FF=1 J k 1
/
J
n
Figure 66.
Phillips, Bon Jour Mo Cueur di Orlando (Measures 11 and 12) Using Weak Fingers
Adagio
Figure 67.
Phillips, Bon Jour Mo Cuer di Orlando (Measures 11 and 12) Using Strong Fingers
Summary of Fingering Principles 1. 2. Basic left hand position should be utilized. For any melody, the smallest number of shifts neces-
sary to play that melody should be used. 3. For any melody, shift only as far as necessary to
position are required. 5. When shifts are required, the music should be
analyzed in terms of expression and phrasing in order that the fingering corresponds to the musical thought. 6. Strong finger combinations instead of weak ones
should be utilized.
ON TOO OR MORE STRINGS One string has a melodic range of approximately an octave and a half, whereas the six strings provide a span of three and a half octaves. Also, in any one position
many notes are available to the fingers without the need to move the left hand. The material in this chapter will deal
with the utilization ,of two or more strings in playing melodic passages. All of the information of previous
chapters should be considered when, supplying fingerings to melodic passages that are played on two or more strings, but previous material will be restated only if additional comments relating to the subject of this chapter are necessary General Considerations Timbre When changing from one string to another the tone color may change. "There is a distinct difference in tone In
the practice of scales and melodic lines, every attempt 1. Fredrick Noad, Solo Guitar Playing (New York: Schirmer Books, 1976), p. 117.
96
97
should be made to maintain as consistent a timbre as possible. As Charles Duncan points out:
Whether we use free or rest stroke . . . the different tonal characteristic of each string will produce inconsistent color in the progress of a scale unless the angle of attack is varied. The same attack that gives a pleasing first-string tone will yield a muddy-sounding third string and a scratchy bass. If the attack is angled so as to produce attractive tone on the bass strings, then the higher strings will sound thin The truth is that the angle of attack must change during a scale, from perpendicular on the sixth string to some 30 degrees on the first.2 Overlapping Sounds A possible danger exists with the utilization of two or more strings that could not exist if only one string were used. If two melody notes are played on different strings,
it is easy to continue holding the first note while playing the second. In an example from Sonata No. 12, Op. 3, No. 6,
by Niccolo Paganini (Figure 68), if the 1st finger continued #2 2 to press the f_ while going on to the e on the second string, the result would be like that shown in Figure 69 This overlapping of sounds creates dissonance and demonstrates an "impure" concept of the melody and an unmusical approach to the guitar. As guitar teachers familiar with a
variety of musical styles are aware, however, dissonance caused by the overlapping of sounds is part of the performance practice of some music. 2. Charles Duncan, The Art of Classical Guitar Playing (Princeton, New Jersey: Summy-Birchard Music, 1980), p. 107.
98
Andante
i!
Figure 68.
&
Andante
i
Figure 69.
B i
Paganini, Sonata No. 12, Op. 3, No. 6 (Measures 1 and 2) Showing an Overlapping of Sounds
Open Strings The use of open strings in melodic playing presents several concerns to the guitarist. First, lack of control
of duration of the open strings may produce the problem of "overlapping sounds" as previously discussed. This is demon-
strated in an excerpt from Danza Mora by Francisco Trrega (Figure 70). The guitarist may resolve this problem by sub-
tly dampening the open strings with the finger that plays
The open strings continue to sound as the next notes are played
Leggiero
Figure 70.
the next string (Figure 71), but a fingering for the passage that eliminates the open string would probably be preferred (Figure 72). Second, open strings produce timbres "An open
100
As the second finger plays, it may simultaneously dampen the open string
Leggiero
Figure 71.
Leggiero
Figure 72.
101
satisfactory, for the suddenly introduced tone of the open string will always remain somewhat 'foreign' in quality." Third, the use of open strings results in a lack of control of vibrato. A vibrato may be produced on a sounding open
string by the hand moving in "vibrato fashion" on another string. (The other string is not sounded.) However, this
Tempo di minuetto
@
-Q-
* I
Figure 73.
-*
5*ar
1 3
Purcell, "Minuet" from Suite No. 1 in G (Measures 1-4) Utilizing Open Strings
3. Carl Flesch, Violin Fingering, ed. by Boris Schwarz (New York: Da Capo Press, 1979), p. 118. 4. Willi Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music, second edition (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1973), p. 87.
102
Tempo di minuetto
n
)
-4
j
y
^ J
J mh
-J
=1
Figure 74.
Purcell, "Minuet" from Suite No, 1 in G (Measures 1-4) Fingered to Eliminate Open Strings
Specific Fingering Principles Position Playing Most melodic passages can be played with little or no left hand movement. This greatly enhances legato playing
because of the concept of "least physical exertion" and the principle of "minimum movement" as discussed in the previous chapter. As Warren Benfield says, "Something is wrong if
there are eight notes on one string, only one note on the 5 next, and six notes on another." By comparing contrasting
fingerings to a portion of Study No. 18 from Melodic and Progressive Studies, Op. 60, by Mateo Carcassi, it can be observed that much left hand movement occurs in Figure 75 while no left hand movement occurs in Figure 78. 5. Warren Benfield, The Art of Double Bass Playing (Evanston, Illinois: Summy-Birchard Co., 1973), p. 19.
103
Figure 75.
Carcassi, Study No. 18 from Melodic and Progressive Studies, Op. 60 (Measures 1-4) With Left Hand Movement
Allegretto
1 2 1
>
A
1 1
> o,
-r/
1 3
T f f
* f-j-p*
M ' 1 ^
,
3
,
3
A
1
r
Figure 76.
L -U
r 1 r f LL1 [Jj^=
r
i ^
Carcassi, Study No. 18 from Melodic and Progressive Studies, Op. 60 (Measures 1-4) Without Left Hand Movement
104
Because of the small amount of movement necessary to play a melodic line when the proper position is used, the reasons for changing positions are limited to maintaining the consistent timbre that can be produced only by moving along a single string, adding expressive effects to the music, and moving into a position that will prepare the hand for material to follow. Thus, the knowledge and practice of
utilizing positions in melodic playing can be of great value to students. to violin playing: As I. M. Yampolsky indicates in regard "The division of the finger-board [sic]
into positions is a convenient way of helping beginners to gain command of the finger-board. Numbering the positions
makes it possible to specify the precise movements of the 6 fingers along mentally predetermined divisions. . . ." However, as will be seen on pp. 112 and 116 in the sections concerning "consecutive notes on different strings" and "open strings," position playing must involve flexibility. Yamplosky indicates this as he states: Such a numerical division (a position) is less necessary for the more advanced violinist. The concept of positions loses its significance, and can indeed be a bar to progress, as it limits freedom of orientating oneself on the fingerboard. The actual position of the left hand during playing is often in contradiction to the generally accepted numerical position. This leads 6. I. M. Yampolsky, The Principles of Violin Fingering (London, Great Britain: Oxford University Press,
1967), p. 32.
105
to an unnecessary confusion in the violinist's mind, and is the source of serious errors in the choice of fingering.? Changing Position Changes of position should be executed along a single string. Or, stated conversely, the simultaneous This
well-known teaching principle of Maestro Andres Segovia is clearly visible from an analysis of the fingerings in his Diatonic Major and Minor Scales.
g
collection every change of position (ninety-four of them) is executed along a single string. Figure 77 shows Maestro
Segovia's fingering for the three-octave G major scale. Another example of this consideration is shown by the comparison of contrasting versions of the Mexican folk song 7. Ibid.
8. Andres Segovia, Diatonic Ma.jor and Minor Scales (Washington, D.C.: Columbia Music Co., 1953).
106
1 3 A
a
) \
-A/
K I
10
1@
> i *>
71
o * " *? T U
3
33 JT
1 7 1
2 4
1
3
3 J, 3
) jl i ^ T
Figure 77.
' ^
'
'
glf
^ ^
^ O 3 1 / 4 O 2 1
4%
Figure 78 illustrates a
fingering which employs a simultaneous change of string and position. The fingering of Figure 79 provides for greater
accuracy and security by keeping the fingers on the fifth string during the change from seventh position to second. The accuracy and security of the above consideration lies in the fact that the fingers use the common string to guide them into the new position. In fact, one of the
107
IB:
2
~9
U U
1 J i VI J
<2
/J
1
J
A
Figure 78.
"Nieve Blanca de la Sierra" (Measures 1-4) Employing a Simultaneous Change of String and Position
108
G)
<5>-
<5>-
in
1
~r A
Figure 79.
"Nieve Blanca de la Sierra" (Measures 1-4) Utilizing a Single String for the Change of Position
fingers, not necessarily a finger being used in the stopping of the string, assumes the role of guide finger. the following subtle technique may be employed: At times, Although
it cannot be included in the notation, a finger may be used as a guide finger even though it has not been previously used. In a portion of the "Fugue" from Sonata No. 1 in G
Minor for Unaccompanied Violin by Johann Sebastian Bach (Figure 80), the 1st finger should move to the new string before each change of position is made. This allows the
finger to "feel" the new string before any shift is executed and to become a guide finger into the new position. Thus,
109
Figure 80.
Bach, "Fugue" from Sonata No. 1 in G Minor for Unaccompanied Violin (Measures 93 and 94)
When a move from one position to another is necessary, all movement should be in the direction of the new position. 9 ". . . finger in the direction of the passage."
This important point can be seen by comparing different fingerings to an excerpt from Etude Fiir Violin by Johann Filip von Schentz (Figures 81 and 82). from fourth position to twelfth. The passage moves
overall musical thought by moving away from the goal of twelfth position. 9. It moves from position four back to
110
Animato
Figure 81.
Schentz, Etude Fur Violin (Measures 1-8) Moving Away from the Final Goal of Twelfth Position
position three, then back again to position two before finally proceeding to position twelve. Figure 82 avoids the
expending of unnecessary energy by moving in the most direct route to the final goal (position four to nine to eleven to twelve). Once the momentum is begun for the new position,
Ill
Animato
Figure 82.
Schentz, Etude Fur Violin (Measures 1-8) Utilizing Direct Movement to the Final Goal of Twelfth Position
112
Consecutive Notes on Different Strings When consecutive notes are to be played on different strings, it is desirable to use different fingers for each of the notes in order that performance security and the legato style be maintained. The performance security of this prin-
ciple lies in the ability of another finger to carefully prepare for the second note while the initial finger is in the process of holding the first note. "Maximum coordina-
tion of the playing mechanism (the hand) can be achieved by mental and physical preparation. Preparation in this con-
text means placing the fingers on or above as many keys as possible ahead of the time they have to be played. Finger preparation also contributes to the production of the legato style. Using different fingers on two notes on dif-
ferent strings can permit the smooth connection of notes the first note is released at the same instant that the second note is sounded. This procedure is impossible if the As the finger moves
from the first note on its way to the second, a break in the sound will occur because the initial string will cease to vibrate as soon as it is released. The above points may be illustrated by comparing three fingering solutions to the first four measures of La Tersicore del Nord, Op. 147, No. 12, by Mauro Giuliani.
10. Julien Musafia, The Art of Fingering at the Piano (New York: MCA Music, 1971), p. 3.
113
Figure 83 shows the 1st finger moving from the c a1 in measure two. musical line.
#9
to the
Allegretto
i i m
'2
CD
4
sr
Figure 83.
Giuliani, La Tersicore del Nord, Op. 147, No. 12 (Measures 9-12) Using the Same Finger for the c#2 and a^ in Measure 2
As discussed previously,
the hinge-bar is sometimes used in these instances; but using a portion of a finger close to the hand is more awkward than using the tip of another finger because the hingebar requires a single finger to execute contrasting movements simultaneouslyreleasing one string while depressing another. In Figure 85, the use of independent fingers and
114
Allegretto
^=\
l U
v
ciilL.
+
<D 3 1 *
f-
o I
n Z
J > f U=
* f
s -L
j
u
4P 1
Figure 84.
..J
rl
1f
L
Giuliani, La Tersicore del Nord, Op. 147, No, 12 (Measures 9-12) Using the Hinge-bar in Measure 2
Allegretto
2
4L.
Q) -3 t 0 s *
is
m
1
i *
Anh.1
Figure 85.
Giuliani, La Tersicore del Nord, Op. 147, No. 12 (Measures 9-123 Using Different Fingers for the c^2 and a in Measure 2
115
It may be observed also in Figure 85 that when different fingers are used to hold consecutive notes that fall within the same fret, the finger nearest the head of the guitar holds the lowest-pitched note. This principle allows
the fingers to fall onto the fingerboard in the mopt natural position. "Whenever fingers are . . . compacted in a close This
takes a small rotation of the forearm, pivoting from the elbow and on the tip of the thumb.11 The fingering given
in a portion of the Spanish folk song "Suenos Tristes" (Figure 86) requires an awkward and difficult inward turning of the wrist. A better selection to the same passage,
Grazioso
Figure 86.
"Suenos Triestes" (Measures 1 and 2) With Awkward Fingering Charles Duncan, Op. cit., p. 16.
11.
116
Grazioso
Figure 87.
"Suenos Tristes" (Measures 1 and 2) Utilizing a Natural Position for the Hand
Open Strings As stated previously, the use of open strings in melodic playing may not be desired because of the lack of control over duration, timbre, and vibrato. In solving
awkward fingering problems and in changing positions, however, the use of an open string may be of value. In the
first four measures of Inventio VIII by Johann Sebastian Bach (Figure 88), the given fingering is secure except for the awkward jump of the first finger between measures three and four. and g
#2
This move creates a severe break between the b1 As shown in Figure 89, the use of an open string
makes the execution of the passage much easier and produces a smoother connection between the notes.
117
Vivace
Figure 88.
Bach, Inventio VIII (Measures 1-4) With Awkward Movement of the First Finger Between Measures 3 and 4
Vivace
Figure 89.
118
Study in A Major, Op. 60, No. 22, by Mateo Carcassi (Figure 90), demonstrates the use of an open string to facilitate many changes of position.
y
i!
Figure 90. Carcassi, Study in A Major, Op. 60, No. 22 (Measures 1 and 2)
requiring little or no left hand movement should be utilized. 2. When changes of position are necessary, the
119
3. In changing positions, guide fingers should be
consecutive notes on different strings. 5. When consecutive notes fall within the same fret,
the finger nearest the head of the guitar should hold the lowest-pitched note. 6. Open strings are often of value in solving difficult
AND CONTRAPUNTAL MUSIC The ability to add accompaniment to melody, or other melodies to a melody, helped the guitar earn its famous description as a "little orchestra.""'" This is quite an
achievement considering that it must all be done with only four left hand fingers * The task is musically accomplished
only if the fingers maintain their highest degree of independence yet work together in the most efficient manner. Charles Duncan points out that "Most music for the guitar . . . consists neither wholly of chords, scales, nor arpeggios, but of various combinations of the three. In the
General Considerations The Bar When playing homophonic or contrapuntal music, a great deal of use must be made of the bar. The bar often
1. Andres Segovia and Vladimir Bobri, "A Conversation," Guitar Review (Spring, 1978), p. 3. 2. Charles Duncan, The Art of Classical Guitar Playing (Princeton: New Jersey: Summy-Birchard Music, 1980), p. 82.
120
121
allows the execution of passages that would otherwise be impossible, or makes easier the execution of passages that would otherwise be difficult. It should be kept in mind,
however, that depressing the strings by means of a bar requires more physical exertion than using the tips of the fingers. As Charles Duncan indicates, "Barred chords
present certain unique difficulties, even to advanced players. The full bar in particular works at a mechanical disWith the finger
fully extended, the joints cannot serve as fulcra, and the flexor muscle hence can only partially contract."3 John
Duarte states that ". . . the use of excessive pressure on the strings is not only wasteful but also introduces added stress that inhibits the free action of the hand. 4 The use of the bar in measure four of Study in A, Op. 6, No. 6, by Fernando Sor, causes an awkward shift of 1 #1 the 1st finger from the e to the g (Figure 91). A different fingering solution for these measures eliminates the use of the bar (Figure 92). The fingering given in
3. Charles Duncan, The Art of Classical Guitar Playing (Princeton, New Jersey: Summy-Birchard Music, 1980), p. 17. 4. John Duarte, The Bases of Classic Guitar Technique (Borough Green, Great Britain: Novello & Co., Ltd.,
122
Mi* &
'i CII (f^ ^
r
, 1
i1 * r
CII g ) _-9
1/"
oj"
tt -2'3-^
=;W=; r ' Lf r
Figure 91.
Allegro
Figure 92.
Sor, Study in A, Op. 6, No. 6 (Measures 5-9) Fingered to Eliminate the Use of the Bar
123
Figure 93 for the "Bourree" from the Lute Suite in E Minor, by Johann Sebastian Bach, demands a continuous use of the bar. The results are tension and fatigue.
,( :iv
cV
( :III
i - 0 ,t h n
AJL T
T r
Figure 93.
Bach, "Bourree" from the Lute Suite in E Minor (Measures 13 and 14) Utilizing the Bar
Tempo di be>urree
-f
n iL PP: si ! T ' r -r T T T
""""
*
0J
Figure 94.
Bach, "Bourree" from the Lute Suite in E Minor (Measures 13 and 14) Fingered to Eliminate Use of the Bar
124
The use of the bar in an excerpt from Etude in A Major by Napoleon Coste creates an overlapping of pitches and demonstrates an improper concept of the melody (Figure 95).
Moderato ^
CDC
CII 0
cni__ n
5 ! = ; -S
1
.
.p
cJIX
N1 i
I ^
ri
i, 3
1
1 J
i =
Figure 95.
Another fingering solution eliminates the use of the bar and allows each melody to be given individual attention (Figure 96).
125
Moderato 1
~ =-
t~ o
0
o
i
rM
-ff
tL.
UJ
if
f"
=j
, 1 i 1 i i .j 1
Figure 96.
Coste, Etude in A Major (Measures 1-4) Fingered to Eliminate Use of the Bar
Finger Preparation Important reasons for preparing fingers in advance of their use were discussed in the previous chapter with regard to melodic playing. The same reasons support finger While
some fingers are playing certain notes, other fingers are moving into position to play the notes that are to follow. Two factors work together to accomplish this. First, the
126
fingering worked out in preparing the music is such that fingers are left free to play notes that will follow. Second, the fingers that are left free to play these coming notes prepare themselves by moving as close to the notes as possible before the notes must be sounded. large leaps and quick movements. This eliminates
ier to play, resulting in smoother and more secure playing. This is illustrated in a passage from Country Dance by Ferdinando Carulli as shown in Figure 97. The 4th finger
Moderato
T
*
C)
*
1
i t U J
,..p 1 0'*
3J
o
f
M &
2J 1f
Y LLLT
Figure 97.
J f
J ^ = "f i Lclf
1 I?
TR
n, I ^ -r y
127
to play the g. The 3rd finger must move as close as pos2 is sounding. This preparation
of the 3rd finger, of course, cannot be notated. Specific Fingering Principles The simultaneous sounding of two or more notes creates a musical texture that is much more complex than the melodic playing discussed in previous chapters. Some new
guidelines are necessary to deal with this added complexity, but much of the following material is only a restatement of previous principles examined in a different context. Strong and Weak Finger Combinat ions The discussion of finger combinations in Chapter 3 dealt with melodic playing. For the same reasons as given
there regarding the alteration of one finger with another, it is advantageous to use stronger combinations of fingers as two or more strings are held simultaneously. This can be
observed in contrasting fingering versions of a portion of Asturias by Isaac Albniz. In measures three to six of
Figure 98, the simultaneous use of fingers 2, 3, and 4 is required. Also, the finger combination 2-3 is repeated The fingering of Figure 99
replaces the 2-3-4 combination with 1-2-4 and avoids completely the weak 2-3 combination by replacing it with 1-2.
128
Moderato
CVII
00
f'
CVII
Figure 98.
129
CVII
00
ffl
Figure 99.
130
Guide Fingers and Pivot Fingers As has been supported previously with regards to the playing of single melody lines, extensive use should be made of guide fingers. This principle is of equal impor-
tance with the fingering and performing of homophonic and contrapuntal music. Having a finger guiding along a string
as a group of two or more notes is approached is much more secure than approaching the notes unprepared. The use of
guide fingers is illustrated in an excerpt from Study in C, Op. 6, No. 8, by Fernando Sor (Figure 100) and in an excerpt from Spanish Dance No. 5 by Enrique Granados (Figure 101).
Andantino
i>. J.
-4 Yfl %
1C"
-A
"3I
A 2*
1
u
.4 3*
-J
T "
af
>\-
-4-r-.
-v
-4
- - 1 / -3
& t
2 r ^ tr* : p 1'
11
yf
Figure 100.
131
Allegretto
CVII
r-J?
h
,J
r-f
TjT
t-
CVII
CD
=j * ii NMM ) {t r 3 * 3
# -40
W=
1
4:-
Q5
j &
Figure 101.
In Figures 102 and 103 two versions of Estudio in A Minor by Dionisio Aguado are given. The first version (Figure 102)
requires a change from first position to third position without the utilization of guide fingers. The second ver-
sion (Figure 103) allows the second finger to act as a guide finger during the shift from first to third position.
132
Allegro
4 ^ = 14M
-ff t - i r -Zf
W
=*=
<
4
f
f=-4^
}
Z
J-
J 1# =^==
Figure 102.
il
%
H 4
f
4 W
1
*
4 1
*-V
<
5*
1 # J ,..v
-<l
-j
Figure 103.
Aguado, Estudio in A Minor (Measures 1-4) Utilizing a Guide Finger for the Change of Position
133
The subtle technique brought out in Chapter 4 under "Changing Position" should again be mentioned here. As
stated earlier, it cannot be included in the notation, but a finger may be used as a guide finger even though it has not just previously been used. Also, a finger that has just
previously been used may guide the hand into a position that will aid the use of another finger illustrate these points. Figures 104 and 105
in measure three is played on the second string for an In order to make the move smoothly and
expressive effect.
Tempo di aria
\
} a i
1^
lJ * * of ti'li .#
u
-
rri
1 I * * * y I
T T R ' T
o J
U
&=
)
(fp
. r n ' - H - r i i r m 4
iJ
Figure 104.
134
accurately, the fourth finger may be placed lightly on the second string as the hand moves out of first position. This finger is then used as a guide finger to the
i_ ,
In measure three of Figure 105, fingers 1 and 2 are used on beats one and three. The placement of fingers 3 and 4
on the second beat is more secure if fingers 1 and 2 remain on the strings and "guide" the hand into the new position.
Larghett0
r?\
i
1*
*
=j
) 4- ^ Hf
UN
"--a*
w
-U
i: t i ^
r
Figure 105.
A pivot finger is a finger that remains in the same place while other fingers move (pivot) around it. Because
of the continuous contact with a string, the use of pivot fingers makes the performance of many passages easier and smoother. As Vahdah Bickford states:
135
This manner of changing chords by leaving the finger on the notes which are to be used in the next chord (whenever possible) cannot be too strictly adhered to, for it is only in this way that the change from one chord to another may be smooth, and it also enables the performer to play with greater ease, for the finger which remains on the chord serves as a sort of pivot for the next chord, aiding the other fingers to find their places quickly. . . .5 In a passage from Study in B Minor, Op. 35, No. 22, by Fernando Sor, the 3rd finger functions as a pivot finger. This is shown in Figure 106.
Allegretto SII 1
Figure 106.
York:
5. Vahdah Bickford, Method for Classic Guitar (New Peer International Corp., 1964), p. 37.
136
Simultaneous Notes Behind the Same Fret For the simultaneous sounding of notes behind the same fret, the finger nearest the head of the guitar holds the lowest-pitched note. The basis of this principle is the
same as that previously discussed for the consecutive sounding of notes behind the same fret : The outward rotation of
the wrist necessary to hold these notes allows the fingers to fall into the most natural position. The value of the
principle can be observed by comparing different fingerings to the Study in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 16, by Fernando Sor. In Figure 107 the fingers begin in basic position, but lack of care in the preparation of fingers causes the fourth finger to hold the note on the third fret of the fourth
Allegretto grazioso
. 4 = ^
1 .a
f t
3, t r2 P
nH9t g rl
>
H Hi9
Figure 107.
Sor, Study in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 16 (Measures 1 and 2) Using an Awkward Fingering
137
string while the third finger is holding the third fret of the second string. This occurs in beat two of measure one The fingering pro-
vided in Figure 108 gives the third finger the responsibility of holding the lowest-pitched note.
Allegretto grazioso
Figure 108.
Sor, Study in D Minor, Op. 31, No. 16 (Measures 1 and 2) Using a Secure Fingering
Consecutive Notes on Different Strings As stated in Chapter 4, when consecutive notes are to be played on different strings, it is desirable to use different fingers for each of the notes. This same prin-
138
notes are to be held simultaneously. In Figure 109 the
fingering given to a passage from "Spanish Romance" by an anonymous composer is awkward when progressing from measure two to measure three. It requires that the first finger jump
Canta bile
4*=*=
r
cv
A
i J jL ^ '-Cr 1 iXr1"-4/ r
# j#
-MM f
w i
r1
1
r
J :~=tEf==ti ijj r
r . \ i r . 1
W r
{
# r
Figure 109.
139
The better fingering provided in Figure 110 will not only eliminate the awkward jump but also will allow the 1st finger to prepare for the bar in advance.
Cantaloile
4 %
r
cv
A
P
i J ji * ^ 1 '-Cr iXr,1 r
3J
-y _J
-1
,9
-J-.= P f
jF-
J J J-^i = -Lr I l Lr [ r
r ^
S-
Figure 110.
140
Open Strings It has been previously demonstrated that the use of open strings is often of great benefit in alleviating fingering problems in melodic playing or in moving from one position to another. Likewise, the use of open strings is
of great advantage in the playing of homophonic and contrapuntal music. The sounding of two or more notes simultane-
ously is often made easier by the use of open strings, and open strings may leave fingers free to prepare for future placements. Both of these elements can be observed in
Andante
Figure 111.
141
Summary of Fingering Principles 1. Strong finger combinations instead of weak ones
should be utilized. 2. 3. Guide fingers and pivot fingers should be utilized. For the simultaneous sounding of notes behind the
same fret, the finger nearest the head of the guitar should hold the lowest-pitched note. 4. When consecutive notes are to be played on different
strings, different fingers should be used for each of the notes. 5. The use of open strings may make the playing of
simultaneous notes easier and may leave fingers free to prepare for future placements.
CHAPTER 6 RIGHT HAND FINGERING While the left hand is responsible for some elements of expression (ligados, vibrato, and portamento, for example), most of these duties are given to the right hand. The
responsibilities range from basic elements of musicianship such as separation of a melody from an accompaniment, loudness and softness, crescendo and descrescendo, accents, staccato, and maintenance of a consistent timbre to a wide range of effects such as rasgueado, tambora, pizzicato, ponticello, sul tasto, using a lot of fingernail, and using a small amount of fingernail. Some of these expressive
elements will be noted on the score, but most are left to the the knowledge and selection of the performer. They do not
deal with fingering per se, but the conscientious application of good fingering will allow for easier execution of the desired expression. General Considerations Basic Position The utilization of basic right hand position as described in Chapter 2 will be thoroughly discussed later in this chapter, but as a "general consideration" it is
142
143
pointed out that the fingers which are not momentarily needed may sometimes rest on the strings in basic position. For example, in the measures shown in Figure 112, from Study in C, Op. 60, No. 6, by Mateo Carcassi, fingers i^, m, and a rest on the strings in basic position during that portion of the music when the thumb plays alone.
Mod
ato
a
IJ
it
P m
J
J
f
IJ
{ ! I
xJ Lf LLs r
r r r r f rf?
3)
I J
J
ff
^jjj LXtt
1 Carcassi, Study in C, Op. 60, No. 6 (Measures 1-3)
Figure 112.
144
The advantage of this concept is a maintenance of as much contact as possible with the strings. sizes this point as he states: With the right hand, the fingers may be rested on the treble strings whilst the thumb plays on the lower one, providing it is not necessary for them to continue sounding. The thumb may be rested on the bass strings whilst the fingers are used on the higher ones, again with the same proviso. In both cases this practice, which should be fostered at an early stage in the development of technique, helps to damp out unwanted sounds caused by resonance (sympathetic vibration) of either the open strings or their harmonics. When the thumb is rested, much depends upon the nature of its attachment to the hand. Some players can incline it so that it touches more than one string, eg [sic] Segovia, but without causing it to approach too closely to the fingers; others cannot do this without dropping the wrist toward the guitar and, in maintaining a good right-hand position, can touch only one string. In all cases the thumb should be rested lightly on the strings, 'shadowing' the fingers at a constant distance as they cross the strings (bass to treble or vice versa); if it is anchored in one place the fingers will progressively change their angle of attack as the strings are traversed.1 Specific Fingering Principles Alternate Fingers Whenever practical, repetition of a single finger should be avoided If one finger is repeated successively John Duarte empha-
at even a moderate tempo, two problems are introduced. First, the muscle of the finger does not have ample time to 1. John Duarte, The Bases of Classic Guitar Technique (Borough Green, Great Britain: Novello & Co., 1975), p. 36.
145
relax-and physiologically recover. This results in fatigue. "When (muscular)
contraction is prolonged or repeated in quick succession, the muscle fatigues, i.e., lactic acid and other waste products accumulate in the tissue in excess of the ability of the circulatory system to remove them A period of rest is then
mandatory in order to permit the tissue to recover Second, the finger cannot mechanically recover quickly enough to adequately prepare for proper approach to the string. The importance of proper preparation is
explained by Charles Duncan" In view of the presumably common origin of string instruments, an analogy from archery seems appropriate to describe the theoretical division of a stroke into phases. The preparation corresponds to notching and drawing, the execution, to aiming and shooting an arrow. Tones that are thought of thus as releases of energy will always sound freer and more sonorous than if thought of as expenditures of energy. It is possible to conceive a third stage to the stroke, the recovery. In the sense of a connective movement that links each execution with the next preparation, it is undeniably part of the overall cycle. But it is not the product of a positive playing impulse. Rather it is a reflex movement and should approach the speed limit of our technique, the effort required for recovery increases. Movements become involuntarily larger as the fingers work harder to return to a usable position. The more exaggerated the recovery, the more uncontrolled the playing. At the limits of technique, there are only helpless, flailing recovery movements, which 2. Julien Musafia, The Art of Fingering in Piano Playing (New York: MCA Music, 1971), p. 2.
146
physiologically represent an overloadon the weak extensor muscles in particular and on the nervous system in general.^ The repetition of a single finger in Sonata in A Major by Ferdinando Carulli (Figure 113) results in the abovementioned exaggerated recovery and uncontrolled playing.
Allegro i i i i i i i i i i i i
-*
i
~i
i i
-J -J- -J-4S f - - r
-4 -*-
-J- -J-*
* S
iJ.
tlUtl
i i i i
i i
i i
i i
A
i i i i 2
* i * *
hi
urn
3C
Figure 113.
<D
3. Charles Duncan, The Art of Classical Guitar Playing (Princeton, New Jersey: Summy-Birchard Music, 1980), p. 48.
147
Another right hand fingering for this passage (Figure 114) utilizes the alternation of fingers. This allows one finger
Allegro a jl
m
NJ . J> 4UJ l i J J
=*1>_J_C
r
U J J
/
<]
zf
. f 0
jfA f
Ff
=f=J
TJJJt
0 m i m i
1
i m i
m i m
a n l
1 fn
1
ZK=Z==Z
'
Figure 114.
148
A fingering of the "Bourr^e" from the Suite in D Minor by Robert de Vise (Figure 115) keeps the hand in a natural position by having i play all of the notes falling on the second string and m play all of the notes of the first string. This results in execessive repetition of both A more desirable solution is supplied
'
Teapo di bourree l m
m
E ~
=J
\>v
Tltf
5 V
j ^ J
3 ^
r
i
m
zr
m m m i
-K
Figure 115.
149
Tempo di bourree i m GL JL n i m i m i
;> =J 42r f
t
r >
(
=^ J r
m a m
A-4- i
T
1
i m i
=|f r ' n f l
L_
^1 T
/ r& rl
r T T >T
Figure 116.
de Vise, "Bourree" from the Suite in D Minor (Measures 1-4) Utilizing an Alternation of Fingers
Figure 117 shows a fingering of Study in A Major, Op. 31, No. 19, by Fernando Sor, which keeps the right hand in basic position but which requires the thumb alone to play the rapid thirty-second notes. The fingering solution given
in Figure 118 allows the rapid notes to be executed by an alternation of and jL.
150
ii
t
P
b .a ' -rrsr* 7 r i V mi
p p p p p
V H
| L S B T
P P PP P P
M &
p p? p p
Figure 117.
Sor, Study in A Major, Op. 31, No. 19 (Measures 40-42) Requiring to Execute Rapid Thirtysecond Notes
151
I
o
551 ~z~
pa-#
fr
ILIBJ
P p i pi p
-# ^ -# -#
I
p 1 p i p
y
Figure 118.
"
e-
TTTT
p i P i p
Sor, Study in A Major, Op. 31, No. 19 (Measures 40-42) Utilizing an Alternation of Fingers on Rapid Notes
152
In Figure 119, Study in C by Dionisio Aguado, it is impossible to alternate fingers in measures one through four; but as soon as the music permits (measures five through eight), the alternation of fingers is resumed.
Allegretto a m a m a m a m a in a in
T T
P P a m
f
1 n
T T
P P
-=
9-
r
Figure 119.
153
Strong and Weak Finger Combinations As with the left hand, as much work as possible should be delegated to the stronger fingers and the stronger combinations of fingers instead of weaker ones. For the
same reasons as previously given, the strength or weakness of finger combinations is as follows: The combination of
i-m is str-ong; the combination of i-a is moderately strong; the combination of m-a is weak. Figures 120 and 121 show
contrasting fingerings to Etude de Genre, Op. 36, No. 22, by Napoleon Coste. The fingering of Figure 121 is the most
Allegro moderate* m a m a in a m a cl jl a m a
-UA=+ =$ b i c * Id
a n 1 JL
=]
-J-
? 'u
Figure 120.
Coste, Etude de Genre, Op. 36, No. 22 (Measure 1) Utilizing Weak Fingers
154
Allegro moderato m i a i m
4
m i e
J
m i
rt 1
S4
= \
-J-
4 %
t ' U
Figure 121.
Coste, Etude de Genre, Op.. 36, No. 22 (Measure 1) Utilizing Strong Fingers
The structure of the hand sets the thumb apart from the other fingers.^ This is advantageous in relation to the
guitar strings, allowing the thumb to be responsible for bass notes while the other fingers are responsible for the higher-pitched notes. thought by saying: Extension of the hand is more difficult than contraction, since the normal state of the hand is contracted. Of all the fingers, the thumb is best equipped for the movement of abduction and adduction because its strength lies in the 5 Julien Musafia concurred with this
4. 5
155
direction of opposing the other fingers. . . . The thumb should play one of the notes of an interval involving extension of the hand. Also, the "great flexibility of its root joint"
7
allows
the thumb to work in alternation with the other fingers (as previously demonstrated in Figure 118). However, the thumb
poses some special considerations in terms of finger combinations. Jozsef Gat points out that, "The (thumb) is
clumsy and slow and because of its base jointenabling the thumb to stretch and move diagonallyis less suited to velocity than that of the other fingers. (The base joint
of the thumb is not the articulation of the metacarpal bone and the first phalanx, but of the metacarpal and carpal O bones.)" From this it may be concluded that the thumb (being more clumsy than the other fingers) can easily produce a timbre different from that produced by the other fingers. In melodic passages, therefore, the guitarist must give more attention to maintaining a consistent timbre when alternating the thumb with another finger than when alternating fingers other than the thumb. For this reason, the desire
for minimum physical effort indicates that it is better to finger melodic passages using combinations of i.-in-a than combinations of ]3-i-ro-a. 7. however, an uneven
8. Jdzsef Gat, The Technique of Piano Playing (London: Collet's Holding Ltd., 1965), p. 192.,
156
timbre is desired in a melodic passageaccented notes, for examplethe thumb can easily be employed for that purpose In this respect, the thumb should be given the
accented note because it can be strong "... when it is used as an inarticulate extension of the forearm or in conjunction with a motion of the wrist."
9
It can be observed
that when wa.s used in conjunction with i in Figure 13, was given the accented portion of the beat. Basic Position In basic position i^, m, and a fall naturally on the lower-pitched strings to the higher, respectively,1^ In
the fingering of guitar music, students should be more aware of the advantage of utilizing this order of the fingers, i.e., the advantage of "least physical exertion." As can be observed in Figures 122 and 123, most arpeggios, if not played from basic position, can be played from a very slight modification of it. Figure 122 is a Figure 123 is
9.
10. Richard Greene, "Guitar Forum," American String Teacher (Spring, 1979), p. 41.
157
Allegro
jL
# -J
J r fl
Figure 122.
Moderato I3 1L It ll 5 M.
11 Ci ]L
n a
11
i i Dl an L eI 1a L L IBa:L I5 L n: J -J-0-J -4 d 0 0 0
CJ
-J -J -4 -J -0 0 i > .0 L 01 1
Figure 123.
158
The fingering of homophonic music can nearly always keep the fingers close to basic position. This is demon-
strated in Estilo Popular Argentino No. 1 by Miguel Llobet (Figure 124) and Study in D Major, Op. 35, 17, by Fernando Sor (Figure 125).
CII Allegro a a
a m
CD
P
3=
i m
rn s" '1 y B 1V *
'^ i ^7
Pi pi m m ~ar
-+3+-e
en
jjl
n L
t
Figure 124. Llobet, Estilo Popular Argentino No. 1 (Measures 18-20)
159
Allegro grazioso
me
1 r-
})
y i
4
P
Figure 125.
The first two measures of Lagrima by Francisco Trrega exemplify fingerings which combine the natural order of the fingers as found in basic position with the use and alternation of strong fingers. shown in Figure 126. These measures are
160
Andante n m m a
A .J: . [J 0 U r H
1
p i p i p i m
.
m p
.=
m
In the fingering of scale passages and contrapuntal music, the natural position of the fingers can be maintained between i, m, and a by not crossing (reaching "over") m with i or not crossing a with either i or m to play a higher-pitched string and by not crossing (reaching "under") m with a or not crossing i with either m or a to play a lower-pitched string. The security, of this practice
may be demonstrated by comparing contrasting fingerings to the Fugue in A Minor by Domenico Zipoli (Figures 127 and 128). The solution provided in Figure 128 is stronger than
161
Allegro
(2)
* 2
^
n
) M
1 ;
>
H
l i t 1L 1
i f r Ll-J
[J_J
Figure 127.
Allegro
(D
2
0
4
1
0
cD
1
^U-.i+p
i__, u
m
91
LX-T =b=J=
-rf i m i m i li
3
L
2
*
ta
Figure 128.
162
When scale passages have infrequent changes of strings, the use of strong fingers and the maintenance of momentum may allow the "crossing" of fingers. An example
of this aspect of right hand execution is observed in the fingering of an excerpt from Fantasia by Alonso de Mudarra (Figure 129).
Moderato
Figure 129.
163
But when frequent changes of strings occur, arranging the fingers so that they remain in the most natural position makes the execution of the passage much easier and more secure. For example, Figure 130 is a passage from Concerto The
fingering provided contains many awkward string crossings. Figure 131 provides a more desirable fingering solution for the same passage.
Allegro
U1 2 A 1 ' A
U
imimimimiinim lmimimimi mim
Figure 130.
Telemann, Concerto in A Major for Four Violins (Measures 20 and 21) Containing Awkward String Crossings
legr0 A2
i
U4-f I u
jJU*
Figure 131.
i 1 2 4 \
<3XD 1I
+ K_ r f n
t- fL. 9-
~T~]
2 L E=j EI
C E= ffl
CZ
Lm i m ini i i11 2L m iL oi :
i i ii jL ni Bi :
i ]hi : i iii JL al
dL
Telemann, Concerto in A Major for Four Violins (Measures 20 and 21) Containing Secure String Crossings
164
As Charles Duncan states, "Alternation of the stronger _i-m pair is the most reliable way to play fast passages."11 However, the occasional use of the a finger
dispersed among the alternations of i and m can be a valuable aid, at times, to keeping the fingers in a natural position. This may be observed in a portion of Minuet by
Leonhard von Call as given in Figures 132, 133, and 134. Any attempt at a fingering solution that did not utilize the a finger would result in either the awkward string crossing
Tempo di minuetto
i
i
1 4f r
s m
i m i m i m , m i m i m i m i m i
weal:
2 1
Mr r
i i a i m i m weal: i m i m i m
Figure 132.
Call, Minuet (Measures 30-34) Containing Awkward String Crossings in Measures 2 and 4 Charles Duncan, op. cit., p. 74.
11.
165
in measures two and four of Figure 132 or the awkward string cross and wide reach in measures one, three, and five of Figure 133.. As shown in Figure 134, the brief use of the a finger resolves the string crossing and reach difficulties.
Tempo di minuetto
O 2 )l 3
m a m in I m WO x
a m I
weak
( f m : e i n i m l
in
m . m n i m i
weak
Figure 133.
Call, Minuet (Measures 30-34) Containing Awkward String Crossing and Wide Reach in Measures 1, 3, and 5
166
Tempo di minuetto
i
f
O 2
jf-
m x m x m a m x m x
x a
x m
m x
i
1.
m i
m i
m i
m a m i m
Figure 134.
Call, Minuet (Measures 30-34) Containing Secure Reaches and String Crossings
Summary of Fingering Principles In melodic playing, the fingers should work in In the playing of homophonic and contrapuntal
alternation.
music, repetition of a single finger should be avoided whenever practical. 2. The fingering of melodic passages should avoid
extensive crossing of fingers when changing strings. 3. Strong finger combinations instead of weak ones
music should keep the fingers in the natural order as found in basic right hand position.
CHAPTER 7 APPLICATIONS, EXCEPTIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Application The considerations presented in this document should be applied to all levels of guitar instruction. At the ele-
mentary level, when study is primarily confined to melodic playing in the first position, the following principles of fingering should be emphasized: 1. 2. Basic left hand position should be utilized. Different left hand fingers should be used in the
playing of consecutive notes on different strings. 3. When consecutive notes fall within the same fret,
the left hand finger nearest the head of the guitar should hold the lowest-pitched note. 4. The right hand fingers should work in alternation
avoid extensive crossing of fingers when changing strings. As the student becomes familiar with the notes throughout the guitar fingerboard, emphasis should be placed on the following fingering considerations:
167
168
1. Most melodic passages can be played in a position
requiring little or no left hand movement. 2. When changes of position are necessary, the smallest
number of shifts possible should be employed. 3. In changing positions, guide fingers should be
fingering problems and executing changes of position. 6. The right hand fingering of arpeggios should keep
the fingers in the natural order as found in basic position. In the study of homophonic and contrapuntal music and, as the student becomes more aware of the subtle aspects of music, the fingering considerations to be stressed are: 1. For the simultaneous sounding of notes in the same
fret, the finger nearest the head of the guitar holds the lowest pitched note. 2. Open strings are often not desirable due to the lack
of control of vibrato and duration. 3. Open strings may be used to alleviate fingering
difficulties, to change positions, and to prepare fingers for future material. 4. Pivot fingers should be used whenever possible.
169
5. Whenever practical, repetition of a single right
hand finger should be avoided. 6. The right hand fingering of most homophonic and
contrapuntal music can keep the fingers in the natural order as found in basic position. 7. All fingerings should complement the style, charac-
ter, phrasing, and expression of the music. The topic of guitar fingering can be presented in a variety of ways. An instructor should constantly discuss
and/or make the student aware of fingering principles utilized in all of the music performed by that student. Additionally, the instructor should supply the student with specific exercises dealing with the topic of fingering: 1. Error detection drill"What errors exist in the Supply a better finger-
can be played in a position requiring no left hand movement. Discover this position for each passage." 3. Change of position drill"Supply fingerings to the
following passage that will accomplish a change from fifth position to seventh position." 4. Guide and pivot finger drill"Identify the use of
170
5. Music analysis drill"Analyze the following passage
in terms of tempo, style, character, and composer, and supply an appropriate fingering." Exceptions In the fingering of complex guitar music, many exceptions to the principles presented in this document will, necessarily, be made; or the adherence to one principle may cause the violation of another. For example, in the portion
of Fernando Sor's Study in B Minor, given in Figure 135, the 2nd finger must jump from the a #1 to the d 9 between measures
Modera- jO
Lff
f Lf
Llir
2 J"
j J J '|- Lj 1
By ffg
-v>-J
; n LJ rr J r 171 J L^f ^
Figure 135.
171
two and three. The break in the sound occurring at that
point is difficult to conceal, but the given fingering is the only practical solution because the other fingers are needed for other notes. Another common exception to the
principles given in this dissertation deals with the use of guide and pivot fingers. The stability of leaving a finger
on a string may allow the hand to move temporarily out of the most natural position. This can be observed by examining
measure three of Study in C Major by Mauro Giuliani (Figure 136). The security and smoothness obtained by leaving the
Andante
il=z=:&==9==t==t=i
it
ri n n
r"i
m i nn
4 4 *
'i/ i r r
133
-0-0 S
TF P l
t J ^
*""o| i9
-f 9 -4~
Figure 136.
1st finger in place throughout the measure and the use of a guide finger between beats three and four allows the 2nd finger to hold the _f while the first finger is holding the c2. When considering exceptions, it is emphasized that the principles presented in this work were directed toward a legato style of playing with the most security and the least amount of effort. The principles should, therefore,
be given strict consideration whenever the stated objectives are desired. Suggestions for Future Research Guitar fingering is an important and interesting topic of study. It is hoped that this introductory document
will encourage future research within this subject area. Some of the possible directions that such research might take include: 1. Comparative studies of the fingerings by well-known Such studies might
include factors such as the physical structure of each artist's hands, the type of hall or surroundings in which each artist usually performs, and each artist's ideas regarding interpretation and style. 2. An assessment of musical growth in guitar classes Comparative studies
173
could be conducted between classes which teach and those which do not teach the principles of guitar fingering. 3. Studies of guitar fingering as related to an historic
style or time period. 4. ing. Studies of current trends related to guitar fingerOne such area for examination might be the development
of the guitar quartet which utilizes four sizes of instruments. Should players of the smaller instruments follow
the same fingering principles as those of the standard-size guitar? Should the players of the larger instruments use
the left hand thumb in front of the fingerboard to stop strings, i.e., as in cello technique? The ultimate value of a study of guitar fingering is that it combines with the study of other elements of technique and performance to produce a literate and independent student who has the knowledge and ability to express himself/herself musically and confidently. As Andres
Segovia states, "You should strive to become the first Yourself, not the second Segovia."1 1. John Duarte, The Bases of Classic Guitar Technique (Borough Green, Great Britain: Novello & Co., 1975), p. 8.
A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music . (2nd ed.) Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press, 1973. Bach, C. P. E. Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments. Translated & edited by William Mitchell. New York: Norton & co., 1948. Benfield, Warren. The Art of Double Bass Playing. Evanston, Illinois: Summy-Birchard Co., 1973. Bickford, Vahdah. Method for Classic Guitar. Peer International Corp., 1964. New York:
Czerny, Carl. Letters to a Young Lady on the Art of Playing the Pianoforte. Edited by R. Cooke. London: Bertram Rota, LTD., 1842. Didio, Liberato. Synopsis of Anatomy. C. V. Mosby Co., 1970. Saint Louis:
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Shearer, Aaron. Classic Guitar Technique, vol. 1 & 2. Melville, New York: Franco Columbo Publications, 1963 & 1964. Sherrod, Ronald. Guitar Master Class. Mills Publishing Corp., 1980. New York: Belwin
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Turnbull, Harvey. The Guitar from the Renaissance to the Present Day. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1974. Yampolsky, I. M. The Principles of Violin Fingering, translated by Alan Lumsden. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. Dissertations Cox, Paul W. "The Evolution of Playing Techniques of the Six-Stringed Classic Guitar as Seen Through Teaching Method Books from ca. 1780-ca. 1850." Indiana University, 1978. UM order no. 7909683. Heck, Thomas F. "The Birth of the Classic Guitar and Its Cultivation in Vienna, Reflected in the Career and Compositions of Mauro Giuliani (d. 1829)." Yale University, 1970. UM order no. 71-16249. Hudson, Richard A. "The Development of Italian Keyboard Variations on the 'Passacaglio' and 'Ciaccona' from Guitar Music in the 17th Century." UCLA, 1967. UM order no. 68-219.
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