1. What is virtual constructors/destructors?

Virtual destructors: If an object (with a non-virtual destructor) is destroyed e xplicitly by applying the delete operator to a base-class pointer to the object, the base-class destructor function (matching the pointer type) is called on the object. There is a simple solution to this problem declare a virtual base-class destruct or. This makes all derived-class destructors virtual even though they don t have t he same name as the base-class destructor. Now, if the object in the hierarchy i s destroyed explicitly by applying the delete operator to a base-class pointer t o a derived-class object, the destructor for the appropriate class is called. Virtual constructor: Constructors cannot be virtual. Declaring a constructor as a virtual function is a syntax error. Does c++ support multilevel and multiple i nheritance? Yes. 2. Why Garbage collection? Since C++ does not provide automatic garbage collection like some other language s, smart pointers can be used for that purpose. The simplest garbage collection scheme is reference counting or reference linking, but it is quite possible to i mplement more sophisticated garbage collection schemes with smart pointers. 3. How to write a swap( ) function which swaps the values of the variables using bitwise operators.? Ans: Here is the swap( ) function. swap ( int *x, int *y ) { *x ^= *y ; *y ^= *x ; *x ^= *y ; } The swap( ) function uses the bitwise XOR operator and does not require any temp orary variable for swapping. 4. What are the advantages of inheritance? It permits code reusability. Reusability saves time in program development. It encourages the reuse of proven and debugged high-quality software, thus reduc ing problem after a system becomes functional. 5. What is the difference between declaration and definition? The declaration tells the compiler that at some later point we plan to present t he definition of this declaration. E.g.: void stars () //function declaration The definition contains the actual implementation. E.g.: void stars () // declarator { for(int j=10; j>=0; j--) //function body cout<< * ; cout< function_declaration; template function_declaration; The only difference between both prototypes is the use of keyword class or typen ame, its use is indistinct since both expressions have exactly the same meaning and behave exact ly the same way. 6. What do you mean by inline function? The idea behind inline functions is to insert the code of a called function at t he point where the function is called. If done carefully, this can improve the application's

performance in exchange for increased compile time and possibly (but not always) an increase in the size of the generated binary executables. 7. What is virtual class and friend class? Friend classes are used when two or more classes are designed to work together a nd need access to each other's implementation in ways that the rest of the world shouldn't be allowed to have. In other words, they help keep private things priv ate. For instance, it may be desirable for class DatabaseCursor to have more pri vilege to the internals of class Database than main() has. 8. What is function overloading and operator overloading? Student Resources Function overloading: C++ enables several functions of the sam e name to be defined, as long as these functions have different sets of paramete rs (at least as far as their types are concerned). This capability is called fun ction overloading. When an overloaded function is called, the C++ compiler selec ts the proper function by examining the number, types and order of the arguments in the call. Function overloading is commonly used to create several functions of the same na me that perform similar tasks but on different data types. Operator overloading allows existing C++ operators to be redefined so that they work on objects of user-defined classes. Overloaded operators are syntactic sugar for equivalent function calls. They form a pleasant facade that doesn't add anything fundamental to the language (but they can improve understandability and reduce maintenance costs). 9. Difference between realloc() and free()? The free subroutine frees a block of memory previously allocated by the malloc s ubroutine. Undefined results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer. If the Pointer parameter is a null value, no action will occur. The realloc subroutine changes the size of the block of memory pointed to by the Pointer parameter to t he number of bytes specified by the Size parameter and returns a new pointer to the block. The pointer specified by the Pointer parameter must have been created with the malloc, calloc, or realloc subroutines and not been deallocated with t he free or realloc subroutines. Undefined results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer 10. What do you mean by binding of data and functions? Encapsulation. 11. What is abstraction? Abstraction is of the process of hiding unwanted details from the user. 12. What is encapsulation? Packaging an object s variables within its methods is called encapsulation. 13. What is the difference between an object and a class? Classes and objects are separate but related concepts. Every object belongs to a class and every class contains one or more related objects. A Class is static. All of the attributes of a class are fixed before, during, an d after the execution of a program. The attributes of a class don't change. The class to which an object belongs is also (usually) static. If a particular o bject belongs to a certain class at the time that it is created then it almost certainly will still belong to that class right up until the time that it is destroyed. An Object on the other hand has a limited lifespan. Objects are created and even tually destroyed. Also during that lifetime, the attributes of the object may un dergo significant change.

14. What is polymorphism? Explain with an example? "Poly" means "many" and "morph" means "form". Polymorphism is the ability of an object (or reference) to assume (be replaced by) or become many different forms of object. Example: function overloading, function overriding, virtual functions. Another e xample can be a plus + sign, used for adding two integers or for using it to conca tenate two strings. 15. What do you mean by inheritance? Inheritance is the process of creating new classes, called derived classes, from existing classes or base classes. The derived class inherits all the capabilities of the base class, but can add embellishments and refinements of its own. 16. What is a scope resolution operator? A scope resolution operator (::), can be used to define the member functions of a class outside the class. 17. What are virtual functions? A virtual function allows derived classes to replace the implementation provided by the base class. The compiler makes sure the replacement is always called whe never the object in question is actually of the derived class, even if the object is a ccessed by a base pointer rather than a derived pointer. This allows algorithms in the base class to be replaced in the derived class, even if users don't know about the derived class. 18. What is friend function? As the name suggests, the function acts as a friend to a class. As a friend of a class, it can access its private and protected members. A friend function is no t a member of the class. But it must be listed in the class definition. 19. What is the difference between class and structure? Structure: Initially (in C) a structure was used to bundle different type of dat a types together to perform a particular functionality. But C++ extended the structure to contain fu nctions also. The major difference is that all declarations inside a structure are by default publ ic. Class: Class is a successor of Structure. By default all the members inside the class are private. 20. What is public, protected, private? Public, protected and private are three access specifiers in C++. Public data members and member functions are accessible outside the class. Protected data members and member functions are only available to derived classe s. Private data members and member functions can t be accessed outside the class. However there is an exception can be using friend classes. 21. What is an object? Object is a software bundle of variables and related methods. Objects have state and behavior. 22. What is a class? Class is a user-defined data type in C++. It can be created to solve a particula r kind of problem. After creation the user need not know the specifics of the working of a class.

Q. When linking C or Assembly language modules with C++ modules I get undefined symbol errors at link time. It appears that none of the C or Assembly public sym bols can be found. A. C++ is a strongly typed language. In order to support the language to its ful lest, Turbo C++ must attach information to the symbols generated for function na mes and variables. When this is done, the symbol will no longer match the standa rd C style function name. In order to link correctly, the compiler must be notif ied that the symbol is declared in an external module without type information t acked on to the symbol. This is done by prototyping the function as type extern "C". Here is a quick example: extern "C" int normal_c_func( float, int, char ); // name not altered void cplusplus_function( int ); // name altered See related comments under Linker Errors and in the Paradox Engine question in this section. Q. Classes with static data members are getting linker errors ("undefined"). A. This code is built into Turbo C++ 1.0 but not in version 3.0. In the 1.0 comp iler, static members without definitions were given a default value of 0. This d efault definition will no longer be made in the compiler. The programmer must no w give an explicit definition for each static member. Here is a quick example: class A { static int i; }; A linker error saying that A::i is not defined will result unless the source als o contains a line such as: int A::i = 1; Q. What potential problems can arise from typecasting a base class pointer into a derived class pointer so that the derived class's member functions can be call ed? A. Syntactically this is allowable. There is always the possibility of a base po inter actually pointing to a base class. If this is typecast to a derived type, the method being called may not exist in the base class. Therefore, you would be grabbing the address of a function that does not exist. Q: What's the difference between the keywords STRUCT and CLASS? A: The members of a STRUCT are PUBLIC by default, while in CLASS, they default t o PRIVATE. They are otherwise functionally equivalent. Q: I have declared a derived class from a base class, but I can't access any of the base class members with the derived class function. A: Derived classes DO NOT get access to private members of a base class. In orde r to access members of a base class, the base class members must be declared as either public or protected. If they are public, then any portion of the program can access them. If they are protected, they are accessible by the class members , friends, and any derived classes. Q: How can I use the Paradox Engine 1.0 with C++?, A: Because the Paradox Engine functions are all compiled as C functions, you wil l have to assure that the names of the functions do not get "mangled" by the C++ compiler. To do this you need to prototype the Engine functions as extern "C". In the pxengine.h header file insert the following code at the lines indicated. /* inserted at line # 268 */ #ifdef __cplusplus extern "C" { #endif /* inserted at line # 732, just before the final #endif */

#ifdef __cplusplus } #endif Paradox Engine version 2.0 is "aware" of C++ and thus does not require any modif ications to its header file. Q: I have a class that is derived from three base classes. Can I insure that one base class constructor will be called before all other constructors? A: If you declare the base class as a virtual base class, its constructor will b e called before any non-virtual base class constructors. Otherwise the construct ors are called in left-to-right order on the declaration line for the class. Q: Are the standard library I/O functions still available for use with the C++ i ostreams library? A: Yes, using #include functions such as printf() and scanf() will continue to be available. However, u sing them in conjunction with stream oriented functions can lead to unpredictabl e behaviour. Q. In C++, given two variables of the same name, one local and one global, how d o I access the global instance within the local scope? A. Use the scope (::) operator. int x = 10; for(int x=0; x < ::x; x++) { cout << "Loop # " << x << "\n"; // This will loop 10 times } Q. Will the following two functions be overloaded by the compiler, or will the c ompiler flag it as an error? Why? void test( int x, double y); & int test( int a, double b); A. The compiler will flag this as a redeclaration error because neither return t ypes nor argument names are considered when determining unique signatures for ov erloading functions. Only number and type of arguments are considered. Q. If I pass a character to a function which only accepts an int, what will the compiler do? Will it flag it as an error? A. No. The compiler will promote the char to an int and use the integer represen tation in the function instead of the character itself. Q. I was trying to allocate an array of function pointers using the new operator but I keep getting declaration syntax errors using the following syntax: new int(*[10])(); What's wrong? A. The new operator is a unary operator and binds first to the int keyword produ cing the following: (new int) (*[10])(); You need to put parentheses around the expression to produce the expected result s: new (int (*[10]()); Q. What are inline functions? What are their advantages? How are they declared? A. An inline function is a function which gets textually inserted by the compile r, much like macros. The advantage is that execution time is shortened because l inker overhead is minimized. They are declared by using the inline keyword when the function is declared: inline void func(void) { cout << "printing inline function \n"; }

or by including the function declaration and code body within a class: class test { tv public: void func(void) { cout << "inline function within a class.\n"} }; Q. If I don't specify either public or private sections in a class, what is the default? A. In a class, all members are private by default if neither public nor private sections are declared. Q. What does the _seg modifier do? A. Using _seg causes a pointer to become a storage place for a segment value, ra ther than an offset ( or a segment/offset ). For instance, if "int _seg *x" cont ains the value 0x40, then when you use "*x", the value pointed to will be at seg ment 0x40, offset 0. If you add a value to the pointer, the value is multiplied by the size of the pointer type. That new value is used as an offset, and is com bined with the segment value contained in the pointer. For instance, int _seg *x; int value; x = (int _seg *)0x40; value = *(x + 20); value is assigned the value of the integer at 0x40:0x28 (Remember, 20 * sizeof(int) = 40 = 0x28). Q. Can I statically allocate more than 64K of data in a single module? A. Yes. Far data items are now supported: ... char far array1[60000L]; char far array2[60000L]; ... For arrays larger than 64k use: char huge array3[100000L]; Q. What is a friend member function? A. Declaring a friend gives non-members of a class access to the non-public memb ers of a class. Q. Why do I get a "Type name expected" error on my definition of a friend class in my new class? A You need to let the compiler know that the label you use for your friend class is another class. If you do not want to define your entire class, you can simpl y have "class xxx", where xxx is your label. Q: How can I output hex values in upper case using the iostream libraries? A: You need to set the state of the stream using setf(). For example, #include int main(void) {

cout << hex; cout << "\nNot upper-case : " << 255; cout.setf(ios::upper-case); cout << "\nUppercase : " << 255; return 0; } Q. What is the "this" pointer? A. "this" is a local variable in the body of a non-static member function. It is a pointer to the object for which the function was invoked. It cannot be used o utside of a class member function body. Q. Why does a binary member function only accept a single argument? A. The first argument is defined implicitly. Q. Looking through the class libraries there are definitions in classes which lo ok like: class test { int funct( void ) const; }; What is the const keyword doing here? A. There is a pointer to the object for which a function is called known as the 'this' pointer. By default the type of 'this' is X *const ( a constant pointer). The const keyword changes the type to const X *const ( a constant pointer to co nstant data ). Q: I want to use _new_handler and set_new_handler. A: Turbo C++ supports _new_handler and set_new_handler. The type of _new_handler is as follows. typedef void (*vfp)(void); vfp _new_handler; vfp set_new_handler( vfp ); Q: I would like to use C++ fstreams on a file opened in binary mode, how is this done? A: Use ios::binary as the open mode for the file: #include ifstream binfile; binfile.open("myfile.bin", ios::binary); Q: How can I get at the DOS file handle associated with my iostream? A: Using a combination of member functions fd() and rdbuf() you can get at the f ile handle. #include #define fstrno(s) (((s).rdbuf())->fd()) ifstream test("test.txt"); cout << "handle is " << fstrno(test) << '\n'; ORACLE

1.What is Log Switch? - The point at which ORACLE ends writing to one online red o log file and begins writing to another is called a log switch. What is On-line Redo Log? - The On-line Redo Log is a set of tow or more on-line

redo files that record all committed changes made to the database. Whenever a t ransaction is committed, the corresponding redo entries temporarily stores in re do log buffers of the SGA are written to an on-line redo log file by the backgro und process LGWR. The on-line redo log files are used in cyclical fashion. Which parameter specified in the DEFAULT STORAGE clause of CREATE TABLESPACE can not be altered after creating the tablespace? - All the default storage paramete rs defined for the tablespace can be changed using the ALTER TABLESPACE command. When objects are created their INITIAL and MINEXTENS values cannot be changed. What are the steps involved in Database Startup? - Start an instance, Mount the Database and Open the Database. What are the steps involved in Instance Recovery? - Rolling forward to recover d ata that has not been recorded in data files, yet has been recorded in the on-li ne redo log, including the contents of rollback segments. Rolling back transacti ons that have been explicitly rolled back or have not been committed as indicate d by the rollback segments regenerated in step a. Releasing any resources (locks ) held by transactions in process at the time of the failure. Resolving any pend ing distributed transactions undergoing a two-phase commit at the time of the in stance failure. Can Full Backup be performed when the database is open? - No. What are the different modes of mounting a Database with the Parallel Server? Exclusive Mode If the first instance that mounts a database does so in exclusive mode, only that Instance can mount the database. Parallel Mode If the first ins tance that mounts a database is started in parallel mode, other instances that a re started in parallel mode can also mount the database. What are the advantages of operating a database in ARCHIVELOG mode over operatin g it in NO ARCHIVELOG mode? - Complete database recovery from disk failure is po ssible only in ARCHIVELOG mode. Online database backup is possible only in ARCHI VELOG mode. What are the steps involved in Database Shutdown? - Close the Database, Dismount the Database and Shutdown the Instance. What is Archived Redo Log? - Archived Redo Log consists of Redo Log files that h ave archived before being reused. What is Restricted Mode of Instance Startup? - An instance can be started in (or later altered to be in) restricted mode so that when the database is open conne ctions are limited only to those whose user accounts have been granted the RESTR ICTED SESSION system privilege. What is Partial Backup? - A Partial Backup is any operating system backup short of a full backup, taken while the database is open or shut down. What is Mirrored on-line Redo Log? - A mirrored on-line redo log consists of cop ies of on-line redo log files physically located on separate disks, changes made to one member of the group are made to all members. What is Full Backup? - A full backup is an operating system backup of all data f iles, on- line redo log files and control file that constitute ORACLE database a nd the parameter. Can a View based on another View? - Yes. Can a Tablespace hold objects from different Schemes? - Yes. Can objects of the same Schema reside in different tablespaces? - Yes. What is the use of Control File? - When an instance of an ORACLE database is sta rted, its control file is used to identify the database and redo log files that must be opened for database operation to proceed. It is also used in database re covery. Do View contain Data? - Views do not contain or store data. What are the Referential actions supported by FOREIGN KEY integrity constraint? - UPDATE and DELETE Restrict - A referential integrity rule that disallows the u pdate or deletion of referenced data. DELETE Cascade - When a referenced row is deleted all associated dependent rows are deleted. What are the type of Synonyms? - There are two types of Synonyms Private and Pub lic What is a Redo Log? - The set of Redo Log files YSDATE,UID,USER or USERENV SQL f unctions, or the pseudo columns LEVEL or ROWNUM.

What is an Index Segment? - Each Index has an Index segment that stores all of i ts data. Explain the relationship among Database, Tablespace and Data file.? - Each datab ases logically divided into one or more tablespaces one or more data files are e xplicitly created for each tablespace What are the different type of Segments? - Data Segment, Index Segment, Rollback Segment and Temporary Segment. What are Clusters? - Clusters are groups of one or more tables physically stores together to share common columns and are often used together. What is an Integrity Constrains? - An integrity constraint is a declarative way to define a business rule for a column of a table. What is an Index? - An Index is an optional structure associated with a table to have direct access to rows, which can be created to increase the performance of data retrieval. Index can be created on one or more columns of a table. What is an Extent? - An Extent is a specific number of contiguous data blocks, o btained in a single allocation, and used to store a specific type of information . What is a View? - A view is a virtual table. Every view has a Query attached to it. (The Query is a SELECT statement that identifies the columns and rows of the table(s) the view uses.) What is Table? - A table is the basic unit of data storage in an ORACLE database . The tables of a database hold all of the user accessible data. Table data is s tored in rows and columns. What is a Synonym? - A synonym is an alias for a table, view, sequence or progra m unit. What is a Sequence? - A sequence generates a serial list of unique numbers for n umerical columns of a database s tables. What is a Segment? - A segment is a set of extents allocated for a certain logic al structure. What is schema? - A schema is collection of database objects of a User. Describe Referential Integrity? - A rule defined on a column (or set of columns) in one table that allows the insert or update of a row only if the value for th e column or set of columns (the dependent value) matches a value in a column of a related table (the referenced value). It also specifies the type of data manip ulation allowed on referenced data and the action to be performed on dependent d ata as a result of any action on referenced data. What is Hash Cluster? - A row is stored in a hash cluster based on the result of applying a hash function to the row s cluster key value. All rows with the same h ash key value are stores together on disk. What is a Private Synonyms? - A Private Synonyms can be accessed only by the own er. What is Database Link? - A database link is a named object that describes a path f rom one database to another. What is a Tablespace? - A database is divided into Logical Storage Unit called t ablespaces. A tablespace is used to grouped related logical structures together What is Rollback Segment? - A Database contains one or more Rollback Segments to temporarily store undo information. What are the Characteristics of Data Files? - A data file can be associated with only one database. Once created a data file can t change size. One or more data f iles form a logical unit of database storage called a tablespace. How to define Data Block size? - A data block size is specified for each ORACLE database when the database is created. A database users and allocated free datab ase space in ORACLE datablocks. Block size is specified in INIT.ORA file and can t be changed latter. What does a Control file Contain? - A Control file records the physical structur e of the database. It contains the following information. Database Name Names an d locations of a database s files and redolog files. Time stamp of database creati on. What is difference between UNIQUE constraint and PRIMARY KEY constraint? - A col umn defined as UNIQUE can contain Nulls while a column defined as PRIMARY KEY ca

n t contain Nulls. 47.What is Index Cluster? - A Cluster with an index on the Clus ter Key 48.When does a Transaction end? - When it is committed or Rollbacked. What is the effect of setting the value ALL_ROWS for OPTIMIZER_GOAL parameter of t he ALTER SESSION command? - What are the factors that affect OPTIMIZER in choosi ng an Optimization approach? - Answer The OPTIMIZER_MODE initialization paramete r Statistics in the Data Dictionary the OPTIMIZER_GOAL parameter of the ALTER SE SSION command hints in the statement. What is the effect of setting the value CHOOSE for OPTIMIZER_GOAL, parameter of th e ALTER SESSION Command? - The Optimizer chooses Cost_based approach and optimiz es with the goal of best throughput if statistics for atleast one of the tables accessed by the SQL statement exist in the data dictionary. Otherwise the OPTIMI ZER chooses RULE_based approach. What is the function of Optimizer? - The goal of the optimizer is to choose the most efficient way to execute a SQL statement. What is Execution Plan? - The combinations of the steps the optimizer chooses to execute a statement is called an execution plan. What are the different approaches used by Optimizer in choosing an execution pla n? - Rule-based and Cost-based.