Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Electroactive polymers, or EAPs, are polymers that exhibit a change in size or shape when stimulated by an electric field. The most common applications of this type of material are in actuators and sensors. A typical characteristic property of an EAP is that they will undergo a large amount of deformation while sustaining large forces.The majority of historic actuators are made of ceramic piezoelectric materials. hile these materials are able to withstand large forces, they commonly will only deform a fraction of a percent. !n the late "##$s, it has been demonstrated that some EAPs can exhibit up to a %&$' strain, which is much more than any ceramic actuator.(") *ne of the most common applications for EAPs is in the field of robotics in the development of artificial muscles+ thus, an electroactive polymer is often referred to as an artificial muscle. Electro active polymers ,EAP- are actuation materials that are used to drive mechanisms and are fastly replacing conventional methods. .everal investigations are in its way to utilize the excellent properties of the polymer. These materials are now applied in various fields including robotics, medicine, defense etc/0and are effective alternatives for conventional sensors and actuators such as motors, gears, piezoelectric crystals, bearings, screws etc/ 0 These are uni1ue materials capable of soft actuation under low applied voltages. They have been called by some researchers 2artificial muscles3 due to their large strain characteristics and electro0mechanical0 chemical muscle0 li4e behavior. They have been shown to be 1uite capable of low temperature actuation as well as being 1uite durable when compared to other actuators in their class. This leads to the belief that there is great potential for use in space applications. EAP3s can change all the paradigm of design and they show great potential as soft robotic actuators, artificial muscles and dynamic sensors in macro0to0micro size range.

1.1 History of Electro Active Polymers

The field of EAPs emerged bac4 in "&&$, when ilhelm 56ntgen designed an experiment in

which he tested the effect of an electrical current on the mechanical properties of a rubber band. (7) The rubber band was fixed at one end and was attached to a mass at the other. !t was then charged and discharged to study the change in length with electrical current. 8.P. .acerdote followed up on 5oentgen9s experiment by formulating a theory on strain response to an applied electric field in "&##.(7) !t wasn3t until "#7: that the first piezoelectric polymer was discovered ,Electret-. Electret was formed by combining carnauba wax, rosin and beeswax, and then cooling the solution while it is subject to an applied ;< electrical bias. The mixture would then solidify into a polymeric material that exhibited a piezoelectric effect.

Polymers that respond to environmental conditions other than an applied electrical current have also been a large part of this area of study. !n "#=#, >atchals4y et al. demonstrated that when collagen filaments are dipped in acid or al4ali solutions they would respond with a change in volume.(7) The collagen filaments were found to expand in an acidic solution and contract in an al4ali solution. Although other stimuli ,such as p?- have been investigated, due to its ease and practicality most research has been devoted to developing polymers that respond to electrical stimuli in order to mimic biological systems.

The next major brea4through in EAPs too4 place in the late "#@$s. !n "#@#, >awai demonstrated that polyvinylidene fluoride ,PA;B- exhibits a large piezoelectric effect.(7) This spar4ed research interest in developing other polymers systems that would show a similar effect. !n "#CC, the first electrically conducting polymers were discovered by ?ide4i .hira4awa et al.(%) .hira4awa along with Alan 8ac;iarmid and Alan ?eeger demonstrated that polyacetylene was electrically conductive, and that by doping it with iodine vapor, they could enhance its conductivity by & orders of magnitude. Thus the conductance was close to that of a metal. Dy the late "#&$s a number of other polymers had been shown to exhibit a piezoelectric effect or were demonstrated to be conductive.

!n the early "##$s, ionic polymer0metal composites were developed and shown to exhibit electroactive properties far superior to previous EAPs. The major advantage of !P8<s was that they were able to show activation ,deformation- at voltages as low as " or 7 volts.(7) This is orders of magnitude less than any previous EAP. Eot only was the activation energy for these materials much lower, but they could also undergo much larger deformations. !P8<s were shown to exhibit anywhere up to %&$' strain, orders of magnitude larger than previously developed EAPs.(")

!n "###, Foseph Dar0<ohen, proposed the Armwrestling 8atch of EAP 5obotic Arm Against ?uman <hallenge.(7) This was a challenge in which research groups around the world competed to design a robotic arm consisting of EAP muscles that could defeat a human in an arm wrestling match. The first challenge was held at the Electroactive Polymer Actuators and ;evices <onference in 7$$:.(7) Another major milestone of the field is that the first commercially developed device including EAPs as an artificial muscle was produced in 7$$7 by Eamex in Gapan.(") This device was a fish that is able to swim on its own, moving its tail using an EAP muscle. Dut the progress in practical development is not satisfactory.(=)

;A5PA0funded research in the "##$s at .5! !nternational and led by 5on Pelrine developed an electroactive polymer using silicone and acrylic polymers+ the technology was spun off into the company Artificial 8uscle in 7$$%, with industrial production beginning in 7$$&.(:) !n 7$"$, Artificial 8uscle became a subsidiary of Dayer 8aterial.cience.(@)

Chapter 2 ITREATURE RE!IE"

(") !onic polymer metal composites, a subclass of electro0active polymer actuators, offer a promising approach to the problem of manipulating small objects, such as those found in micro0 electro0mechanical systems ,8E8.-. hile other technological alternatives exist, such as piezo0 electric devices, each has at least one characteristic impeding its widespread adoption. A new class of ionic polymer metal composite ,!P8<- artificial muscles has been developed at the HE8 Artificial 8uscles 5esearch !nstitute ,A85!-. !P8< actuators and sensors have been designed, fabricated and successfully tested. These artificial muscles are made from ionic polymeric ,polyelectrolyte- gels chemically treated with platinum. !P8<s are three0dimensional networ4s of cross0lin4ed macromolecular polyelectrolytes with internal electrodes that swell, shrin4, bend, and deform in an electric field. Thus, direct computer control of large expansions and contractions of !onic polymeric gel0noble metal composite muscles by means of voltage controller has been achieved. They exhibit large motion sensing and actuation capabilities, can be produced relatively inexpensively, and can be cut arbitrarily small. .ince these devices re1uire only a few volts for actuation, they represent a safe alternative to many problems. This paper describes the design of a micro gripper which uses both the actuation and sensing capabilities of these artificial muscles. (7) !n this paper, the actuation mechanism of electro0active paper ,EAPap- actuators is addressed and the potential of the actuators is demonstrated. EAPap is a paper that produces large displacement with small force under an electrical excitation. EAPap is made with a chemically treated paper by constructing thin electrodes on both sides of the paper. hen electrical voltage is applied on the electrodes the EAPap produces bending displacement. ?owever, the displacement output has been unstable and degraded with timescale. To improve the bending performance of EAPap, different paper fibers 0 softwood, hardwood, bacteria cellulose, cellophane, carbon mixture paper, electrolyte containing paper and >orean traditional paper, in conjunction with additive chemicals, were tested. Two attempts were made to construct the
4

electrodes/ the direct use of aluminum foil and the gold sputtering techni1ue. !t was found that a cellophane paper exhibits a remar4able bending performance. hen 7 8A m0" excitation voltage was applied to the paper actuator, more than % mm tip displacement was observed from the %$ mm long paper beam. This is 1uite a low excitation voltage compared with that of other EAPs. ;etails of the experiments and results are addressed. (%) ;ue to their inherited mechano0electric transduction capability, long0life, and effective operation in both air and water, ionic polymerImetal composites ,!P8<s- are considered for energy harvesting applications. The reported research aims to study different parameters in the mechanical domain ,stiffness and scalability- and the electrical domain ,impedance and interfacial area- that seem to have profound effects on battery charging, with the aid of an electromechanical transducer model ,Tiwari et al 7$$& .mart .truct. .yst. = :=#I%-. Experiments performed to confirm the model predictions are also reported. The research demonstrates the applicability of !P8< as an energy harvester in lower fre1uency regions ,J:$ ?z- with an average efficiency of around 7' or less. The instantaneous power output from "$ mm ,width- K:$ mm ,length- K$.7 mm ,thic4ness- was measured to be approximately = L mM%-. (=) Electro0active paper ,EAPap- is attractive as an electro0active polymer ,EAP- actuator material due to its low weight, dry condition, large displacement output, low actuation voltage and low power consumption and biodegradability. EAPap is made from cellulose. <ellulose fibre is dissolved into a solution and made into a sheet, then thin electrodes are deposited on the cellulose paper to ma4e an EAPap actuator. The performance of EAPap actuators was evaluated in terms of tip displacement, bloc4ing force and electrical power consumption. The maximum tip displacement of =.% mm was obtained from a =$ mm long EAPap actuator when $.7: 4A mmM" was applied. This actuation voltage is 1uite low compared with other electronic EAP materials. The effect of the environment in terms of humidity and temperature was also investigated. the relative humidity was increased up to #:', the tip displacement increased. hen hen the ,7$

temperature was increased the displacement slowly increased and then gradually decreased after the temperature reached %$N<. These measurements were performed under a variety of environmental and input factors including fre1uency, actuation voltage, temperature and humidity.
5

(:) .hape0memory polymers ,.8Ps- have been one of the most popular subjects under intensive investigation in recent years, due to their many novel properties and great potential. These so0 called .8Ps by far surpass shape0memory alloys and shape0memory ceramics in many properties, e.g., easy manufacture, programming, high shape recovery ratio and low cost, and so on. ?owever, they have not fully reached their technological potential, largely due to that the actuation of shape recovery in thermal0responsive .8Ps is normally only driven by external heat. Thus, electro0activate .8P has been figured out and its significance is increasing in years to come. This review focuses on the progress of electro0activate .8P composites. .pecial emphases are given on the filler types that affect the conductive properties of these composites. Then, the mechanisms of electric conduction are addressed.

Chapter # T$PE% O& E ECTRO ACTI!E PO $'ER%

EAP can have several configurations, but are generally divided in two principal classes/ a- ;ielectric and !onic. b- ;ielectric EAPs ;ielectric EAPs, are materials in which actuation is caused by electrostatic forces between two electrodes which s1ueeze the polymer. ;ielectric elastomers are capable of very high strains and are fundamentally a capacitor that changes its capacitance when a voltage is applied by allowing the polymer to compress in thic4ness and expand in area due to the electric field. This type of EAP typically re1uires a large actuation voltage to produce high electric fields ,hundreds to thousands of volts-, but very low electrical power consumption. ;ielectric EAPs re1uire no power to 4eep the actuator at a given position. Examples are electrostrictive polymers and dielectric elastomers. &erroelectric Polymers Berroelectric polymers are a group of crystalline polar polymers that are also ferroelectric, meaning that they maintain a permanent electric polarization that can be reversed, or switched, in an external electric field. Berroelectric polymers, such as polyvinylidene fluoride,PA;B-, are used in acoustic transducers and electromechanical actuators because of their inherent piezoelectric response, and as heat sensors because of their inherent pyroelectric response.

&i()re #.1* %tr)ct)re of Poly +vi,yli-e,e fl)ori-e.

Electrostricive Graft Polymers

Figure 3.2: Cartoon of an Electrostricive graft polymer.

Electrostricive graft polymers consist of flexible bac4bone chains with branching side chains. The side chains on neighboring bac4bone polymers cross lin4 and form crystal units. The bac4bone and side chain crystal units can then form polarized monomers, which contain atoms with partial charges and generate dipole moments, shown in Bigure %.7. hen an electrical field is applied, a force is applied to each partial charge and causes rotation of the whole polymer unit. This rotation causes Electrostricive strain and deformation of the polymer

Liquid Crystalline Polymers 8ain0chain li1uid crystalline polymers have mesogenic groups lin4ed to each other by a flexible spacer. The mesogens within a bac4bone form the mesophase structure causing the polymer itself to adopt a conformation compatible with the structure of the mesophase. The direct coupling of the li1uid crystalline order with the polymer conformation has given main0chain li1uid crystalline elastomers a large amount of interest. The synthesis of highly oriented elastomers leads to have a large strain thermal actuation along the polymer chain direction with temperature variation resulting in uni1ue mechanical properties and potential applications as mechanical actuators. Io,ic EAPs !onic EAPs, in which actuation is caused by the displacement of ions inside the polymer. *nly a few volts are needed for actuation, but the ionic flow implies a higher electrical power needed for actuation, and energy is needed to 4eep the actuator at a given position. Examples of ionic EAP. are conductive polymers, ionic polymer0metal composites ,!P8<s-, and responsive gels. Fet another example is a Duc4y gel actuator, which is a polymer0supported layer of polyelectrolyte material consisting of an ionic li1uid sandwiched between two electrode layers consisting of a gel of ionic li1uid containing single0wall carbon nanotubes. The name is shaped by similarity on the name of the paper that can be made by filtering carbon nanotubes, the so0called Duc4y paper. Electrorheological Fluid

&i()re #.#* The catio,s i, the io,ic polymer/metal composite are ra,-omly orie,te- i, the a0se,ce of a, electric fiel-. O,ce a fiel- is applie- the catio,s (ather to the si-e of the polymer i, co,tact 1ith the a,o-e ca)si,( the polymer to 0e,-. Electrorheological fluids change the viscosity of a solution with the application of an electric field. The fluid is a suspension of polymers in a low dielectric0constant li1uid. ith the

application of a large electric field the viscosity of the suspension increases. Potential applications of these fluids include shoc4 absorbers, engine mounts and acoustic dampers. Ionic polymer-metal composite !onic polymer0metal composites consist of a thin ionomeric membrane with noble metal electrodes plated on its surface. !t also has cations to balance the charge of the anions fixed to the polymer bac4bone. They are very active actuators that show very high deformation at low applied voltage and show low impedance. !onic polymer0metal composites wor4 through electrostatic attraction between the cationic counter ions and the cathode of the applied electric field, a schematic representation is shown in Bigure %.%. These types of polymers show the greatest promise for bio0mimetic uses as collagen fibers are essentially composed of natural charged ionic polymers. Eafion and Blemion are commonly used ionic polymer metal composites. Stimuli-responsive gels .timuli0responsive gels ,hydrogels, when the swelling agent is an a1ueous solution- are a special 4ind of swellable polymer networ4s with volume phase transition behavior. These materials change reversibly their volume, optical, mechanical and other properties by very small alterations of certain physical ,e.g. electric field, light, temperature- or chemical ,concentrationsstimuli. The volume change of these materials occurs by swellingOshrin4ing and is diffusion0 based. Pels provide the biggest change in volume of solid0state materials. <ombined with an excellent compatibility with micro fabrication technologies, especially stimuli0responsive hydrogels are of strong increasing interest for microsystems with sensor and actuator functionalities. <urrent fields of research and application are chemical sensor systems, microfluidics and multimodal imaging systems.

10

Chapter 2 'ICRO%TRUCTURE AND CO'PO%ITION

The bending actuator is composed mainly of perflourinated ion exchange membrane metallic composite bac4bone called ionic polymer metallic composite or !P8< ,$."&Qm-. !P8< have commercial name EafionR. The ionomer bac4ground or matrix is coated on both sides with metallic electrodes made of noble metals such as Pt, Au or PtOAu ,:0"$Qm-. !t is then neutralized with a certain amount of counter0ions such as monovalent cations of al4ali metals such as Si T, EaT, >T and 5bT. A finishing layer of gold is provided to increase surface conductivity. !t is then fully solvated. The most common solvent used is water but we can also use organic solvents li4e Ethylene glycol or Plycerol. An !P8< has to be 4ept moist continuously for long wor4ing ,= months- and it is done by providing a polysilicon coating. The preparation of ionic polymer metallic composites ,!P8<3s- re1uires involved laboratory wor4. The current state of the art of !P8< manufacturing techni1ue incorporates two distinct preparation processes/

". !nitial compositing process 7. .urface electroding process 5ectangular silicone wells with size "cm by %cm by 70:mm is used as containers for !P8< fabrication. !t is deposited onto glass microscopic slides. e use a multiple material

freeform fabrication system with <artesian gantry positioning system and multiple changeable deposition tools. A low vapour pressure solvent ,E0E0 dimethyl formamide,;8B- is added to the ionomer dispersion to help control crac4ing on drying.

2.1 I,itial Compositi,( process

!t is to metallize the inner surface of polymer by a chemical reduction process. !onic polymer is soa4ed in salt solution of a complex salt Pt ,E?%-=?<l to allow platinum containing cations to diffuse through via the ion exchange process. A proper reducing agent such as SiD?= or EaD?= is introduced to metallize 11

the polymer by a chemical reduction means. The metallic platinum particles are not homogeneously formed across the membrane but concentrate predominantly near the interface boundaries. !t has been experimentally observed that the platinum particulate layer is buried microns deep ,typically "I7$ Qmwithin the !P8< surface and is highly dispersed. The primary reaction for platinum composites is/ SiD?= T =(Pt (E?%)=)7T T &*?0 UUV =Pt T "@E?% T SiD*7 T @?7*

&i()re 2.1* I,itial Compositi,( Process

2.2 %)rface Electro-i,( process

!n the subse1uent surface electroding process, multiple reducing agents are introduced ,under optimized concentrations- to carry out the reducing reaction similar to previous e1uation in addition to the initial platinum layer formed by the initial compositing process. The roughened surface disappears. Platinum will deposit predominately on top of initial Pt layer. *ther metals which are also successfully used include palladium, silver, gold, carbon, graphite etc/ 0 After the upper electrode material is deposited and allowed to air dry, the glass slide is placed in an oven and annealed at C$$ $< for =:minutes. The silicone well is filled with deionized water for %$ minutes to saturate the !P8<. The device is lifted from the well with tweezers and tested. To maintain the actuation capability of !P8<, the material needs to be 4ept moist continuously providing the media that is necessary for ion mobility that is responsible for actuation. ithout coating material, the !P8< can wor4 in air for less than : minutes. .o a low modulus poly silicon coating is applied to the surface to trap the solvent inside !P8<. 12

&i()re 2.2* %)rface Electro-i,( Process

13

Chapter 3 'ECHANI%' &OR E ECTRICA ACTUATION

The electrical0chemical0mechanical response of the !P8<s depends on the neutralizing cation, the nature and the degree of solvent saturation, the electrode morphology, and the chemical structure of the ionomer bac4bone. hen a strip of solvated Eafion based !P8< sample is subjected to an electric potential of several volts ,"0% A- across its faces, it bends towards the anode. The speed and magnitude of this actuation towards the anode depends on the type of solvent. The actuation towards the anode is relatively slow with ethylene glycol comparing to water, and it is comparatively much slower with glycerol than with water or ethylene glycol as solvents. Bor Eafion0based !P8<s with al4ali metals as counter ions, the actuation towards the anode is followed by a slow bac4 relaxation towards the cathode .The bac4 relaxation speed also depends on the type of solvent. The duration of the bac4 relaxation phase can vary, from less than about @$ seconds ,e.g., with most al4ali metals and with water-, to about %$$ seconds ,e.g., in >T0form with ethylene glycol-, and to about 7$$$ seconds ,e.g., in EaT0form with glycerol-. The sample eventually reaches an e1uilibrium state ,while the electric potential is still on-, which is generally different from its initial e1uilibrium position hen an external voltage is applied on an !P8< film, it causes bending towards the anode. The !P8< strip bends due to these ion migration induced hydraulic actuation and redistribution. Eafion !P8< has the ability to absorb considerable amount of water, which increases the cations mobility and conductivity. The cations will get hydrated while the anions sulfonate ,.* %0- group remains fixed to the polymer matrix. hen a voltage ,"0%A- is applied the hydrated cations will move towards the cathode side. The swelling or expansion at the cathode side results due to the increase in volume at the cathode side of !P8<, as a result of the transfer of hydrated cations.This swelling is followed by a slow bac4 relaxation towards cathode. This is because that the wea4 bonds associated with the hydrated cations brea4 after prolonged exposure to the applied electric field causing the inherent 2relaxation.3 This will cause the re0orientation of the cations in the boundary layer. Binally the EAP will come to an e1uilibrium position.

14

:.1 &actors Affecti,( Act)atio,

hen a voltage is applied the !P8<3s behavior is clearly a function of several parameters such as/

Co),ter io, species Bor neutralizing counter ions we have used Si T, EaT, >T and 5bT. The properties of the bare ionomer as well as that of !P8< change with the cation type for the same membrane. !t has been shown that using SiT as cationic base we can get greater displacement and force density per volt. Hy-ratio, The speed and magnitude of the actuation towards the anode depends on the type of solvent. The actuation towards the anode is relatively slow with ethylene glycol comparing to water, and it is comparatively much slower with glycerol than with water or ethylene glycol as solvents.

&re4)e,cy !ts fre1uency dependence shows that as fre1uency increases the beam displacement decreases. ?owever, it must be realized that, at low fre1uencies ,$."I" ?z-, the effective elastic modulus of the !P8< cantilever strip under an imposed voltage is also rather small. *n the other hand, at high fre1uencies ,:I7$ ?z- such moduli are larger and displacements are smaller. This is due to the fact that at low fre1uencies water and hydrated ions have time to gush out of the surface electrodes while at high fre1uencies they are rather contained inside the polymer. Pote,tial The deflection increases as voltage is increased and reaches saturation as the voltage rises. Hnder an A< voltage, the film undergoes swinging movement and the displacement level depends not only on the voltage magnitude but also on the fre1uency. Penerally, activation at lower fre1uencies ,down to $." or $.$" ?z- induces higher displacement and it reaches saturation as the voltage increases.
15

Temperat)re 5ecent tests of the performance of the ionomers at low temperatures showed that while the response decreases with temperature, a sizeable displacement was still observed at the temperature of 0"=$o<. This displacement decrease can be compensated by increasing the voltage and it is interesting to point out that, at low temperatures, the response reaches saturation at much higher voltage levels. The deflection level and the consumed power for the ionomer films was tested at both room temperature and 0"$$o< .Tests of the current as a function of voltage response indicate that the resistance rises with the decrease in temperature, which is in contrast to the behavior of metals and conductive materials.

3.2 Plati,)m Pe,etratio, a,- Dispersio,

;eeper the platinum penetration lower is the surface resistance and greater is the force density. The incipient particles coagulate during the chemical reduction process .*ne can then realize that there is a significant potential for controlling this process in terms of platinum particle penetration, size and distribution. This could be achieved by introducing effective dispersing agents ,additives- during the chemical reduction process. *ne can anticipate that the additives should enhance dispersal of platinum particles within the ionic polymer and thus reduce coagulation. As a result, a better platinum particle penetration in the polymer with a smaller average particle size and more uniform distribution could be obtained. This uniform distribution ma4es it more difficult for water to pass through. Thus+ the water lea4age out of the surface electrode could be significantly reduced.

16

Chapter 5 CHARACTERI6ATION
hile there are many different ways electro active polymers can be characterized, only three will be addressed here/ stress0strain curve, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, and dielectric thermal analysis. %tress/%trai, C)rve

&i()re 5.1* The ),stresse- polymer spo,ta,eo)sly forms a fol-e- str)ct)re7 )po, applicatio, of a stress the polymer re(ai,s its ori(i,al le,(th. .tress strain curves provide information about the polymer3s mechanical properties such as the brittleness, elasticity and yield strength of the polymer. This is done by providing a force to the polymer at a uniform rate and measuring the deformation that results. An example of this deformation is shown in Bigure @.". This techni1ue is useful for determining the type of material ,brittle, tough, etc.-, but it is a destructive techni1ue as the stress is increased until the polymer fractures.
17

Dy,amic mecha,ical thermal a,alysis +D'TA. Doth dynamic mechanical analysis is a non0destructive techni1ue that is useful in understanding the mechanism of deformation at a molecular level. !n ;8TA a sinusoidal stress is applied to the polymer, and based on the polymer3s deformation the elastic modulus and damping characteristics are obtained ,assuming the polymer is a damped harmonic oscillator-. Elastic materials ta4e the mechanical energy of the stress and convert it into potential energy which can later be recovered. An ideal spring will use all the potential energy to regain its original shape ,no dampening-, while a li1uid will use all the potential energy to flow, never returning to its original position or shape ,high dampening-. A viscoelastic polymer will exhibit a combination of both types of behavior. Dielectric thermal a,alysis +DETA. ;ETA is similar to ;8TA, but instead of an alternating mechanical force an alternating electric field is applied. The applied field can lead to polarization of the sample, and if the polymer contains groups that have permanent dipoles ,as in Bigure ".7-, they will align with the electrical field. The permittivity can be measured from the change in amplitude and resolved into dielectric storage and loss components. The electric displacement field can also be measured by following the current. *nce the field is removed, the dipoles will relax bac4 into a random orientation.

18

Chapter 8 APP ICATION% O& E ECTRO ACTI!E PO $'ER%

&i()re 8.1* Cartoo, -ra1i,( of a, arm co,trolle- 0y EAPs. "he, a volta(e is applie+0l)e m)scles. the polymer e9pa,-s. "he, the volta(e is remove- +re- m)scles. the polymer ret)r,s to its ori(i,al state. EAP materials can be easily manufactured into various shapes due to the ease in processing many polymeric materials, ma4ing them very versatile materials. *ne potential application for EAPs is that they can potentially be integrated into micro electro mechanical systems ,8E8.- to produce smart actuators. Artificial m)scles As the most prospective practical research direction, EAPs have been utilized in artificial muscles. Their ability to emulate the operation of biological muscles with high fracture toughness, large actuation strain and inherent vibration damping draw the attention of scientists in this field Tactile -isplays !n recent years, Welectro active polymers for refreshable Draille displaysX(77) has emerged to aid the visually impaired in fast reading and computer assisted communication. This concept is
19

based on using an EAP actuator configured in an array form. 5ows of electrodes on one side of an EAP film and columns on the other activate individual elements in the array. Each element is mounted with a Draille dot and is lowered by applying a voltage across the thic4ness of the selected element, causing local thic4ness reduction. Hnder computer control, dots would be activated to create tactile patterns of highs and lows representing the information to be read.

&i()re 8.2* Hi(h resol)tio, tactile -isplay co,sisti,( of 27#2: +5:982. act)ator pi9els 0aseo, stim)li/respo,sive hy-ro(els. The i,te(ratio, -e,sity of the -evice is 2;8 compo,e,ts per cm<. This -isplay (ives vis)al +mo,ochromic. a,- physical +co,to)rs7 relief7 te9t)res7 a,- soft,ess. impressio,s of a virt)al s)rface. Aisual and tactile impressions of a virtual surface are displayed by a high resolution tactile display, a so0called Wartificial s4inX ,Big.C.7-. These monolithic devices consist of an array of thousands of multimodal modulators ,actuator pixels- based on stimuli0responsive hydrogels. Each modulator is able to change individually their transmission, height and softness. Desides their possible use as graphic displays for visually impaired such displays are interesting as free programmable 4eys of touchpads and consoles. 'icrofl)i-ics EAP materials have huge potential for microfluidics e.g. as drug delivery systems, microfluidic devices and lab0on0a0chip. A first microfluidic platform technology reported in literature is based on stimuli0responsive gels. To avoid the electrolysis of water hydrogel0based microfluidic devices are mainly based on temperature0responsive polymers with lower critical solution temperature ,S<.T- characteristics, which are controlled by an electrothermic interface. Two
20

types of micropumps are 4nown, a diffusion micropump and a displacement micropump. 8icrovalves based on stimuli0responsive hydrogels show some advantageous properties such as particle tolerance, no lea4age and outstanding pressure resistance. Desides these microfluidic standard components the hydrogel platform provides also chemical sensors. and a novel class of microfluidic components, the chemical transistors ,also referred as chemostat valves-. These devices regulate a li1uid flow if a threshold concentration of certain chemical is reached. <hemical transistors form the basis of microchemomechanical fluidic integrated circuits. W<hemical !<sX process exclusively chemical information, are energy0self0powered, operate automatically and are able for large0scale integration. Another microfluidic platform is based on ionomeric materials. Pumps made from that material could offer low voltage ,battery- operation, extremely low noise signature, high system efficiency, and highly accurate control of flow rate. Another technology that can benefit from the uni1ue properties of EAP actuators is optical membranes. ;ue to their low modulus, the mechanical impedance of the actuators, they are well0 matched to common optical membrane materials. Also, a single EAP actuator is capable of generating displacements that range from micrometers to centimeters. Bor this reason, these materials can be used for static shape correction and jitter suppression. These actuators could also be used to correct for optical aberrations due to atmospheric interference. .ince these materials exhibit excellent electroactive character, EAP materials show potential in biomimetic0robot research, stress sensors and acoustics field, which will ma4e EAPs become a more attractive study topic in the near future. They have been used for various actuators such as face muscles and arm muscles in humanoid robots.

21

Chapter = AD!ANTA>E% ? DI%AD!ANTA>E%

=.1 AD!ANTA>E%

.oft and flexible, hence find wide application in bio0medical field EAP3s can be mass produced. ?ence it results in low cost. EAP3s can be easily fabricated in various shapes. !nherent vibration damping. Sighter compared to other actuators and sensors. 5esponse speed is significantly higher. .uperior fatigue characteristics Sarge actuation strains <an withstand extreme conditions esp. up to 0"=$$<.This suits EAP in planetary applications.

22

=.2 DI%AD!ANTA>E%

Eo effective and robust EAP material is currently commercially available. .election of suitable and satisfying materials poses a problem as new and new materials emerge. A compromise between stress and strain needed

23

Chapter ; CONC U%ION

.mart materials such as EAP3s are the foundation of current state0of0the0art devices to convert energy from chemical or electrical into mechanical energy to perform useful wor4. !n the field of sensing, these devices can provide an efficient way of converting mechanical energy into electrical or chemical forms. This seminar had summarized efforts on a number of potential applications of ionic polymerI metal composite that have proven to be a viable alternative to conventional means. Electroactive polymers have emerged with great potential enabling the development of uni1ue biomimetic devices. As artificial muscles, EAP actuators are offering capabilities that are currently considered science fiction. ;eveloping such actuators is re1uiring development on all fronts of the field infrastructure. Enhancement of the performance of EAP will re1uire advancement in related computational chemistry models, comprehensive material science, electro0mechanics analytical tools, and improved material processing techni1ues. 8a4ing robots that are actuated by EAP, as artificial muscles that are controlled by artificial intelligence would create a new science and technology realities. needed to develop robust and effective EAP0based actuators. hile such capabilities are expected to significantly change future robots, significant research and development effort is

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Chapter 1: RE&ERENCE

(") 5onald Sumia+ 8ohsen .hahinpoor+ 8icrogripper design using electroactive polymers. Proc. .P!E %@@#, .mart .tructures and 8aterials "###/ Electroactive Polymer Actuators and ;evices, %77 ,8ay 7&, "###-+ doi/"$."""CO"7.%=#@&#. (7) Gaehwan >im and Fung D .eo 7$$7 .mart 8ater. .truct. "" %::. doi/"$."$&&O$#@=0 "C7@O""O%O%$:. 5eceived "% Eovember 7$$", in final form 7# 8arch 7$$7. Published "@ 8ay 7$$7. (%) 5 Tiwari and > G >im 7$"% .mart 8ater. .truct. 77 $":$"C. doi/"$."$&&O$#@=0 "C7@O77O"O$":$"C5eceived 7C Guly 7$"7, in final form 7$ Eovember 7$"7. Published "C ;ecember 7$"7. Y 7$"% !*P Publishing Std. (=) Gaehwan >im et al 7$$@ .mart 8ater. .truct. ": C"#. doi/"$."$&&O$#@=0"C7@O":O%O$$C 5eceived "7 8ay 7$$:, in final form "C Bebruary 7$$@. Published : April 7$$@. !*P Publishing Std (:) 5eview of electro0active shape0memory polymer composite *riginal 5esearch Article <omposites .cience and Technology, Aolume @#, !ssue "%, *ctober 7$$#, Pages 7$@=07$@& Fanju Siu, ?aibao Sv, Zin San, Ginsong Seng, .hanyi ;u
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