Clockwise from lower left: fly agaric mushroom, sinicuichi, morning glory, tree datura, peyote, cannabis.

What are hallucinogenic plants? How do they affect mind and body? Who uses them - and why? This uni ue !olden !uide sur"eys the role of psychoacti"e plants in primiti"e and ci"ili#ed societies from early times to the present. The first nontechnical guide to both the cultural significance and physiological effects of hallucinogens, H$%%&C'()!*('C +%$(T, will fascinate general readers and students of anthropology and history as well as botanists and other specialists. $ll of the wild and culti"ated species considered are illustrated in brilliant full color. ',-(-.-/.0-12/31-4 The files at this &5% are transmitted under the 67air &se6 rulings regarding the 4803 Copyright $ct for ()(-profit academic and general information purposes.

H$%%&C'()!*('C +%$(T,
by RICHARD EVANS SHULTES Illustrated by ELMER W. SMITH
.

GOLDEN PRESS - NEW YORK 1976 Western Publishing Co !"n#$ %n&' S&"nning "n( 'ht b# lo!lo!$ )ug *99 FOREWORD Hallucino enic !lants "a#e been used by $an %or t"ousands o% years& !robably since "e be an at"erin !lants %or %ood. T"e "allucino ens "a#e continued to recei#e t"e attention o% ci#ili'ed $an t"rou " t"e a es. Recently& (e "a#e one t"rou " a !eriod durin ("ic" so!"isticated Western society "as )disco#ered) "allucino ens& and so$e sectors o% t"at society "a#e ta*en u!& %or one reason or anot"er& t"e use o% suc" !lants. T"is trend $ay be destined to continue. It is& t"ere%ore& i$!ortant %or us to learn as $uc" as (e can about "allucino enic !lants. A reat body o% scienti%ic literature "as been !ublis"ed about t"eir uses and t"eir e%%ects& but t"e in%or$ation is o%ten loc*ed a(ay in tec"nical +ournals. T"e interested lay$an "as a ri "t to sound in%or$ation on ("ic" to base "is o!inions. T"is boo* "as been (ritten !artly to !ro#ide t"at *ind o% in%or$ation. No $atter ("et"er (e belie#e t"at $en,s inta*e o% "allucino ens in !ri$iti#e or so!"isticated societies constitutes use& $isuse& or abuse& "allucino enic !lants "a#e undeniably !layed an e-tensi#e role in "u$an culture and !robably s"all continue to do so. It %ollo(s t"at a clear understandin o% t"ese !"ysically and socially !otent a ents s"ould be a !art o% $an,s eneral education. R. E. S. RICHARD EVANS SCHULTES& .".D.& /.L.S.& is !ro%essor o% natural sciences and director o% t"e 0otanical Museu$ at Har#ard Uni#ersity. An internationally *no(n botanist s!eciali'in in narcotic& $edicinal and !oisonous !lants& Dr. Sc"ultes s!ent so$e 12 years in Sout" A$erica li#in a$on Indian tribes in order to in#esti ate directly t"eir uses o% suc" !lants. Dr. Sc"ultes is t"e reci!ient o% nu$erous "onors& a$on t"e$ a decoration %ro$ t"e o#ern$ent o% Colo$bia %or "is (or* in t"e A$a'on& and is a $e$ber o% se#eral A$erican and %orei n acade$ies o% science& includin t"e National Acade$y o% Sciences. He is editor o% t"e +ournal Econo$ic 0otany and t"e aut"or o% $any scienti%ic !a!ers3 (it" Albert Ho%$ann "e (rote T"e 0otany and C"e$istry o% Hallucino ens. ELMER W. SMITH& a ne( En land 4an*ee by birt" and inclination& is a %ree5lance artist& sel%5tau "t in art& (it" an M.S. de ree %ro$ t"e Uni#ersity o% Massac"usetts. He illustrated t"e 6olden 6uide 7RCHIDS& and "as tra#eled and collected in t"e A$a'on (it" "is %riend and collea ue t"e aut"or o% HALLUCIN76ENIC .LANTS. S$it",s (or* a!!ears in c"ildren,s boo*s as (ell as in scienti%ic +ournals& and "e "as illustrated nu$erous te-tboo*s in t"e %ield o% biolo y. Currently "e is an artist at t"e 0otanical Museu$ o% Har#ard Uni#ersity. 67LDEN .RESS 8 NEW 47R9

CONTENTS . W"at Are Hallucino enic .lants: ......................................; Hallucino ens in .ri$iti#e Societies .................................< Use in Modern Western World ........................................1= /a$ily Tree o% t"e .lant 9in do$ ...................................1> Distribution o% Hallucino ens ..........................................12 C"e$ical Co$!osition ....................................................1? .seudo"allucino ens ......................................................>= Ho( Hallucino ens Are Ta*en .........................................>1 7ld World Hallucino ens .................................................>> /ly A aric Mus"roo$& >2 8 A ara& Ereriba& >@ 8 9(as"i& 6alan a& >A 8 Mari"uana& B= 8 Tur*estan Mint& 2> 8 Syrian Rue& 2B 8 9anna& 22 8 0elladonna& 2? 8 Henbane& 2@ 8 Mandra*e& ;= 8 D"atura& ;> 8 Ibo a& ;2 8 Ne( World Hallucino ens ................................................;? .u%%balls& ;< 8 Mus"roo$s& ;@ 8 Ra!C dos Indios& <> 8 S(eet /la & <B 8 Virolas& <2 8 Mas"a5"ari& @B 8 Dure$a& @2 8 4o!o& @? 8 Vilca& A> 8 6enista& AB 8 Mescal 0ean& A2 8 Colorines& A? 8 .iule& A< 8 Aya"uasca& A@ 8 S"ans"i& 1=< 8 Sinicuic"i& 1=@ 8 San .edro& 11= 8 .eyote& 112 8 )/alse .eyotes&,, 1>2 8 Hierbo Loca& 1>? 8 Sacred Mornin 6lories& 1>@ 8 Ho+as de la .astora& 1B< 8 Coleus& 0orrac"era& Arbol de los 0ru+os& 1B@ 8 C"iric5 Cas!i& 12= 8 Daturas& 12> 8 Tree Daturas& 12; 8 Culebra 0orrac"era& 12@ 8 S"anin& 9eule& TaiEue& 1;= 8 Tu!a& Facatec"ic"i& 1;> 8 .syc"o!"ar$acolo y ...................................................&..1;2 7t"er Hallucino enic .lants .........................................&..1;? More In%or$ation .........................................................&.1;< Inde- ............................................................................1;@

Hallucinogenic plants ha"e been featured on many postage stamps: 94, 3: Amanita muscaria, 91: fruit of Peganum harmala, 9/: Atropa belladonna, 92: Pancratium trianthum, 9;: Rivea corymbosa, 90: Datura stramonium, 9<: Datura candida, 98: Hyoscyamus niger.

WHAT ARE HALLUCINOGENIC PLANTS? In "is searc" %or %ood& early $an tried all *inds o% !lants. So$e nouris"ed "i$& so$e& "e %ound& cured "is ills& and so$e *illed "i$. A %e(& to "is sur!rise& "ad stran e e%%ects on "is $ind and body& see$in to carry "i$ into ot"er (orlds. We call t"ese !lants "allucino ens& because t"ey distort t"e senses and usually !roduce "allucinations 5 e-!eriences t"at de!art %ro$ reality. Alt"ou " $ost "allucinations are #isual& t"ey $ay also in#ol#e t"e senses o% "earin & touc"& s$ell& or taste 5 and occasionally se#eral senses si$ultaneously are in#ol#ed. T"e actual causes o% suc" "allucinations are c"e$ical substances in t"e !lants. T"ese substances are true narcotics. Contrary to !o!ular o!inion& not all narcotics are dan erous and addicti#e. Strictly and ety$olo icolly s!ea*in & a narcotic is any substance t"at "as a de!ressi#e e%%ect& ("et"er sli "t or reat& on t"e central ner#ous syste$. Narcotics t"at induce "allucinations are #ariously called "allucino ens G"allucination eneratorsH& !syc"oto$i$etics G!syc"osis $i$ic*ersH& !syc"otara-ics G$ind disturbersH& and !syc"edelics G$ind $ani%estersH. No one ter$ %ully satis%ies scientists& but "allucino ens co$es closest. .syc"edelic is $ost (idely used in t"e United States& but it co$bines t(o 6ree* roots incorrectly& is biolo ically unsound& and "as acEuired !o!ular $eanin s beyond t"e dru s or t"eir e%%ects. In t"e "istory o% $an*ind& "allucino ens "a#e !robably been t"e $ost i$!ortant o% all t"e narcotics. T"eir %antastic e%%ects $ade t"e$ sacred to !ri$iti#e $an and $ay e#en "a#e been res!onsible %or su estin to "i$ t"e idea o% deity.

Paramount among the hallucinogens of religious significance is the peyote cactus. This illustration, called "Morning Prayer in a Peyote eremony," is adapted from a painting by Tsa To!e, a "io#a $ndian. These $ndians are ritual users of peyote. entral fire and crescent shaped alter are flan!ed by ceremonial eagle feather fans% feathers symboli&e morning, and the birds, rising prayers.

HALLUCINOGENS IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETIES Hallucino ens !er$eate nearly e#ery as!ect o% li%e in !ri$iti#e societies. T"ey !lay roles in "ealt" and sic*ness& !eace and (ar& "o$e li%e and tra#el& "untin and a riculture3 t"ey a%%ect relations a$on indi#iduals& #illa es& and tribes. T"ey are belie#ed to in%luence li%e be%ore birt" and a%ter deat". MEDICAL AND RELIGIOUS USES o. h"llu&inogeni& !l"nts "re !"rti&ul"l# i !ort"nt in !ri iti/e so&ieties' )borigin"l !eo!le "ttribute si&0ness "n( he"lth to the 1or0ing o. s!irit .or&es' Conse2uentl#$ "n# 3 e(i&ine3 th"t &"n tr"ns!ort "n to the s!irit 1orl( is &onsi(ere( b# "n# "borigines to be better th"n one 1ith !urel# !h#si&"l e..e&ts' Ps#&hi& !o1ers h"/e "lso been "ttribute( to h"llu&inogens "n( h"/e be&o e "n integr"l !"rt o. !ri iti/e religions' )ll o/er the 1orl( h"llu&inogeni& !l"nts "re use( "s e(i"tors bet1een "n "n( his go(s' 4he !ro!he&ies o. the or"&le o. Del!hi$ .or e5" !le$ "re thought to h"/e been in(u&e( through h"llu&inogens' 6"0un" %n(i"n e(i&ine "n un(er in.luen&e o. &""!i 7"#"hu"s&" or #"8e9 !re!"re( .ro b"r0 o. Banisteriopis caapi'

,tatue of =ochipilli, the $#tec 6+rince of 7lowers.6 unearthed in Tlalmanalco on the slopes of the "olcano +opocatepetl and now on display in the >useo (acional in >e?ico City. %abels indicate probable botanical interpretations of styli#ed glyphs. OTHER ABORIGINAL USES o% "allucino ens #ary %ro$ one !ri$iti#e culture to anot"er. Many "allucino enic !lants are basic to t"e initiation rituals o% adolescents. T"e Al onEuin Indians a#e an

into-icatin $edicine& (ysoccan& to t"eir youn $en& ("o t"en beca$e #iolently deran ed %or >= days. Durin t"is !eriod& t"ey lost all $e$ory& startin $an"ood by %or ettin t"ey "ad been boys. T"e ibo a root in 6abon and caa!i in t"e A$a'on are also used in suc" rituals. In Sout" A$erica& $any tribes ta*e aya"uasca to %oresee t"e %uture& settle dis!utes& deci!"er ene$y !lans& cast or re$o#e s!ells& or insure t"e %idelity o% t"eir (o$en. Sensations o% deat" and se!aration o% body and soul are so$eti$es e-!erienced durin a drea$li*e trance. T"e "allucino enic !ro!erties o% Datura "a#e been t"orou "ly e-!loited& !articularly in t"e Ne( World. In Me-ico and in t"e Sout"(est& Datura is used in di#ination& !ro!"ecy& and ritualistic curin . Modern Me-ican Indians #alue certain $us"roo$s as sacra$ents and use $ornin lories and t"e !eyote cactus to !redict t"e %uture& dia nose and cure disease& and !lacate ood and e#il s!irits. T"e Mi-tecs o% Me-ico eat !u%%balls to "ear #oices %ro$ "ea#en t"at ans(er t"eir Euestions. T"e Wai*Is o% 0ra'il and Vene'uela snu%% t"e !o(dered resin o% a +un le tree to rituali'e deat"& induce a trance %or dia nosin disease& and t"an* t"e s!irits %or #ictory in (ar. T"e Witotos o% Colo$bia eat t"e sa$e !o(er%ul resin to )tal* (it" t"e little !eo!le.) .eru#ian $edicine $en drin* ci$ora to $a*e t"e$sel#es o(ners o% anot"er,s identity. Indians o% eastern 0ra'il drin* +ure$a to "a#e lorious #isions o% t"e s!irit (orld be%ore oin into battle (it" t"eir ene$ies.

USE IN MODERN WESTERN WORLD 7ur $odern society "as recently ta*en u! t"e use& so$eti$es ille ally& o% "allucino ens on a rand scale. Many !eo!le belie#e t"ey can ac"ie#e )$ystic) or )reli ious) e-!erience by alterin t"e c"e$istry o% t"e body (it" "allucino ens& seldo$ reali'in t"at t"ey are $erely re#ertin to t"e a e 5 old !ractices o% !ri$iti#e societies. W"et"er dru 5induced ad#entures can be identical (it" t"e $eta!"ysical insi "t clai$ed by so$e $ystics& or are $erely a counter%eit o% it& is still contro#ersial. T"e (ides!read and e-!andin use o% "allucino ens in our society $ay "a#e little or no #alue and $ay so$eti$es e#en be "ar$%ul or dan erous. In any e#ent& it is a ne(ly i$!orted and su!eri$!osed cultural trait (it"out natural roots in Western tradition.

@etail of a painting of a primiti"e ayahuasca "ision by Aando del 5ios, contemporary peru"ian artist

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Hallucino ens are li$ited to a s$all nu$ber o% ty!es o% c"e$ical co$!ounds. All "allucino ens %ound in !lants are or anic co$!oundsJt"at is& t"ey contain carbon as an essential !art o% t"eir structure and (ere %or$ed in t"e li%e !rocesses o% #e etable or anis$s. No inor anic !lant constituents& suc" as $inerals& are *no(n to "a#e "allucino enic e%%ects. Hallucino enic co$!ounds $ay be di#ided con#eniently into t(o broad rou!sK t"ose t"at contain nitro en in t"eir structure and t"ose t"at do not. T"ose (it" nitro en are %ar $ore co$$on. T"e $ost i$!ortant o% t"ose lac*in nitro en are t"e acti#e !rinci!les o% $ari"uana& ter!eno!"enolic co$!ounds classed as diben'o!yrans and called cannabinolsJin !articular& tetra"ydrocannabinols. T"e "allucino enic co$!ounds (it" nitro en in t"eir structure are al*aloids or related bases.

ALKALOIDS are a di#erse rou! o% so$e ;&=== co$!ounds (it" co$!le- $olecular structures. T"ey contain nitro en as (ell as carbon& o-y en& and "ydro en. All al*aloids are o% !lant ori in& t"ou " so$e !rotoal*aloids occur in ani$als. All are sli "tly al*aline& "ence t"eir na$e. T"ey are classi%ied into series

based on t"eir structures. Many "allucino enic al*aloids are indoles Gsee belo(H or are related to indoles& and t"e $a+ority "a#e or $ay "a#e ori inated in t"e !lant %ro$ t"e a$ino acid *no(n as try!to!"an. Most $edicinal and to-ic !lants& as (ell as "allucino enic !lants& o(e t"eir biolo ical acti#ity to al*aloids. E-a$!les o% (idely #alued al*aloids are $or!"ine& Euinine& nicotine& stryc"nine& and ca%%eine. INDOLES are "allucino enic al*aloids or related bases& all o% t"e$ nitro en5containin co$!ounds. It is $ost sur!risin t"at o% t"e $any t"ousands o% or anic co$!ounds t"at act on #arious !arts o% t"e body so %e( are "allucino enic. T"e indole nucleus o% t"e "allucino ens %reEuently a!!ears in t"e %or$ o% try!ta$ine deri#ati#es. It is co$!osed o% !"enyl and !yrrol se $ents Gsee dia ra$ %ollo(in H. Try!ta$ines $ay be )si$!le)Jt"at is& (it"out substitutionsJor t"ey $ay "a#e #arious )side c"ains) *no(n as "ydro-y G7HH& $et"o-y GCH3H& or !"os!"o lo-y G7.73HH rou!s in t"e !"enyl rin . T"e indole rin Gs"o(n in red in t"e dia ra$H is e#ident not only in t"e nu$erous try!ta$ines Gdi$et"yltry!ta$ine& etc.H but also in t"e #arious er oline al*aloids Ger ine and ot"ersH& in t"e ibo aine al*oloids& and in t"e L5carboline al*aloids G"ar$ine& "ar$aline& etc.H. Lyser ic acid diet"yla$ide GLSDH "as an indole nucleus. 7ne reason %or t"e si ni%icance o% t"e indolic "allucino ens $ay be t"eir structural si$ilarity to t"e neuro"u$oral try!ta$ine serotonin G;5"ydro-ydi$et"yltry!ta$ineH& !resent in t"e ner#ous tissue o% (ar$5blooded ani$als. Serotonin !lays a $a+or role in t"e bioc"e$istry o% t"e central ner#ous syste$. A study o% t"e %unctionin o% "allucino enic try!ta$ine $ay e-!eri$entally "el! to e-!lain t"e %unction o% serotonin in t"e body. A c"e$ical relations"i! si$ilar to t"at bet(een indolic "allucino ens and serotonin e-ists bet(een $escaline& an "allucino enic !"enylet"yla$ine base in !eyote& and t"e neuro"or$one nore!ine!"rine. T"ese c"e$ical si$ilarities bet(een "allucino enic co$!ounds and neuro"or$ones (it" roles in neuro!"ysiolo y $ay "el! to e-!lain "allucino enic acti#ity and e#en certain !rocesses o% t"e central ner#ous syste$. 7t"er al*aloidsJt"e isoEuinolines& tro!anes& Euinoli'idines& and iso-a'olesJare $ore $ildly "allucino enic and $ay o!erate di%%erently in t"e body. G!a e 1@H

PSEUDOHALLUCINOGENS T"ese are !oisonous !lant co$!ounds t"at cause ("at $i "t be called secondary "allucinations or !seudo"allucinations. T"ou " not true "allucino enic a ents& t"ey so u!set nor$al body %unctions t"ot t"ey induce a *ind o% deliriu$ acco$!anied by ("at to all !ractical !ur!oses are "allucinations. So$e co$!onents o% t"e essential oilsJt"e aro$atic ele$ents res!onsible %or t"e c"aracteristic odors o% !lants Ja!!ear to act in t"is (ay. Co$!onents o% nut$e oil are an e-a$!le. Many !lants "a#in suc" co$!onents are e-tre$ely dan erous to ta*e internally& es!ecially i% in ested in doses "i " enou " to

1<

induce "allucinations. Researc" "as not yet s"ed $uc" li "t on t"e *ind o% !syc"oacti#ity !roduced by suc" c"e$icals.

HOW HALLUCINOGENS ARE TAKEN Hallucino enic !lants are used in a #ariety o% (ays& de!endin on t"e *ind o% !lant $aterial& on t"e acti#e c"e$icals in#ol#ed& on cultural !ractices& and on ot"er considerations. Man& in !ri$iti#e societies e#ery("ere& "as s"o(n reat in enuity and !ers!icacity in bendin "allucino enic !lants to "is uses. PLANTS MAY BE EATEN& eit"er %res" or dried& as are !eyote and teononacatl& or +uice %ro$ t"e crus"ed lea#es $ay be drun*& as (it" Salvia divinorum Gin Me-icoH. 7ccasionally a !lant deri#ati#e $ay be eaten& as (it" "as"ees". More %reEuently& a be#era e $ay be drun*K aya"uasca& caa!i& or ya+C %ro$ t"e bar* o% a #ine3 t"e San .edro cactus3 +ure$a (ine3 ibo a3 lea#es o% toloac"e3 or crus"ed seeds %ro$ t"e Me-ican $ornin lories. 7ri inally !eculiar to Ne( World cultures& ("ere it (as one (ay o% usin tobacco& s$o*in is no( a (ides!read $et"od o% ta*in cannabis. Narcotics ot"er t"an tobacco& suc" as tu!a& $ay also be srno*ed. SNUFFING is a !re%erred $et"od %or usin se#eral "allucino ens 5 yo!o& e!ena& sCbil& ra!C dos indios. Li*e s$o*in & snu%%in is a Ne( World custo$. A %e( Ne( World Indians "a#e ta*en "allucino ens rectally 5 as in t"e case o% Anadenanthera. 7ne curious $et"od o% inducin narcotic e%%ects is t"e A%rican custo$ o% incisin t"e scal! and rubbin t"e +uice %ro$ t"e onionli*e bulb o% a s!ecies o% Pancratium across t"e incisions. T"is $et"od is a *ind o% !ri$iti#e counter!art o% t"e $odern "y!oder$ic $et"od. Se#eral $et"ods $ay be used in t"e case o% so$e "allucino enic !lants. Virola resin& %or e-a$!le& is lic*ed unc"an ed& is usually !re!ared in snu%% %or$& is occasionally $ade into !ellets to be eaten& and $ay so$eti$es be s$o*ed. PLANT ADDITIVES or ad$i-tures to $a+or "allucino enic s!ecies are beco$in increasin ly i$!ortant in researc". Subsidiary !lants are so$eti$es added to t"e !re!aration to alter& increase& or len t"en t"e narcotic e%%ects o% t"e $ain in redients. T"us& in $a*in t"e aya"uasca& caa!i& or ya+C drin*s& !re!ared

11

basically %ro$ Banisteriopsis caapi or B. inebrians& se#eral additi#es are o%ten t"ro(n inK lea#es o% Psychotria viridis or Banisteriopsis rusbyana& ("ic" t"e$sel#es contain "allucino enic try!ta$ines3 or Brunfelsia or Datura& bot" o% ("ic" are "allucino enic in t"eir o(n ri "t. G!a e >1H OLD WORLD HALLUCINOGENS E-istin e#idence indicates t"at $an in t"e 7ld World JEuro!e& Asia& A%rica& and AustraliaJ"as $ade less use o% nati#e !lants and s"rubs %or t"eir "allucino enic !ro!erties t"an "as $an in t"e Ne( World. T"ere is little reason to belie#e t"at t"e #e etation o% one "al% o% t"e lobe is !oorer or ric"er in s!ecies (it" "allucino enic !ro!erties t"an t"e ot"er "al%. W"y& t"en& s"ould t"ere be suc" dis!arity: Has $an in t"e 7ld World si$!ly not disco#ered $any o% t"e nati#e "allucino enic !lants: Are so$e o% t"e$ too to-ic in ot"er (ays to be utili'ed: 7r "as $an in t"e 7ld World been culturally less interested in narcotics: We "a#e no real ans(er. 0ut (e do *no( t"at t"e 7ld World "as %e(er *no(n s!ecies e$!loyed "allucino enically t"an does t"e Ne( WorldK co$!ared (it" only 1; or >= s!ecies used in t"e Eastern He$is!"ere& t"e s!ecies used "allucino enically in t"e Western He$is!"ere nu$ber $ore t"an 1==M 4et so$e o% t"e 7ld World "allucino ens today "old !laces o% !ri$acy t"rou "out t"e (orld. Cannabis& undoubtedly t"e $ost (ides!read o% all t"e "allucino ens& is !er"a!s t"e best e-a$!le. T"e se#eral solanaceous in redients o% $edie#al (itc"es, bre(sJ"enbane& ni "ts"ade& belladonna& and $andra*eJ reatly in%luenced Euro!ean !"iloso!"y& $edicine& and e#en "istory %or $any years. So$e !layed an e-traordinarily #ital reli ious role in t"e early Aryan cultures o% nort"ern India. T"e role o% "allucino ens in t"e cultural and social de#elo!$ent o% $any areas o% t"e 7ld World is only no( bein in#esti ated. At e#ery turn& its e-tent and de!t" are beco$in $ore e#ident. 0ut $uc" $ore needs to be done in t"e study o% "allucino ens and t"eir uses in t"e Eastern He$is!"ere. G!a e >>H

1+

FLY AGARIC MUSHROOM& Amanita muscaria $ay be one o% $an,s oldest "allucino ens. It "as been su ested t"at !er"a!s its stran e e%%ects contributed to $an,s early ideas o% deity. /ly a aric $us"roo$s ro( in t"e nort" te$!erate re ions o% bot" "e$is!"eres. T"e Eurasian ty!e "as a beauti%ul dee! oran e to blood5red ca! %lec*ed (it" ("ite scales. T"e ca! o% t"e usual Nort" A$erican ty!e #aries %ro$ crea$ to an oran e5yello(. T"ere are also c"e$ical di%%erences bet(een t"e t(o& %or t"e Ne( World ty!e is de#oid o% t"e stron ly "allucino enic e%%ects o% its 7ld World counter!art. A$anita $uscaria ty!ically occurs in association (it" birc"es. T"e use o% t"is $us"roo$ as an or iastic and s"a$anistic inebriant (as disco#ered in Siberia in 1<B=. SubseEuently& its utili'ation "as been noted a$on se#eral isolated rou!s o% /inno5U rian !eo!les G7stya* and Vo ulH in (estern Siberia and t"ree

1,

!ri$iti#e tribes GC"uc*c"ee& 9orya*& and 9a$c"adalH in nort"eastern Siberia. T"ese tribes "ad no ot"er into-icant until t"ey learned recently o% alco"ol. T"ese Siberians in est t"e $us"roo$ alone& eit"er sun5dried or toasted slo(ly o#er a %ire& or t"ey $ay ta*e it in reindeer $il* or (it" t"e +uice o% (ild !lants& suc" as a s!ecies o% Vaccinium and a s!ecies o% Epilobium. W"en eaten alone& t"e dried $us"roo$s are $oistened in t"e $out" and s(allo(ed& or t"e (o$en $ay $oisten and roll t"e$ into !ellets %or t"e $en to s(allo(. A #ery old and curious !ractice o% t"ese tribes$en is t"e ritualistic drin*in o% urine %ro$ $en ("o "a#e beco$e into-icated (it" t"e $us"roo$. T"e acti#e !rinci!les !ass t"rou " t"e body and are e-creted unc"an ed or as still acti#e deri#ati#es. ConseEuently& a %e( $us"roo$s $ay inebriate $any !eo!le.

$ siberian Chukchee man with wooden urine "essel, about to recycle and e?tend into?ication from Amanita muscaria. T"e nature o% t"e into-ication #aries& but one or se#eral $us"roo$s induce a condition $ar*ed usually by t(itc"in & tre$blin & sli "t con#ulsions& nu$bness o% t"e li$bs& and a %eelin o% ease c"aracteri'ed by "a!!iness& a desire to sin and dance& colored #isions& and $acro!sia Gseein t"in s reatly enlar edH. Violence i#in (ay to a dee! slee! $ay occasionally occur. .artici!ants are so$eti$es o#erta*en by curious belie%s& suc" as t"at e-!erienced by an ancient tribes$an ("o insisted t"at "e "ad +ust been bornM Reli ious %er#or o%ten acco$!anies t"e inebriation. Recent studies su est t"at t"is $us"roo$ (as t"e $ysterious 6od5 narcotic so$a o% ancient India. T"ousands o% years a o& Aryan conEuerors& ("o s(e!t across India& (ors"i!ed so$e& drin*in it in reli ious cere$onies. Many "y$ns in t"e Indian Ri 5Veda are de#oted to so$a and describe t"e !lant and its e%%ects. T"e use o% so$a e#entually died out& and its identity "as been an eni $a %or >&=== years. Durin t"e !ast century& $ore t"an 1== !lants "a#e been su ested& but none ans(ers t"e descri!tions %ound in t"e $any "y$ns. Recent et"nobotanicol detecti#e (or*& leadin to its identi%ication as A. muscaria& is stren t"ened by t"e re%erence in t"e #edas to cere$onial urine drin*in & since t"e $ain into-icatin constituent& $usci$ole G*no(n only in t"is $us"roo$H& is t"e sole natural "allucino enic c"e$ical e-creted unc"an ed %ro$ t"e body.

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7nly in t"e last %e( years& too& "as t"e c"e$istry o% t"e into-icatin !rinci!le been *no(n. /or a century& it (as belie#ed to be $uscarine& but $uscarine is !resent in suc" $inute concentrations t"at it cannot act as t"e inebriant. It is no( reco ni'ed t"at& in t"e dryin or e-traction o% t"e $us"roo$s& ibotenic acid %or$s se#eral deri#ati#es. 7ne o% t"ese is $usci$ole& t"e $ain !"ar$acolo ically acti#e !rinci!le. 7t"er co$!ounds& suc" as $usca'one& are %ound in lesser concentrations and $ay contribute to t"e into-ication. /ly a aric $us"roo$ is so called because o% its a e5old use in Euro!e as a %ly *iller. T"e $us"roo$s (ere le%t in an o!en dis". /lies attracted to and settlin on t"e$ (ere stunned& succu$bin to t"e insecticidal !ro!erties o% t"e !lant.

>ap of (orthern *urasia shows regions of birches and pines, where Amanita muscaria typically grows, and areas inhabited by ethnic groups that use the mushroom as a hallucinogen.

AGARA GGalbulimima BelgraveanaH is a tall %orest tree o% Malaysia and Australia. In .a!ua& nati#es $a*e a drin* by boilin t"e lea#es and bar* (it" t"e lea#es o% ereriba. W"en t"ey i$bibe it& t"ey beco$e #iolently into-icated& e#entually %allin into a dee! slee! durin ("ic" t"ey e-!erience #isions and %antastic drea$s. So$e >@ al*aloids "a#e been isolated %ro$ t"is tree& and alt"ou " t"ey are biolo ically acti#e& t"e !syc"oacti#e !rinci!le is still un*no(n. A ara is one o% %our s!ecies o% Galbulimima and belon s to t"e Hi$ontandraceae& a rare %a$ily related to t"e $a nolias. ERERIBA& an undeter$ined s!ecies o% Homalomena& is a stout "erb re!orted to "a#e narcotic e%%ects ("en its lea#es are ta*en (it" t"e lea#es and bar* o% a ara. T"e acti#e c"e$ical constituent is un*no(n. Ereriba is a $e$ber o% t"e aroid %o$ily& Araceae. T"ere are so$e 12= s!ecies o% Homalomena nati#e to tro!ical Asia and Sout" A$erica.

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KWASHI GPancratium trianthumH is considered to be !syc"oacti#e by t"e 0us"$en in Dobe& 0ots(ana. T"e bulb o% t"is !erennial is re!utedly rubbed o#er incisions in t"e "ead to induce #isual "allucinations. Not"in is *no(n o% its c"e$ical constitution. 7% t"e 12 ot"er s!ecies o% Pancratium& $ainly o% Asia and A%rica& $any are *no(n to contain !syc"oacti#e !rinci!les& $ostly al*aloids. So$e s!ecies are !otent cardiac !oisons. Pancratium belon s to t"e a$aryllis %a$ily& A$aryllidaceae. GALANGA or MARABA G aempferia galangaH is an "erb ric" in essential oils. Nati#es in Ne( 6uinea eat t"e r"i'o$e o% t"e !lant as an "allucino en. It is #alued locally as a condi$ent and& li*e ot"ers o% t"e <= s!ecies in t"e enus& it is used in local %ol* $edicine to brin boils to a "ead and to "asten t"e "ealin o% burns and (ounds. It is a $e$ber o% t"e in er %a$ily& Fin iberoceae. ."ytoc"e$ical studies "a#e re#ealed no !syc"oacti#e !rinci!le.

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Hemp field in Afghanistan, sho#ing partly harvested crop of the short, conical annabis indica gro#n there.

MARIHUANA& HASHEESH& or HEMP Gs!ecies o% t"e enus !annabisH& also called 9i%& 0"an & or C"aras& is one o% t"e oldest culti#ated !lants. It is also one o% t"e $ost (idely s!read (eeds& "a#in esca!ed culti#ation& a!!earin as an ad#entitious !lant e#ery("ere& e-ce!t in t"e !olar re ions and t"e (et& %orested tro!ics. Cannabis is t"e source o% "e$! %iber& an edible %ruit& an industrial oil& a $edicine& and a narcotic. Des!ite its reat a e and its econo$ic i$!ortance& t"e !lant is still !oorly understood& c"aracteri'ed $ore by ("at (e do not *no( about it t"an by ("at (e *no(. Cannabis is a ran*& (eedy annual t"at is e-tre$ely #ariable and $ay attain a "ei "t o% 1@ %eet. /louris"in best in disturbed& nitro en5ric" soils near "u$an "abitations& it "as been called a )ca$! %ollo(er&) oin (it" $an into ne( areas. It is nor$ally dioeciousJt"at is& t"e $ale and %e$ale !arts are on di%%erent !lants. T"e $ale or sta$inate !lant is usually (ea*er t"an t"e %e$ale or !istillate !lant. .istillate %lo(ers ro( in t"e lea% a-ils. T"e into-icatin constituents are nor$ally concentrated in a resin in t"e de#elo!in %e$ale %lo(ers and ad+acent lea#es and ste$s.

Cannabis lea"es are palmately di"idedBnormally into /-0 leaflets occasionally into 44-4/. %eaflets "ary in length from 1 to 3 inches. CLASSIFICATION OF CANNABIS is dis!uted by botanists. T"ey disa ree about t"e %a$ily to ("ic" it belon s and also about t"e nu$ber o% s!ecies. T"e !lant is so$eti$es !laced in t"e %i or $ulberry %a$ily GMoraceaeH or t"e nettle %a$ily GUrticaceaeH& but it is no( usually se!arated& to et"er (it" t"e "o! !lant GHumulusH& into a distinct %a$ilyK Cannabaceae. It "as been (idely t"ou "t t"at t"ere is one s!ecies& Cannabis sati#a& ("ic"& !artly as a result o% selection by $an& "as de#elo!ed $any )races) or )#arieties&) %or better %iber& %or $ore oil content& or %or stron er narcotic content. Selection %or narcotic acti#ity "as been es!ecially notable in suc" areas as India& ("ere into-icatin !ro!erties "a#e "ad reli ious si ni%icance.. En#iron$ent also "as !robably in%luenced t"is biolo ically c"an eable s!ecies& es!ecially %or %iber e-cellence and narcotic acti#ity.

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Current researc" indicates t"at t"ere $ay be ot"er s!eciesK !. indica and !. ruderalis. All Cannabis is nati#e to central Asia.

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19

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C"inese c"aracters TA MA& t"e oldest *no(n na$e %or cannabis. TA G!ronounced DAH. Literally t"is $eans an adult $an& and by e-tension $ay si ni%y reat or tall. MA. It re!resents a %iber !lant& literally a clu$! o% !lants& ro(in near a d(ellin . Hence& t"e t(o sy$bols to et"er $ean )t"e tall %iber !lant&,, ("ic" e#ery("ere in C"ina si ni%ies cannabis.

HISTORY OF CANNABIS USE dates to ancient ti$es. He$! %abrics %ro$ t"e late @t" century 0.C. "a#e been %ound in Tur*ey. S!eci$ens "a#e turned u! in an E y!tian site nearly 2&=== years o% a e. In ancient T"ebes& t"e !lant (as $ade into a drin* (it" o!iu$5li*e e%%ects. T"e Scyt"ians& ("o t"re( cannabis seeds and lea#es on "ot stones in stea$ bat"s to !roduce an into-icatin s$o*e& re( t"e !lant alon t"e Vol a B&=== years a o. C"inese tradition !uts t"e use o% t"e !lant bac* 2&@== years. Indian $edical (ritin & co$!iled be%ore 1=== 0.C.& re!orts t"era!eutic uses o% cannabis. T"at t"e early Hindus a!!reciated its into-icatin !ro!erties is attested by suc" na$es as )"ea#enly uide) and soot"er o% rie%. ) T"e C"inese re%erred to cannabis as )liberator o% sin) and )deli "t i#er.) T"e 6ree* !"ysician 6alen (rote& about A.D. 1?=& t"at eneral use o% "e$! in ca*es !roduced narcotic e%%ects. In 1Bt" century Asia Minor& or ani'ed $urderers& re(arded (it" "as"ees"& (ere *no(n as "as"is"ins %ro$ ("ic" $ay co$e t"e ter$ assassin in Euro!ean lan ua es. He$! as a source o% %iber (as introduced by t"e .il ri$s to Ne( En land and by t"e S!anis" and .ortu uese to t"eir colonies in t"e Ne( World.

)bCects connected with the use of cannabis were found in fro#en tombs of the ancient ,cythians, in the $ltai >ountains and the border between 5ussia and )uter >ongolia. The small, tepee-like structure was co"ered with a felt or leather mat and stood o"er the copper censer 9four-legged stool-like obCect:. Carboni#ed hemp seeds were found nearby. The two-handled pot contained cannabis fruits. The ,cythian custom of breathing cannabis fumes in the steam bath was mentioned about ;.. -.C. by the !reek naturalist Herodotus.

THE MEDICINAL VALUE OF CANNABIS "as been *no(n %or centuries. Its lon "istory o% use in %ol* $edicine is si ni%icant& and it "as been included $ore recently in Western !"ar$aco!oeias. It (as listed in t"e United S"tes Pharmacopoeia until t"e 1AB=,s as #aluable& es!ecially in t"e treat$ent o% "ysteria. T"e !ro ress $ade in $odern researc" encoura es t"e belie% t"at so !roli%ic a c"e$ical %actory as !annabis $ay indeed o%%er !otential %or ne( $edicines. THE CHEMISTRY OF CANNABIS is co$!le-. Many or anic co$!ounds "a#e been isolated& so$e (it" narcotic !ro!erties and ot"ers (it"out. A %res" !lant yields $ainly cannabidiolic acids& !recursors o% t"e tetra"ydrocannabinols and related constituents& suc" as cannabinol& cannabidiol& tetra"ydrocannabinol5 carbo-ylic acid& stereoiso$ers o% tetra"ydroconnabinol& and cannabic"ro$ene. It "as been de$onstrated recently t"at t"e $ain e%%ects are attributable to delta 515 tetra"ydrocannobinol. T"e tetra"ydrocannabinols& ("ic" %or$ an oily $i-ture o% se#eral iso$ers& are non5 nitro enous or anic co$!ounds deri#ed %ro$ ter!enes Gsee !a e 1?H. T"ey are not al*aloids& alt"ou " traces o% al*aloids "a#e been re!orted in t"e !lant. Until recently& little (as *no(n about t"e e%%ects o% !ure tetra"ydrocannabinol on $an. Controlled studies are basic to any !ro ress. T"ese are no( !ossible (it" t"e recent synt"esis o% t"e co$!ound& a $a+or ad#ance in studyin t"e $ec"anis$ o% !"ysiolo ical acti#ity o% t"is into-icant. 0ecause t"e crude cannabis !re!arations nor$ally used as a narcotic #ary reatly in t"eir c"e$ical co$!osition& any correlations o% t"eir biolo ical acti#ity (ould be relati#ely $eanin less.

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$ssortment of cannabis pipes and water pipes. METHODS OF USING CANNABIS #ary. In t"e Ne( World& $ari"uana G$acon"a in 0ra'ilH is s$o*edJ t"e dried& crus"ed %lo(erin ti!s or lea#es& o%ten $i-ed (it" tobacco in ci arettes& or )ree%ers.) Has"ees"& t"e resin %ro$ t"e %e$ale !lant& is eaten or s$o*ed& o%ten in (ater !i!es& by $illions in Mosle$ countries o% nort"ern A%rica and (estern Asia. In A% "anistan and .a*istan& t"e resin is co$$only s$o*ed. Asiatic Indians re ularly e$!loy t"ree !re!arations narcoticallyK b"an consists o% !lants t"st are at"ered reen& dried& and $ade into a drin* (it" (ater or $il* or into a candy G$a+unH (it" su ar and s!ices3 c"aras& nor$ally s$o*ed or eaten (it" s!ices& is !ure resin3 an+a"& usually s$o*ed (it" tobacco& consists o% resin5ric" dried to!s %ro$ t"e %e$ale !lant. Many o% t"ese unusually !otent !re!arations $ay be deri#ed %ro$ !. indica. NARCOTIC USE OF CANNABIS "as ro(n in !o!ularity in t"e !ast 2= years as t"e !lant "as s!read to nearly all !arts o% t"e lobe. T"e narcotic use o% cannabis in t"e United States dates %ro$ t"e 1A>=,s and see$s to "a#e started in Ne( 7rleans and #icinity. Increase in t"e !lant,s use as an inebriant in Western countries& es!ecially in urban centers& "as led to $a+or !roble$s and dile$$as %or Euro!ean and A$erican aut"orities. T"ere is a s"ar! di#ision o% o!inion as to ("et"er t"e (ides!read narcotic use o% cannabis is a #ice t"at $ust be sta$!ed out or is an innocuous "abit t"at s"ould be !er$itted le ally. T"e sub+ect is debated "otly& usually (it" li$ited *no(led e. We do not yet "a#e t"e $edical& social& le al& and $oral in%or$ation on ("ic" to base a sound +ud $ent. As one (riter "as said& t"e $ari"uana !roble$ needs )$ore li "t and less "eat.) Controlled& scienti%ically #alid e-!eri$ents (it" cannabis& in#ol#in lar e nu$bers o% indi#iduals& "a#e not as yet been $ade.

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Contemporary $merican cannabis shoulder patches. EFFECTS OF CANNABIS& e#en $ore t"an o% ot"er "allucino ens& are "i "ly #ariable %ro$ !erson to !erson and %ro$ one !lant strain to anot"er. T"is #ariability co$es $ainly %ro$ t"e unstable c"aracter o% so$e o% t"e constituents. 7#er a !eriod o% ti$e& %or e-a$!le& t"e inacti#e cannabidiolic acid con#erts to acti#e tetra"ydrocannabinols and e#entually to inacti#e cannabinol& suc" c"e$ical c"an es usually ta*in !lace $ore ra!idly in tro!ical t"an in cooler cli$ates. Material %ro$ !lants o% di%%erent a es $ay t"us #ary in narcotic e%%ect. T"e !rinci!al narcotic e%%ect is eu!"oria. T"e !lant is so$eti$es not classi%ied as "allucino enic& and it is true t"at its c"aracteristics are not ty!ically !syc"oto$i$etic. E#eryt"in %ro$ a $ild sense o% ease and (ell5bein to %antastic drea$s and #isual and auditory "allucinations are re!orted. 0eauti%ul si "ts& (onder%ul $usic& and aberrations o% sound o%ten entrance t"e $ind3 bi'arre ad#entures to %ill a century ta*e !lace in a $atter o% $inutes. Soon a%ter ta*in t"e dru & a sub+ect $ay %ind "i$sel% in a drea$y state o% altered consciousness. Nor$al t"ou "t is interru!ted& and ideas are so$eti$es !lenti%ul t"ou " con%used. A %eelin o% e-altation and inner +oy $ay alternate& e#en dan erously& (it" %eelin s o% de!ression& $oodiness& uncontrollable %ear o% deat"& and !anic. .erce!tion o% ti$e is al$ost in#ariably altered. An e-a eration o% sound& out o% all relation to t"e real %orce o% t"e sound e$itted& $ay be acco$!anied by a curiously "y!notic sense o% r"yt"$. Alt"ou " t"e occasional #i#id #isual "allucinations $ay "a#e se-ual colorin & t"e o%ten5re!orted a!"rodisiac !ro!erties o% t"e dru "a#e not been substantiated. In $any !arts o% Asia t"e use o% cannabis !re!arations is bot" socially and le ally acce!table. In !redo$inantly Mosle$ countries& Cannabis is usually s$o*ed in (ater !i!es so$eti$es called "oo*a"s. T"e illustration s"o(s an A% "ani usin one o% t"e $any *inds o% (ater !i!es seen in Asia. '

>arket forms of cannabis include finely ground or 6manicured6 marihuana, DDreefersDD 9smaller than commercial tobacco cigarettes:, pure hasheesh, ond compressed kilo bricks. W"et"er cannabis s"ould be classi%ied !ri$arily as a sti$ulant or de!ressant or bot" "as ne#er been deter$ined. T"e dru ,s acti#ities beyond t"e central ner#ous syste$ see$ to be secondary. T"ey consist o% a rise in !ulse rate and blood !ressure& tre$or& #erti o& di%%iculty in $uscular coordination& increased tactile sensiti#ity& and dilation o% t"e !u!ils. Alt"ou " cannabis is de%initely not addicti#e& !syc"olo ical de!endence $ay o%ten result %ro$ continual use o% t"e dru .

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TURKESTAN MINT G"agochilus inebriansH is a s$all s"rub o% t"e dry ste!!es o% Tur*estan. /or centuries it "as been t"e source o% an into-icant a$on t"e Ta+i*& Tartar& Tur*o$an& and U'be* tribes$en. T"e lea#es& at"ered in 7ctober& are toasted& so$eti$es $i-ed (it" ste$s& %ruits& and %lo(ers. Dryin and stora e increase t"eir aro$atic %ra rance. Honey and su ar are o%ten added to reduce t"eir intense bitterness. Valued as a %ol* $edicine and included in t"e @t" edition o% t"e Russian !"ar$aco!oeia& it is used to treat s*in disease& to "el! c"ec* "e$orr"a es& and to !ro#ide sedation %or ner#ous disorders. A crystalline co$!ound isolated %ro$ t"e !lant and na$ed la oc"iline "as !ro#ed to be aditer!ene. W"et"er or not it !roduces t"e !syc"oacti#e e%%ects o% t"e ("ole !lant is un*no(n. T"ere are so$e B2 ot"er s!ecies o% "agochilus. Me$bers o% t"e $int %a$ily& Labiatae& t"ey are nati#e %ro$ central Asia to Iran and A% "anistan.

SYRIAN RUE GPeganum harmalaH ro(s %ro$ t"e Mediterranean to nort"ern India& Mon olia& and Manc"uria. E#ery("ere it "as $any uses in %ol* $edicine. Its seeds "a#e been e$!loyed as a s!ice& and its %ruits are t"e source o% a red dye and an oil. T"e seeds !ossess *no(n "allucino enic al*aloids& es!ecially "ar$ine and "ar$aline. T"e estee$ in ("ic" t"e !eo!les o% Asia "old t"e !lant is so e-traordinary t"at it $i "t indicate a %or$er reli ious use as an "allucino en& but t"e !ur!ose%ul use o% t"e !lant to induce #isions "as not yet been establis"ed t"rou " t"e literature or %ield (or*. T"e caltro! %a$ily& Fy o!"yllaceae& to ("ic" Syrian rue belon s& co$!rises about t(o do'en enera

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nati#e to dry !arts o% t"e tro!ics and subtro!ics o% bot" "e$is!"eres.

KANNA G#esembryanthemum e$pansum and #. tortuosumH is t"e co$$on na$e o% t(o s!ecies o% Sout" A%rican !lants. T"ere is stron e#idence t"at one or bot" (ere used by t"e Hottentots o% sout"ern A%rica as #ision inducin narcotics. More t"an t(o centuries a o& it (as re!orted t"at t"e Hottentots c"e(ed t"e root o% *anna& or c"anna& *ee!in t"e c"e(ed $aterial in t"e $out"& (it" t"ese resultsK )T"eir ani$al s!irits (ere a(a*ened& t"eir eyes s!ar*led and t"eir %aces $ani%ested lau "ter and aiety. T"ousands o% deli "tso$e ideas a!!eared& and a !leasant +ollity ("ic" enabled t"e$ to be a$used by si$!le +ests. 0y ta*in t"e substance to e-cess& t"ey lost consciousness and %ell into a terrible deliriu$.)

Since t"e narcotic use o% t"ese t(o s!ecies "as not been obser#ed directly& #arious botanists "a#e su ested t"at t"e "allucino enic *anna $ay actually "a#e been cannabis or ot"er into-icatin !lants& suc" as se#eral s!ecies o% Sclerocarya o% t"e cas"e( %a$ily. T"ese t(o s!ecies o% #esembryanthemum do "o#e t"e co$$on na$e *anna& "o(e#er& and t"ey also contain al*aloids t"at "a#e sedati#e& cocaine5 li*e !ro!erties ca!able o% !roducin tor!or in $an. In t"e drier !arts o% Sout" A%rica& t"ere are alto et"er 1&=== s!ecies o% #esembryanthemum % $any& li*e t"e ice !lant& o% bi'arre %or$. About t(o do'en s!ecies& includin t"e t(o described "ere& are considered by so$e botanists to re!resent a se!arate enus& Sceletium. All belon to t"e car!et(eed %a$ily& Ai'oaceae& $ainly Sout" A%rican& and are belie#ed to be related to t"e !o*e(eed& !in*& and cactus %a$ilies.

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BELLADONNA GAtropa belladonnaH is (ell *no(n as a "i "ly !oisonous s!ecies ca!able o% inducin #arious *inds o% "allucinations. It entered into t"e %ol*lore and $yt"olo y o% #irtually all Euro!ean !eo!les& ("o %eared its deadly !o(er. It (os one o% t"e in redients o% t"e truly "allucino enic bre(s and oint$ents concocted by t"e so5called (itc"es o% $edie#al Euro!e. T"e attracti#e s"iny berries o% t"e !lant still o%ten cause it to be accidentally eaten& (it" resultant !oisonin . T"e na$e belladonna G)beauti%ul lady) in ItalianH co$es %ro$ a curious custo$ !racticed by italian (o$en o% "i " society durin $edie#al ti$es. T"ey (ould dro! t"e sa! o% t"e !lant into t"e eye to dilate t"e !u!il enor$ously& inducin a *ind o% drun*en or lassy stare& considered in t"at !eriod to en"ance %e$inine beauty and sensuality. T"e $ain acti#e !rinci!le in belladonna is t"e al*aloid "yoscya$ine& but t"e $ore !syc"oacti#e sco!ola$ine is also !resent. Atro!ine "as also been %ound& but ("et"er it is !resent in t"e li#in !lant or is %or$ed durin e-traction is not cleor. 0elladonna is a co$$ercial source o% atro!ine& an al*aloid (it" a (ide #ariety o% uses in $odern $edicine& es!ecially as an antis!as$odic& an antisecretory& and as a $ydriatic and cardiac sti$ulant. T"e al*aloids occur t"rou "out t"e !lant but are concentrated es!ecially in t"e lea#es and roots. T"ere are %our s!ecies o% Atropa distributed in Euro!e and %ro$ central Asia to t"e Hi$alayas. Atropa belon s to t"e ni "ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae. 0elladonna is nati#e to Euro!e and Asia Minor. Until t"e 1At" century& co$$ercial collection (as !ri$arily %ro$ (ild sources& but since t"at ti$e culti#ation "as been initiated in t"e United States& Euro!e& and India& ("ere it is an i$!ortant source o% $edicinal dru s.

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HENBANE GHyoscyamus nigerH (as o%ten included in t"e (itc"es, bre(s and ot"er to-ic !re!arations o% $edie#al Euro!e to cause #isual "allucinations and t"e sensation o% %li "t. An annual or biennial nati#e to Euro!e& it "as lon been #alued in $edicine as a sedati#e and an anodyne to induce slee!. T"e !rinci!al al*aloid o% "enbane is "yoscya$ine& but t"e $ore "allucino enic sco!ola$ine is also !resent in si ni%icant a$ounts& alon (it" se#eral ot"er al*aloids in s$aller concentrations. Henbane is one o% >= s!ecies o% Hyoscyamus& $e$bers o% t"e ni "ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae. T"ey are nati#e to Euro!e& nort"ern A%rica& and (estern and central Asia.

Medieval #itches coo!ing "magic" bre# #ith toad and henbane.

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MANDRAKE G#andragora officinarumH& an "allucino en (it" a %antastic "istory& "as lon been *no(n and %eared %or its to-icity. Its co$!le- "istory as a $a ic "y!notic in t"e %ol*lore o% Euro!e cannot be eEualed by any s!ecies any("ere. Mandra*e (as a !anacea. Its %ol* uses in $edie#al Euro!e (ere ine-tricably bound u! (it" t"e )Doctrine o% Si natures&) an old t"eory "oldin t"at t"e a!!earance o% an ob+ect indicates its s!ecial !ro!erties. T"e root o% $andra*e (as li*ened to t"e %or$ o% a $an or (o$an3 "ence its $a ic. I% a $andra*e (ere !ulled %ro$ t"e eart"& accordin to su!erstition& its uneart"ly s"rie*s could dri#e its collector $ad. In $any re ions& t"e !eo!le clai$ed stron a!"rodisiac !ro!erties %or $andra*e. T"e su!erstitious "old o% t"is !lant in Euro!e !ersisted %or centuries.

'oodcuts from Hortus sanitatis, (st edition Mayence, ()*+

Mandra*e& (it" t"e .ro!ane al*aloids "yoscya$ine& sco!ola$ine& and ot"ers& (as an acti#e "allucino enic in redient o% $any o% t"e (itc"es, bre(s o% Euro!e. In %act& it (as undoubtedly one o% t"e $ost !otent in redients in t"ose co$!le- !re!arations. Mandra*e and %i#e ot"er s!ecies o% #andragora belon to t"e ni "ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae& and are nati#e to t"e area bet(een t"e Mediterranean and t"e Hi$alayas.

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DHATURA and DUTRA GDatura metelH are t"e co$$on na$es in India %or an i$!ortant 7ld World s!ecies o% Datura. T"e narcotic !ro!erties o% t"is !ur!le5%lo(ered $e$ber o% t"e deadly ni "ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae& "a#e been *no(n and #alued in India since !re"istory. T"e !lant "as a lon "istory in ot"er countries as (ell. So$e (riters "a#e credited it (it" bein res!onsible %or t"e into-icatin s$o*e associated (it" t"e 7racle o% Del!"i. Early C"inese (ritin s re!ort an "allucino en t"at "as been identi%ied (it" t"is s!ecies. And it is undoubtedly t"e !lant t"at A#icenna& t"e Arabian !"ysician& $entioned under t"e na$e +ou'$at"el in t"e 11t" century. Its use as an a!"rodisiac in t"e East Indies (as recorded in 1;<@. T"e !lant (as "eld sacred in C"ina& ("ere !eo!le belie#ed t"at ("en 0udd"a !reac"ed& "ea#en s!rin*led t"e !lant (it" de(. Ne#ert"eless& t"e utili'ation o% Datura !re!arations in Asia entailed $uc" less ritual t"an in t"e Ne( World. In $any !arts o% Asia& e#en today& seeds o% Datura are o%ten $i-ed (it" %ood and tobacco %or illicit use& es!ecially by t"ie#es %or stu!e%yin #icti$s& ("o $ay re$ain seriously into-icated %or se#eral days. Datura metel is co$$only $i-ed (it" cannabis and s$o*ed in Asia to t"is day. Lea#es o% a ("ite5 %lo(ered %or$ o% t"e !lant Gconsidered by so$e botanists to be a distinct s!ecies& D. fastuosaH are s$o*ed (it" cannabis or tobacco in $any !arts o% A%rica and Asia. T"e !lant contains "i "ly to-ic al*aloids& t"e !rinci!al one bein sco!ola$ine. T"is "allucino en is !resent in "ea#iest concentrations in t"e lea#es and seeds. Sco!ola$ine is %ound also in t"e Ne( World s!ecies o% Datura G!!. 12>512<H. Datura fero$& a related 7ld World s!ecies& not so (ides!read in Asia& is also #alued %or its narcotic and $edicinal !ro!erties.

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IBOGA G&abernanthe ibogaH& nati#e to 6abon and t"e Con o& is t"e only $e$ber o% t"e do bane %ancily& A!ocynaceae& *no(n to be used as an "allucino en. T"e !lant is o% ro(in i$!ortance& !ro#idin t"e stron est sin le %orce a ainst t"e s!read o% C"ristianity and Isla$ in t"is re ion. T"e yello(is" root o% t"e ibo a !lant is e$!loyed in t"e initiation rites o% a nu$ber o% secret societies& t"e $ost %a$ous bein t"e 0(iti cult. Entrance into t"e cult is conditional on "a#in )seen) t"e od !lant 0(iti& ("ic" is acco$!lis"ed t"rou " t"e use o% ibo a. T"e dru & disco#ered by Euro!eans to(ard t"e $iddle o% t"e last century& "as a re!utation as a !o(er%ul sti$ulant and a!"rodisiac. Hunters use it to *ee! t"e$sel#es a(a*e all ni "t. Lar e doses induce un(orldly #isions& and )sorcerers) o!en ta*e t"e dru to see* in%or$ation %ro$ ancestors and t"e s!irit (orld.Ibo aine is t"e !rinci!al indole al*aloid a$on a do'en ot"ers %ound in ibo a. T"e !"ar$acolo y o% ibo aine is (ell *no(n. In addition to bein an "allucino en& ibo oine in lar e doses is a stron central ner#ous syste$ sti$ulant& leadin to con#ulsions& !aralysis& and arrest o% res!iration.
'Payment of the Ancestors(' ta)ing place bet*een t*o shrubby bushes of tabernanthe iboga in the +ang !ult of B*iti( !ongo. ,Photo by -. .. +ernande/ 0

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NEW WORLD HALLUCINOGENS In t"e Ne( WorldJNort"& Central& and Sout" A$erica and t"e West IndiesJt"e nu$ber and cultural i$!ortance o% "allucino ens reac"ed a$a'in "ei "ts in t"e !astJand in !laces t"eir role is undi$inis"ed. More t"an ninety s!ecies are e$!loyed %or t"eir into-icatin !rinci!les& co$!ared to %e(er t"an a do'en in t"e 7ld World. It (ould not be an e-a eration to say t"at so$e o% t"e Ne( World cultures& !articularly in Me-ico and Sout" A$erica& (ere !ractically ensla#ed by t"e reli ious use o% "allucino ens& ("ic" acEuired a dee! and controllin si ni%icance in al$ost e#ery as!ect o% li%e. Cultures in Nort" A$erica and t"e West Indies used %e(er "allucino ens& and t"eir role o%ten see$ed secondary. Alt"ou " tobacco and coca& t"e source o% cocaine& "a#e beco$e o% (orld(ide i$!ortance& none o% t"e true "allucino ens o% t"e Western He$is!"ere "as assu$ed t"e lobal si ni%icance o% t"e 7ld World cannabis. No et"nolo ical study o% A$erican Indians can be considered co$!lete (it"out an in5de!t" a!!reciation o% t"eir "allucino ens. Une-!ected disco#eries "a#e co$e %ro$ studyin t"e "allucino enic use o% Ne( World !lants. Many "allucino enic !re!arations called %or t"e addition o% !lant additi#es ca!able o% alterin t"e into-ication. T"e acco$!lis"$ents o% abori inal A$ericans in t"e use o% $i-tures "a#e been e-traordinary. W"ile *no(n Ne( World "allucino ens are nu$erous& studies are still unco#erin s!ecies ne( to t"e list. T"e $ost curious as!ect o% t"e studies& "o(e#er& is ("y& in #ie( o% t"eir #ital i$!ortance to Ne( World

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cultures& t"e botanical identities o% $any o% t"e "allucino ens re$ained un*no(n until co$!arati#ely recent ti$es. PUFFBALLS G"ycoperdon mi$tecorum and ". marginotumH are used by t"e Mi-tec Indicins 7% 7a-aca& Me-ico as auditory "allucino ens. A%ter eatin t"ese %un i& a nati#e "ears #oices and ec"oes. T"ere is a!!arently no cere$ony connected (it" !u%%balls& and t"ey do not en+oy t"e !lace as di#inatory a ents t"at t"e $us"roo$s do in 7a-aca. ". mi$tecorum is t"e stron er o% t"e t(o. It is called i5i5(a& $eanin ,,%un us o% t"e %irst Euality.) ". marginatum& ("ic" "as a stron odor o% e-cre$ent is *no(n as i5i5sa5(a& $eanin ,,%un us o% t"e second Euality.

Alt"ou " into-icatin substances "a#e not yet been %ound in t"e !u%%balls& t"ere are re!orts in t"e literature t"at so$e o% t"e$ "a#e "ad narcotic e%%ects ("en eaten. Most o% t"e esti$ated ;= to 1== s!ecies o% "ycoperdon ro( in $ossy %orests o% t"e te$!erate 'one. T"ey belon to t"e Lyco!erdaceae& a %a$ily o% t"e 6astero$ycetes.

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The use of hallucinogenic mushrooms, #hich dates bac! several thousand years, centers in the mountains of southern Me,ico.

MUSHROOMS o% $any s!ecies (ere used as "allucino ens by t"e A'tec Indians& ("o colled t"e$ teonanacotl& $eanin )%les" o% t"e ods) in t"e Na"uatl Indian lan ua e. T"ese $us"roo$s& all o% t"e %a$ily A aricaceae& are still #alued in Me-ican $a ic or eli ious rites. T"ey belon to %our eneraK !onocybe and Panaeolus& al$ost cos$o!olitan in t"eir ran e3 Psilocybe& %ound in Nort" and Sout" A$erica& Euro!e& and Asia3 and Stropharia& *no(n in Nort" A$erica& t"e West Indies& and Euro!e. MUSHROOM WORSHIP see$s to "a#e roots in centuries o% nati#e tradition. Me-ican %rescoes& oin bac* to A.D. B==& "a#e desi ns su esti#e o% $us"roo$s. E#en $ore re$ar*able are t"e arti%acts called $us"roo$ stones G!. ?=H& e-ca#ated in lar e nu$bers %ro$ "i "land Maya sites in 6uate$ala and datin buc* to 1=== 0.C. Consistin o% a ste$ (it" a "u$an or ani$al %oce and sur$ounted by an u$brella5s"a!ed to!& t"ey lon !u''led arc"aeolo ists. No( inter!reted as a *ind o% icon connected (it" reli ious rituals& t"ey indicate t"at B&=== years a o& a so!"isticated reli ion surrounded t"e sacra$ental use o% t"ese %un i. It "as been su ested t"at !er"a!s $us"roo$s (ere t"e earliest "allucino enic !lants to be disco#ered. T"e ot"er5 (orldly e-!erience induced by t"ese $ysterious %or$s o% !lant li%e could easily "a#e su ested a s!iritual !lane o% e-istence. Detail %ro$ a %resco at a Te!antitla GTeoti"uacIn Me-icoH re!resentin Tloloc& t"e od o% clouds& rain& and (aters. Note t"e !ale blue $us"roo$s (it" oran e ste$s and also t"e )colorines, 5 t"e dar*er blue& bean5s"a!ed %or$s (it" red s!ots. See !a es A= and A< %or discussion o% colorines and !iule. GA%ter Hei$ and Wasson.H

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Typical icons associated with mushroom cults dating back /,... years in !uatemala.

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Detail %ro$ %resco at Sacuala& Teoti"uacIn& Me-ico& s"o(in %our reenis" ,,$us"roo$s) t"at see$ to be e$er in %ro$ t"e $out" o% a od& !ossibly t"e Sun 6od.

EARLY USE OF THE SACRED MUSHROOMS is *no(n $ainly %ro$ t"e e-tensi#e descri!tions (ritten by t"e S!anis" clerics. /or t"is (e o(e t"e$ a reat debt. 7ne c"ronicler& (ritin in t"e $id51;==,s& a%ter t"e conEuest o% Me-ico& re%erred %reEuently to t"ose $us"roo$s ) ("ic" are "ar$%ul and into-icate li*e (ine& ) so t"at t"ose ("o eat t"e$ )see #isions& %eel a %aintness o% "eart and are !ro#o*ed to lust,,3 t"e nati#es )("en t"ey be in to et e-cited by t"e$ start dancin & sin in & (ee!in . So$e do not (ant to eat but sit do(n . . . and see t"e$sel#es dyin in a #ision3 ot"ers see t"e$sel#es bein eaten by a (ild beast3 ot"ers i$a ine t"at t"ey are ca!turin !risoners o% (ar& t"at t"ey are ric"& t"at t"ey !ossess $any sla#es& t"at t"ey "ad co$$itted adultery and (ere to "a#e t"eir "eads crus"ed %or t"e o%%ense....) A (or* o% A'tec $edicine $entions t"ree *inds o% into-icatin $us"roo$s. 7ne& tey"uintli causes ) $adness t"at on occasion is lastin & o% ("ic" t"e sy$!to$ is an uncontrollable lau "ter3 t"ere are ot"ers ("ic" . . . brin be%ore t"e eyes all sorts o% t"in s& suc" as (ars and t"e li*eness o% de$ons. 4et ot"ers are not less desired by !rinces %or t"eir %esti#als and banEuets& and t"ese %etc" a "i " !rice. Wit" ni "t5 lon #i ils are t"ey sou "t& a(eso$e and terri%yin .)

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SPANISH OPPOSITION to t"e A'tecs, (ors"i! o% !a an deities (it" t"e sacra$ental aid o% $us"roo$s (as stron . Alt"ou " t"e S!anis" conEuerors o% Me-ico "ated and attac*ed t"e reli ious use o% all "allucino ens 5 !eyote& ololiuEui& toloac"e& and ot"ers 5 teonanocatl (as t"e tar et o% s!ecial (rat". T"eir reli ious %anaticis$ (as dra(n es!ecially to(ard t"is des!ised and %eared %or$ o% !lant li%e t"at& t"rou " its #ision5 i#in !o(ers& "eld t"e Indian in a(e& allo(in "i$ to co$$une directly (it" "is ods. T"e ne( reli ion& C"ristianity& "ad not"in so attracti#e to o%%er "i$. Tryin to sta$! out t"e use o% t"e $us"roo$s& t"e S!aniards succeeded only in dri#in t"e custo$ into t"e "interlands& ("ere it !ersists today. Not only did it !ersist& but t"e ritual ado!ted $any C"ristian as!ects& and t"e $odern ritual is a !a an5C"ristian blend.

T"e !a an od o% t"e under(orld s!ea*s t"rou " t"e $us"roo$& teononocatl& as re!resented by a Me-ican artist in t"e 1?t" century. G/ro$ t"e #agliabecchiano !ode$& 0iblioteca Na'ionole& /lorence.H IDENTIFICATION OF THE SACRED MUSHROOMS (as slo( in co$in . Dri#en into "idin by t"e S!aniards& t"e $us"roo$ cult (as not encountered in Me-ico %or %our centuries. Durin t"at ti$e& alt"ou " t"e Me-ican %lora (as *no(n to include #arious to-ic $us"roo$s& it (as belie#ed t"at t"e A'tecs "ad tried to !rotect t"eir real sacred !lantK t"ey "ad led t"e S!aniards to belie#e t"at teonanacatl $eant $us"roo$& ("en it actually $eant !eyote. It (os !ointed out t"at t"e sy$!to$s o% $us"roo$ into-ication coincided re$ar*ably (it" t"ose described %or !eyote into-ication and t"at dried $us"roo$s $i "t easily "a#e been con%used (it" t"e s"ri#eled bro(n "eads o% t"e !eyote cactus. 0ut t"e nu$erous detailed re%erences by care%ul (riters& includin $edical $en trained in botany& ar ued a ainst t"is t"eory. Not until t"e 1AB=,s (ere botanists able to identi%y s!eci$ens o% $us"roo$s %ound in actual use in di#inatory rites in Me-ico. Later (or* "as s"o(n t"at $ore t"an >= s!ecies o% $us"roo$s are si$ilarly e$!loyed a$on se#en or ei "t tribes in sout"ern Me-ico.

A 1?t"5century illustration o% teononacatl GaH& t"e into-icatin $us"roo$ o% t"e A'tecs& still #alued in

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Me-ican $a ico5reli ious rites3 identity o% GbH is un*no(n. /ro$ Sa"a un,s Historia general de las cosas de 1ueva Espana& Val. IV G/lorentine Code-H. THE MODERN MUSHROOM CEREMONY o% t"e Ma'atec Indians o% nort"eastern 7a-aca illustrates t"e i$!ortance o% t"e ritual in !resent5day Me-ico and "o( t"e sacred c"aracter o% t"ese !lants "as !ersisted %ro$ !re5conEuest ti$es. T"e di#ine $us"roo$s are at"ered durin t"e ne( $oon on t"e "illsides be%ore da(n by a #ir in3 t"ey are o%ten consecrated on t"e altar o% t"e local Cat"olic c"urc". T"eir stran e ro(t" !attern "el!s $a*e $us"roo$s $ysterious and a(eso$e to t"e Ma'atec& ("o call t"e$ ,nti5si5t"o& $eanin )(ors"i!%ul ob+ect t"at s!rin s %ort".) T"ey belie#e t"at t"e $us"roo$ s!rin s u! $iraculously and t"at it $ay be sent %ro$ outer real$s on t"underbolts. As one Indian !ut it !oeticallyK )T"e little $us"roo$ co$es o% itsel%& no one *no(s ("ence& li*e t"e (ind t"at co$es (e *no( not ("en or ("y.) T"e all5ni "t Ma'atec cere$ony& led usually by a (o$an s"a$an GcuranderaH& co$!rises lon & co$!licated& and curiously re!etitious c"ants& !ercussi#e beats& and !rayers. 7%ten a curin rite ta*es !lace durin ("ic" t"e !ractitioner& t"rou " t"e )!o(er) o% t"e sacred $us"roo$s& co$$unicates and intercedes (it" su!ernatural %orces. T"ere is no Euestion o% t"e #ibrant rele#ance o% t"e $us"roo$ rituals to $odern Indian li%e in sout"ern Me-ico. None o% t"e attraction o% t"ese di#ine $us"roo$s "as been lost as a result o% contact (it" C"ristianity or $odern ideas. T"e s!irit o% re#erence c"aracteristic o% t"e $us"roo$ cere$ony is as !ro%ound as t"at o% any o% t"e (orld,s reat reli ions.

Curandera (it" Ma'atec !atient and dis" o% sacred $us"roo$s. Scene is ty!ical o% t"e all5ni "t $us"roo$ cere$ony. Curandera is under t"e in%luence o% t"e $us"roo$s. KINDS OF MUSHROOMS USED by di%%erent s"a$ans are deter$ined !artly by !ersonal !re%erence and !artly by t"e !ur!ose o% t"e use. Seasonal und re ional a#ailability also "a#e a bearin on t"e c"oice. Stropharia cubensis and Psilocybe me$icana $ay be t"e $ost co$$only e$!loyed& but "al% a do'en ot"er s!ecies o% Psilocybe as (ell as !onocybe siliginoides and Panaeolus sphinctrinus are also i$!ortant. T"e nati#e na$es are color%ul and so$eti$es si ni%icant.. Psilocybe a/tecorum is called )c"ildren o% t"e (aters)3 P. /apotecorum& )cro(n5o%5t"orns $us"roo$)3 and P. caerulescens #ar. nigripes& )$us"roo$ o% su!erior reason.) GSee illustrations on !!. ??5?<H. T"e !ossibility e-ists t"at ot"er "allucino enic s!ecies o% $us"roo$s are also used. It is !ossible& too& t"at Psilocybe s!ecies are used as inebriants outside o% Me-ico. P. yungensis "as been su ested as t"e $ysterious )tree $us"roo$) t"at early Desuit $issionaries re!orted as bein e$!loyed by t"e 4uri$a ua Indians o% A$a'onian .eru as t"e source o% a !otent into-icatin be#era e. T"is s!ecies is *no(n to contain an "allucino enic !rinci!le. /ield (or* in $odern ti$es& "o(e#er& "as not disclosed t"e narcotic use o% any $us"roo$s in t"e A$a'on area.

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,9

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THE EFFECTS OF THE MUSHROOMS include $uscular rela-ation or li$!ness& !u!il enlar e$ent& "ilarity& and di%%iculty in concentration. T"e $us"roo$s cause bot" #isual and auditory "allucinations. Visions are breat"ta*in ly li%eli*e& in color& and in constant $otion. T"ey are %ollo(ed by lassitude& $ental and !"ysical de!ression& and alteration o% ti$e and s!oce !erce!tion. T"e user see$s to be isolated %ro$ t"e (orld around "i$3 (it"out loss o% consciousness& "e beco$es ("olly indi%%erent to "is surroundin s& and "is drea$li*e state beco$es reality to "i$. T"is !eculiarity o% t"e into-ication $a*es it interestin to !syc"iatrists. 7ne in#esti ator ("o ate $us"roo$s in a Me-ican Indian cere$ony (rote t"at )your body lies in t"e dar*ness& "ea#y as lead& but your s!irit see$s to soar . . . and (it" t"e s!eed o% t"ou "t to tra#el ("ere it listet"& in ti$e and s!ace& acco$!anied by t"e s"a$an,s sin in . . . W"at you are seein and . . . "earin a!!ear as one3 t"e $usic assu$es "ar$onious s"a!es& i#in #isual %or$ to its "ar$onies& and ("at you are seein ta*es on t"e $odalities o% $usicJt"e $usic o% t"e s!"eres. )All your senses are si$ilarly a%%ected3 t"e ci arette . . . s$ells as no ci arette be%ore "ad e#er s$elled3 t"e lass o% si$!le (ater is in%initely better t"an c"a$!a ne . . . t"e be$us"roo$ed !erson is !oised in s!ace& a dise$bodied eye& in#isible& incor!oreal& seein but not seen . . . "e is t"e %i#e senses dise$bodied . . . your soul is %ree& loses all sense o% ti$e& alert as it ne#er (as be%ore& li#in an eternity in a ni "t& seein in%inity in a rain o% sand . . . GT"e #isions $ay be o%H al$ost anyt"in . . . e-ce!t t"e scenes o% your e#eryday li%e.) As (it" ot"er "allucino ens& t"e e%%ects o% t"e $us"roo$s $ay #ary (it" $ood and settin .

A scientist,s descri!tion o% "is e-!erience a%ter eatin B> dried s!eci$ens o% .silocybe $e-icana (as as %ollo(sK ). . . W"en t"e doctor su!er#isin t"e e-!eri$ent bent o#er $e . . . "e (as trans%or$ed into an A'tec !riest& and I (ould not "a#e been astonis"ed i% "e "ad dra(n an obsidian *ni%e . . . it a$used $e to see "o( t"e 6er$anic %ace . . . "ad acEuired a !urely Indian e-!ression. At t"e !ea* o% t"e into-ication . . . t"e rus" o% interior !ictures& $ostly abstract $oti%s ra!idly c"an in in s"a!e and color& reac"ed suc" an alar$in de ree t"at I %eared t"at I (ould be torn into t"is ("irl!ool o% %or$ and color and (ould dissol#e. A%ter about si- "ours& t"e drea$ ca$e to an end . . . I %elt $y return to e#eryday reality to be a "a!!y return %ro$ a stran e& %antastic but Euite really e-!erienced (orld into an old and %a$iliar "o$e.) CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION o% t"e "allucino enic $us"roo$s "as sur!rised scientists. A ("ite crystalline try!ta$ine o% unusual structure 5 an acidic !"os!"oric acid ester o% 25 "ydro-ydi$et"yltry!ta$ine 5 (as isolated. T"is indole deri#ati#e& na$ed !silocybin& is a ne( ty!e o% structure& a 25substituted try!ta$ine (it" a !"os!"oric acid radical& a ty!e ne#er be%ore *no(n as a naturally occurrin constituent o% !lant tissue. So$e o% t"e $us"roo$s also contain $inute a$ounts o% anot"er indolic co$!ound 5 !silocin 5 ("ic" is unstable. W"ile !silocybin "as been %ound also in Euro!ean and Nort" A$erican $us"roo$s& a!!arently only in Me-ico and 6uate$ala "a#e !silocybin 5 containin $us"roo$s been !ur!ose%ully used %or cere$onial into-ication.

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.silocin is belie#ed by so$e bioc"e$ists to be t"e !recursor o% t"e $ore stable !silocybin.

$
laboratory culture of +silocybe me?icana, grown from spores, an inno"ation that speeded analysis of the ephemeral mushroom. 9$fter Heim E Wasson: -es hampignons Hallucinogen.s du Me,i/ue:

CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION o% t"e Me-ican $us"roo$s (as di%%icult until t"ey could be culti#ated. T"ey are al$ost ("olly (ater and reat Euantities o% t"e$ are needed %or c"e$ical analyses because t"eir c"e$ical constitution is so e!"e$eral. T"e clari%ication o% t"e c"e$istry o% t"e Me-ican $us"roo$s (as !ossible only because $ycolo ists (ere able to culti#ate t"e !lants in nu$bers su%%icient to satis%y t"e needs o% t"e c"e$ists. T"is acco$!lis"$ent re!resents a !"ase in t"e study o% "allucino enic !lants t"at $ust be i$itated in t"e in#esti ation o% t"e c"e$istry o% ot"er narcotics. T"e laboratory& in t"is case& beca$e an e%%icient substitute %or nature. 0y !ro#idin suitable conditions& scientists "a#e learned to ro( $any s!ecies in arti%icial culture. Culti#ation o% edible $us"roo$s is an i$!ortant co$$ercial enter!rise and (as !racticed in /rance early in t"e se#enteent" century. Culti#ation %or laboratory studies is a $ore recent de#elo!$ent.

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SWEET FLAG GAcorus calamusH& also called s(eet calo$el& ro(s in da$! !laces in t"e nort" and sout" te$!erate re ions. A $e$ber o% t"e aru$ %a$ily& Araceae& it is one o% t(o s!ecies o% Acorus. T"ere is so$e indirect e#idence t"at Indians o% nort"ern Canada& ("o e$!loy t"e !lant as a $edicine and a sti$ulant& $ay c"e( t"e rootstoc* as an "allucino en. In e-cessi#e doses& it is *no(n to induce stron #isual "allucinations. T"e into-icatin !ro!erties $ay be due to a5asorone and L5asarone& but t"e c"e$istry and !"ar$acolo y o% t"e !lant are still !oorly understood.

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Colombian 'ndians using a snuffing tube fashioned from a bird bone. VIROLAS GVirola calophylla& V. colophylloidea& and V. theiodoraH are a$on t"e $ost recently disco#ered "allucino enic !lants. T"ese +un le trees o% $ediu$ si'e "a#e lossy& dar* reen lea#es (it" clusters o% tiny yello( %lo(ers t"at e$it a !un ent aro$a. T"e into-icatin !rinci!les are in t"e blood5red resin yielded by t"e tree bar*& ("ic" $a*es a !o(er%ul snu%%. Virola trees are nati#e to t"e Ne( World tro!ics. T"ey are $e$bers o% t"e nut$e %a$ily& Myristicaceae& ("ic" co$!rises so$e B== s!ecies o% trees in 1@ enera. T"e best *no(n $e$ber o% t"e %a$ily is #yristica fragrans& an Asiatic tree t"at is t"e source o% nut$e and $ace. In Colo$bia& t"e s!ecies $ost o%ten used %or "allucino enic !ur!oses are Virola calophylla and V. calophylloidea& ("ereas in 0ra'il and Vene'uela t"e Indians !re%er V. theiodora& ("ic" see$s to yield a $ore !otent resin.

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AN INTOXICATING SNUFF is !re!ared %ro$ t"e bar* o% Virola trees by Indians o% t"e nort"(estern A$a'on and t"e "ead(aters o% t"e 7rinoco. An ant"ro!olo ist ("o obser#ed t"e 4e*(ana Indians o% Vene'uela in t"eir !re!aration and use o% t"e snu%% in 1A=A co$$entedK )7% s!ecial interest are cures& durin ("ic" t"e (itc" doctor in"ales "a*udu%"a. T"is is a $a ical snu%% used e-clusi#ely by (itc" doctors and !re!ared %ro$ t"e bar* o% a certain tree ("ic"& !ounded u!& is boiled in a s$all eart"en(are !ot& until all t"e (ater "as e#a!orated and a sedi$ent re$ains at t"e botto$ o% t"e !ot. )T"is sedi$ent is toasted in t"e !ot o#er a sli "t %ire and is t"en %inely !o(dered (it" t"e blade o% a *ni%e. T"en t"e sorcerer blo(s a little o% t"e !o(der t"rou " a reed . . . into t"e air. Ne-t& "e snu%%s& ("ilst& (it" t"e sa$e reed& "e absorbs t"e !o(der into eac" nostril successi#ely.

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)T"e "a*udu%"a ob#iously "as a stron sti$ulatin e%%ect& %or i$$ediately t"e (itc" doctor be ins to sin and yell (ildly& all t"e ("ile !itc"in t"e u!!er !art o% "is body bac*(ards and %or(ards.) Stri! o% bar* %ro$ Virola tree& s"o(in oo'in resin. A$on nu$erous tribes in eastern Colo$bia& t"e use o% Virola snu%%& o%ten called ya*ee or !arica& is restricted to s"a$ans. A$on t"e Wai*I or 4anona$o tribes o% t"e %rontier re ion o% 0ra'il and Vene'uela& e!ena or nya*(ana& as t"e snu%% is called& is not restricted to $edicine $en& but $ay be snu%%ed cere$onially by all adult $ales or e#en ta*en occasionally (it"out any ritual basis by $en indi#idually. T"e $edicine $en o% t"ese tribes ta*e t"e snu%% to induce a trance t"at is belie#ed to aid t"e$ in dia nosin and treatin illness. Alt"ou " t"e use o% t"e snu%% a$on t"e Indians o% Sout" A$erica "ad been described earlier& its source (as not de%initely identi%ied as t"e Virola tree until 1A;2.

WaikF 'ndian scraping Girola resin into pot, preparatory to cooking it. PREPARATION OF VIROLA SNUFF #aries a$on di%%erent Indians. So$e scra!e t"e so%t inner layer o% t"e bar* and dry t"e s"a#in s ently o#er a %ire. T"e s"a#in s are stored %or later use. W"en t"e snu%% is needed& t"e s"a#in s are !ul#eri'ed by !oundin (it" a !estle in a $ortar $ade %ro$ t"e %ruit case o% t"e 0ra'il5 nut tree. T"e resultin !o(der is si%ted to a %ine& !un ent bro(n dust. To t"is $ay be added t"e !o(dered lea#es o% a s$all& s(eet5scented (eed& -usticia& and t"e as"es o% a$asita& t"e bar* o% a beauti%ul tree& Eli/abetha princeps. T"e snu%% is t"en ready %or use.

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@ried Husticio lea"es are ground before being added to snuff 7t"er Indians %ell t"e tree& stri! o%% and ently "eat t"e bar*& collect t"e resin in an eart"en(are !ot& boil it do(n to a t"ic* !aste& sun5dry t"e !aste& crus" it (it" a stone& and si%t it. As"es o% se#eral bar*s and t"e lea% !o(der o% -usticia $ay or $ay not be added. Still ot"er Indians *nead t"e inner s"a#in s o% %res"ly stri!!ed bar* to sEuee'e out all t"e resin and t"en boil do(n t"e resin to et a t"ic* !aste t"at is sun5dried and !re!ared into snu%% (it" as"es added. T"e sa$e resin& a!!lied directly to arro("eads and con ealed in s$o*e& is one o% t"e Wai*a arro( !oisons. W"en su!!lies o% snu%% are used u! in cere$onies& t"e Indians o%ten scra!e t"e "ardened resin %ro$ arro( ti!s to use it as a substitute. It see$s to be as !otent as t"e snu%% itsel%.

Waika 'ndian si#ing ground Hustica lea"es to make fine powder for additi"e to Girola snuff. A SNUFF-TAKING CEREMONY is conducted annually by $any Wai*I tribes to $e$oriali'e t"ose ("o "a#e died t"e !re#ious year. Endocannibalis$ co$!rises !art o% t"e rite3 t"e as"es o% calcined bones o% t"e de!arted are $i-ed into a %er$ented banana drin* and are s(allo(ed (it" t"e be#era e. T"e cere$ony ta*es !lace in a lar e round "ouse. /ollo(in initial c"antin by a $aster o% cere$ony& t"e $en and older boys %or$ rou!s and blo( "u e a$ounts o% snu%% t"rou " lon tubes into eac"

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ot"er,s nostrils G!. <2H. T"ey t"en be in to dance and to run (ildly& s"outin & brandis"in (ea!ons& and $a*in estures o% bra#ado. .airs or rou!s en a e in a stran e ritual in ("ic" one !artici!ant t"rusts out "is c"est and is !ounded %orce%ully (it" %ists& clubs& or roc*s by a co$!anion& ("o t"en o%%ers "is o(n c"est %or reci!rocation. Alt"ou " t"is !unis"$ent& in retribution %or real or i$a ined rie#ances& o%ten dra(s blood& t"e e%%ects o% t"e narcotic are so stron t"at t"e $en do not %linc" or s"o( si ns o% !ain. T"e o!!onents t"en sEuat& t"ro( t"eir ar$s about eac" ot"er& and s"out into one anot"er,s ears. All be in "o!!in and cra(lin across t"e %loor in i$itation o% ani$als. E#entually all succu$b to t"e dru & losin consciousness %or u! to "al% an "our. Hallucinations are said to be e-!erienced durin t"is ti$e.

.ai)a round house in clearing in Ama/on forest.

EFFECTS OF VIROLA SNUFF are %elt (it"in $inutes %ro$ t"e ti$e o% initial use. /irst t"ere is a %eelin o% increasin e-citability. T"is is %ollo(ed by a nu$bness o% t"e li$bs& a t(itc"in o% t"e %ace& a lac* o% $uscular coordination& nasal disc"ar es& nausea& and& %reEuently& #o$itin . Macro!sia 5 t"e sensation o% seein t"in s reatly enlar ed 5 is c"aracteristic and enters into Wai*I belie%s about "e*ulas& t"e s!irit %orces d(ellin in t"e Virola tree and controllin t"e a%%airs o% $an. Durin t"e into-ication& $edicine $en o%ten (ildly esticulate& %i "tin t"ese i antic "e*ulas. CAUSE OF THE NARCOTIC EFFECT o% Virola "as been s"o(n by recent studies to be an e-ce!tionally "i " concentration o% try!ta$ine al*aloids in t"e resin. Wai*I snu%% !re!ared e-clusi#ely %ro$ t"e resin o% Virola theiodora "as u! to @ !ercent o% try!ta$ines& $ainly t"e "i "ly acti#e ;5$et"o-y5N& N5 di$et"yltry!ta$ine T(o ne( al*aloids o% a di%%erent ty!eJ&05carbolinesJ "a#e also been %ound in t"e resin3 t"ey act as $onoa$ine o-idase in"ibitors and $a*e it !ossible %or t"e try!ta$ines to ta*e e%%ect ("en t"e resin is ta*en orally. OTHER WAYS OF TAKING VIROLA RESIN besides snu%%in it are so$eti$es e$!loyed. T"e !ri$iti#e no$adic Ma*u o% Colo$bia o%ten $erely scra!e resin %ro$ t"e bar* o% t"e tree and lic* it in crude %or$. T"e Witoto& 0ora& and Muinane o% Colo$bia !re!are little !ellets %ro$ t"e resin& and t"ese are eaten ("en& to !ractice (itc"cra%t or dia nose disease& t"e $edicine $en (is" to ,tal* (it" t"e s!irit !eo!le)3 t"e into-ication be ins %i#e $inutes a"er in estion. T"ere is so$e #a ue e#idence t"at certain Vene'uelan nati#es $ay s$o*e t"e bar* to et t"e into-icatin e%%ects. USE OF VIROLA AS AN ARROW POISON by t"e Wai*I Indians is one o% t"e recent disco#eries in t"e study o% curare. T"e red resin %ro$ t"e bar* o% Virola theiodora is s$eared on an arro( or dart& ("ic" is t"en ently "eated in t"e s$o*e o% a %ire Gs"o(n in t"e illustration belo(H to "arden t"e resin. T"e *illin action o% t"e !oison is slo(. T"e c"e$ical constituent o% t"e resin res!onsible %or t"is action is still un*no(n. It is interestin t"at alt"ou " t"e arro(s are ti!!ed ("ile t"e "allucino enic snu%% is bein !re!ared %ro$ resin %ro$ t"e so$e tree& t"e t(o o!erations are carried out by di%%erent $edicine $en o% t"e sa$e tribe. Many ot"er !lants are e$!loyed in Sout" A$erica in !re!arin arro( !oisons& $ost o% t"e$ $e$bers o% t"e %a$ilies Lo aniaceae and Menis!er$aceae.

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'ai!0 $ndian holding poison darts in smo!y fire to congeal 1irola resin, applied by dipping or spreading #ith fingers.

MASHA-HARI G-usticia pectoralis #ar. stenophyllaH is a s$all "erb culti#ated by t"e Wai*I Indians o% t"e 0ra'ilian5 Vene'uelan %rontier re ion. T"e aro$atic lea#es are occasionally dried& !o(dered& and $i-ed (it" t"e "allucino enic snu%% $ade %ro$ resin o% t"e Virola tree. 7t"er s!ecies o% -usticia "a#e been re!orted to be e$!loyed in t"at re ion as t"e sole source o% a narcotic snu%%. Hallucino enic constituents "a#e not yet been %ound in -usticia& but i% any s!ecies o% t"e enus is utili'ed as t"e only in redient o% an into-icatin snu%%& t"en one or $ore acti#e constituents $ust be !resent. T"e B== s!ecies o% -usticia& $e$bers o% t"e acant"us %a$ily& Acant"aceae& ro( in t"e tro!ics and subtro!ics o% bot" "e$is!"eres.

JUREMA G#imosa hostilisH is a !oorly understood s"rub& t"e roots o% ("ic" !ro#ide t"e )$iraculous +ure$a drin*&) *no(n in eastern 0ra'il as a+uca or #in"o de +ure$a. 7t"er s!ecies o% #imosa are also locally called +ure$a. Se#eral tribes in .erna$bucoJt"e 9ariri& .an*arurN& Tus"a& and /ulnio 5 consu$e

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t"e be#era e in cere$onies. Usually connected (it" (ar%are& t"e "allucino en (as used by no( e-tinct tribes o% t"e area to )!ass t"e ni "t na#i atin t"rou " t"e de!t"s o% slu$ber) +ust !rior to sallyin %ort" to (ar. T"ey (ould see ) lorious #isions o% t"e s!irit land . . . GorH catc" a li$!se o% t"e clas"in roc*s t"at destroy souls o% t"e dead +ourneyin to t"eir oal or see t"e T"underbird s"ootin li "tnin %ro$ a "u e tu%t on "is "ead and !roducin cla!s o% t"under . . .) it a!!ears& "o(e#er& t"at t"e "allucino enic use o% #. hostilis "as nearly disa!!eared in recent ti$es. Little is *no(n about t"e "allucino enic !ro!erties o% t"is !lant& ("ic" (as disco#ered $ore t"an 1;= years a o. Early c"e$ical studies indicated an acti#e al*aloid i#en t"e na$e ni erine but later s"o(n to be identical (it" N. N5di$et"yltry!"$ine. Since t"e try!ta$ines are not acti#e ("en ta*en orally unless in t"e !resence o% a $onoa$ine o-idase in"ibitor& it is ob#ious t"at t"e +ure$a drin* $ust contain in redients ot"er t"an #. hostilis or t"at t"e !lant itsel% $ust contain an in"ibitor in its tissues. T"e enus #imosa& closely allied to Acacia and Anadenanthera& co$!rises so$e ;== s!ecies o% tro!ical and subtro!ical "erbs and s$all s"rubs. T"e $i$osas belon to t"e sub%a$ily Mi$osoideae o% t"e bean %a$ily& Le u$inosae. Most o% t"e$ are A$erican& alt"ou " so$e occur in A%rica and Asia. Dure$a is nati#e only to t"e dry re ions o% eastern 0ra'il.

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:+

YOPO or PARICA GAnadenanthera peregrina or Piptadenia peregrinaH is a Sout" A$erican tree o% t"e bean %a$ily& Le u$inosae. A !otent "allucino enic snu%% is !re!ared %ro$ t"e seeds o% t"is tree. T"e snu%%& no( used $ainly in t"e 7rinoco basin& (as %irst re!orted %ro$ His!aniola in 12A?& ("ere t"e Taino Indians called it co"oba. Its use& ("ic" "as died out in t"e West Indies& (as undoubtedly introduced to t"e Caribbean area by Indian in#aders %ro$ Sout" A$erica. T"e "allucino enic !rinci!les %ound in A. peregrina seeds include N. N5di$et"yltry!ta$ine& N5 $ono$et"yltry!"$ine& ;5$et"o-ydi$et"yltry!ta$ine& and se#eral related bases. 0u%otenine& also !resent in A. peregrina seeds& a!!arently is not "allucino enic. Elucidation o% t"e c"e$ical $a*e5u! o% t"e seeds o% t"e yo!o tree "as only recently been acco$!lis"ed. /uture studies $ay increase our *no(led e o% t"e acti#e !rinci!le o% t"ese seeds.

THE PREPARATION OF YOPO SNUFF #aries so$e("at %ro$ tribe to tribe. T"e !ods& ("ic" are borne !ro%usely on t"e yo!o tree& are %lat and dee!ly constricted bet(een eac" seed. 6ray5blac* ("en ri!e& t"e seed !ods brea* o!en& e-!osin %ro$ t"ree to about ten %lat seeds& or beans. T"ese are at"ered durin Danuary and /ebruary& usually in lar e Euantities and o%ten cere$onially. T"ey are %irst sli "tly $oistened and rolled into a !aste& ("ic" is t"en roasted ently o#er a slo( %ire until it is dried out and toasted. So$eti$es t"e beans are allo(ed to %er$ent be%ore bein rolled into a !aste. A%ter t"e toastin & t"e "ardened !aste $ay be stored %or later use. So$e Indians toast t"e beans and crus" t"e$ (it"out $oldin t"e$ into a !aste& rindin t"e$ usually on an ornate slab o% "ard(ood $ade es!ecially %or t"e !ur!ose.

:,

Se#eral early e-!lorers described t"e !rocess. In 1@=1 Ale-ander #on Hu$boldt& t"e 6er$an naturalist and e-!lorer& detailed t"e !re!aration o% yo!o by t"e Mai!ures o% t"e 7rinoco. In 1@;1& Ric"ard S!ruce& an En lis" e-!lorer& #isited t"e 6ua"ibos& anot"er tribe o% t"e 7rinoco& and (roteK ) in !re!arin t"e snu%%& t"e roasted seeds o% nio!o are !laced in a s"allo( (ooden !latter t"at is "eld on t"e *nee by $eans o% a broad "andle ras!ed %ir$ly (it" t"e le%t "and3 t"en crus"ed by a s$all !estle o% t"e "ard (ood o% !ao d,arco . . . ("ic" is "eld bet(een t"e %in ers and t"u$b o% t"e ri "t "and.) T"e resultin rayis"5 reen !o(der is al$ost al(ays $i-ed (it" about eEual a$ounts o% so$e al*aline substance& ("ic" $ay be li$e %ro$ snail s"ells or t"e as"es o% !lant $aterial. A!!arently& t"e as"es are $ade %ro$ a reat #ariety o% !lant $aterialsK t"e burned %ruit o% t"e $on*ey !ot& t"e bar* o% $any di%%erent #ines and trees& and e#en t"e roots o% sed es. T"e addition o% t"e as"es !robably ser#es a $erely $ec"anical !ur!oseK to *ee! t"e snu%% %ro$ ca*in in t"e "u$id cli$ate. T"e addition o% li$e or as"es to narcotic or sti$ulant !re!arations is a #ery (ides!read custo$ in bot" "e$is!"eres. T"ey are o%ten added to betel c"e(& !ituri& tobacco& e!ena snu%%& coca& etc. In t"e case o% yo!o snu%%& t"e al*aline ad$i-ture see$s not to be essential. So$e Indians& suc" as t"e 6ua"ibos& $ay occasionally ta*e t"e !o(der alone. T"e e-!lorer Ale-ander #on Hu$boldt& ("o encountered t"e use o% yo!o in t"e 7rinoco 1<; years a o& $ista*enly stated t"at ). . . it is not to be belie#ed t"at t"e nio!o acacia !ods are t"e c"ie% cause o% t"e sti$ulatin e%%ects o% t"e snu%% . . . T"e e%%ects are due to %res"ly con%ined li$e., in "is ti$e& o% course& t"e !resence o% acti#e try!ta$ines in t"e beans (as un*no(n.

:-

4o!o snu%% is in"aled t"rou " "ollo( bird5bone or ba$boo tubes. T"e e%%ects be in al$ost i$$ediatelyK a t(itc"in o% t"e $uscles& sli "t con#ulsions& and lac* o% $uscular coordination& %ollo(ed by nausea& #isual "allucinations& and disturbed slee!. An abnor$al e-a eration o% t"e si'e o% ob+ects G$ocro!siaH is co$$on. In an early descri!tion& t"e Indians say t"at t"eir "ouses see$ to ). . . be turned u!side do(n and t"at $en are (al*in on t"eir %eet in t"e air'3

::

$ yopo tree 9Anadenanthera peregrina: in $ma#onian -ra#il. The seeds of this tree are the source of a potent hallucinogenic snuff.

,outh $merican 'ndians of the upper )rinoco region in characteristic gesticulating postures while under the influence of yopo snuff.

VILCA and SEBIL are snu%%s belie#ed to "a#e been !re!ared in t"e !ast %ro$ t"e beans o% Anadenanthera colubrina and its #ariety c2bil in central and sout"ern Sout" A$erica& ("ere A. peregrine does not occur. A. colubrina seeds are *no(n to !ossess t"e sa$e "allucino enic !rinci!les as A. peregrina Gsee !. @?H.

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An early .eru#ian re!ort& dated about 1;<1& states t"at Inca $edicine $en %oretold t"e %uture by co$$unicatin (it" t"e de#il t"rou " t"e use o% #ilca& or "uilca. In Ar entina& t"e early S!aniards %ound t"e Co$ec"in Indians ta*in sebil )t"rou " t"e nose) to beco$e into-icated& and in anot"er tribe t"e sa$e !lant (as c"e(ed %or endurance. Since t"ese Indian cultures "a#e disa!!eared& our *no(led e o% #ilca snu%%s and t"eir use is li$ited.

GENISTA G!ytisus canariensisH is e$!loyed as an "allucino en in t"e $a ic !ractices o% 4aEui $edicine $en in nort"ern Me-ico. Nati#e to t"e Canary Islands& t"e !lant (as introduced into Me-ico. Rarely does any nonindi enous !lant %ind its (ay into t"e reli ious and $a ic custo$s o% a !eo!le. 9no(n also by t"e scienti%ic na$e Genista canariensis& t"is s!ecies is t"e ) enista) o% %lorists. .lants o% t"e enus !ytisus are ric" in cytisine& an al*aloid o% t"e lu!ine rou!. T"e al*aloid "as ne#er been !"ar$acolo ically de$onstrated to "a#e "allucino enic acti#ity& but it is *no(n to be to-ic and to cause nausea& con#ulsions& and deat" t"rou " %ailure o% res!iration. About @= s!ecies o% !ytisus& belon in to t"e bean %a$ily& Le u$inosae& are *no(n in t"e Atlantic islands& Euro!e& and t"e Mediterranean area. So$e s!ecies are "i "ly orna$ental3 so$e are !oisonous.

MESCAL BEAN GSaphora secundifloraH& also called red bean or coralillo& is a s"rub or s$all tree (it" sil#ery !ods containin u! to si- or se#en red beans or seeds. 0e%ore t"e !eyote reli ion s!read nort" o% t"e Rio 6rande& at least 1> tribes o% Indians in nort"ern Me-ico& Ne( Me-ico& and Te-as !racticed t"e

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#ision5see*in Red 0ean Dance centered around t"e in estion o% a drin* !re!ared %ro$ t"ese seeds. 9no(n also as t"e Wic"ita& Deer& or W"istle Dance& t"e cere$ony utili'ed t"e beans as an oracular& di#inatory& and "ollucino enic $ediu$. 0ecause t"e red bean drin* (as "i "ly to-ic& o%ten resultin in deat" %ro$ o#erdoses& t"e arri#al o% a $ore s!ectacular and sa%er "allucino en in t"e %or$ o% t"e !eyote cactus Gsee !. 11 2H led t"e nati#es to abandon t"e Red 0ean Dance. Sacred ele$ents do not o%ten disa!!ear co$!letely %ro$ a culture3 today t"e seeds are used as an adorn$ent on t"e uni%or$ o% t"e leader o% t"e !eyote cere$ony. An early S!anis" e-!lorer $entioned $escal beans as an article o% trade in Te-as in 1;BA. Mescal beans "a#e been %ound at sites datin be%ore A.D. 1===& (it" one site datin boc* to 1;== 0.C. Arc"aeolo ical e#idence t"us !oints to t"e e-istence o% a !re"istoric cult or cere$ony t"at used t"e red beans. T"e al*aloid cytisine is !resent in t"e beans. It causes nausea& con#ulsions& and deat" %ro$ as!"y-iation t"rou " its de!ressi#e action on t"e dia!"ra $. T"e $escal bean is a $e$ber o% t"e bean %a$ily& Le u$inosae. So!"ora co$!rises about ;= s!ecies t"at are nati#e to tro!ical and (ar$ !arts o% bot" "e$is!"eres. 7ne s!ecies& S. 3aponica& is $edicinally i$!ortant as a ood source o% rutin& used in $odern $edicine %or treatin ca!illary %ra ility.

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COLORINES Gse#eral s!ecies o% ErythrinaH $oy be used as "allucino ens in so$e !arts o% Me-ico. T"e bri "t red beans o% t"ese !lants rese$ble $escal becans Gsee !. A2H& lon used as a narcotic in nort"ern Me-ico and in t"e A$erican Sout"(est. 0ot" beans are so$eti$es sold $i-ed to et"er in "erb $ar*ets& and t"e $escal bean !lant is so$eti$es called by t"e sa$e co$$on na$e& colorin. So$e s!ecies o% Erythrina contain al*aloids o% t"e isoEuinoline ty!e& ("ic" elicit acti#ity rese$blin t"at o% curare or arro( !oisons& but no al*aloids *no(n to !ossess "allucino enic !ro!erties "a#e yet been %ound in t"ese seeds. So$e ;= s!ecies o% Erythrina& $e$bers o% t"e bean %a$ily& Le u$inasce& ro( in t"e tro!ics and subtro!ics o% bot" "e$is!"eres.

PIULE Gse#eral s!ecies o% 4hynchosiaH "a#e beauti%ul red and blac* seeds t"at $ay "a#e been #alued as a narcotic by ancient Me-icans. W"at a!!ear to be t"ese seeds "a#e been !ictured& to et"er (it" $us"roo$s& %allin %ro$ t"e "and o% t"e A'tec rain od in t"e Te!antitla %resco o% A.D. B==52== Gsee !. ;AH& su estin "allucino enic use. Modern Indians in sout"ern Me-ico re%er to t"e$ as !iule& one o% t"e na$es also a!!lied to t"e "allucino enic $ornin 5 lory seeds. Seeds o% so$e s!ecies o% 4hynchosia "a#e i#en !ositi#e al*aloid tests& but t"e to-ic !rinci!les "o#e still not been c"aracteri'ed. So$e B== s!ecies o% 4hynchosia& belon in to t"e bean %a$ily& Le u$inosae& are *no(n %ro$ t"e tro!ics and subtro!ics. T"e seeds o% so$e s!ecies are i$!ortant in %ol* $edicine in se#eral countries.

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AYAHUASCA and CAAPI are t(o o% $any local na$es %or eit"er o% t(o s!ecies o% a Sout" A$erican #ineK Banisteriopsis caapi or B. inebrians. 0ot" are i antic +un le lionas (it" tiny !in* %lo(ers. Li*e t"e a!!ro-i$ately 1== ot"er s!ecies in t"e enus& t"eir botany is !oorly understood. T"ey belon to t"e %a$ily Mal!i "iaceae. An "allucino enic drin* $ade %ro$ t"e bar* o% t"ese #ines is (idely used by Indians in t"e (estern A$a'onJ0ra'il& Colo$bia& .eru& Ecuador& and 0oli#ia. 7t"er local na$es %or t"e #ines or t"e drin* $ade %ro$ t"e$ are do!a& nate$a& !inde& and ya+e. T"e drin* is intensely bitter and nauseatin . In .eru and Ecuador& t"e drin* is $ade by ras!in t"e bar* and boilin it. In Colo$bia and 0ra'il& t"e scra!ed bar* is sEuee'ed in cold (ater to $a*e t"e drin*. So$e tribes add ot"er !lants to alter or to increase t"e !otency o% t"e drin*. In so$e !arts o% t"e 7rinoco& t"e bar* is si$!ly c"e(ed. Recent e#idence su ests t"at in t"e nort"(estern A$a'on t"e !lants $ay be used in t"e %or$ o% snu%%. Aya"uasca is !o!ular %or its )tele!at"ic !ro!erties&) %or ("ic"& o% course& t"ere is no scienti%ic basis.

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EARLIEST PUBLISHED REPORTS o% aya"uasca date %ro$ 1@;@ but in 1@;1 Ric"ard S!ruce& an En lis" e-!lorer& "ad disco#ered t"e !lant %ro$ ("ic" t"e into-icatin drin* (as $ade and described it as a ne( s!ecies. S!ruce also re!orted t"at t"e 6ua"ibos alon t"e 7rinoco Ri#er in Vene'uela c"e(ed t"e dried ste$ %or its e%%ects instead o% !re!arin a drin* %ro$ t"e bar*. S!ruce collected %lo(erin $aterial and also ste$s %or c"e$ical study. Interestin ly& t"ese ste$s (ere not analy'ed until 1A?A& but e#en a%ter $ore t"an a century& t"ey a#e results G!. 1=BH indicatin t"e !resence o% al*aloids. In t"e years since S!ruce,s disco#ery& $any e-!lorers and tra#elers ("o !assed t"rou " t"e (estern A$a'on re ion (rote about t"e dru . It is (idely *no(n in t"e A$a'on but t"e ("ole story o% t"is !lant is yet to be unra#eled. So$e (riters "a#e e#en con%used aya"uasca (it" co$!letely di%%erent narcotic !lants.

61

Colorado 'ndian from *cuador rasping the bark of -anisteriopsis a step in preparation of the narcotic ayahuasca drink.

The ceremonial "essel used in the ayahuasca ritual is always hung by the 'ndians under the ea"es at the right side of a house. $lthough occasionally redecorated, it is ne"er washed. EFFECTS o% drin*in aya"uasca ran e %ro$ a !leasant into-ication (it" no "an o#er to #iolent reactions (it" sic*enin a%ter 5 e%%ects. Usually t"ere are #isual "allucinations in color. In e-cessi#e doses& t"e dru brin s on ni "t$aris" #isions and a %eelin o% rec*less abandon. Consciousness is usually not lost& nor is t"ere i$!air$ent o% t"e use o% t"e li$bs. In %act& dancin is a $a+or !art o% t"e aya"uasca cere$ony in so$e tribes. T"e into-ication ends (it" a dee! slee! and drea$s. An aya"uasca into-ication is di%%icult to describe. T"e e%%ect o% t"e acti#e !rinci!les #aries %ro$ !erson to !erson. In addition& !re!aration o% t"e drin* #aries %ro$ one re ion to anot"er& and #arious !lant additi#es $ay also alter t"e e%%ects.

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The Auru, orb ceremony in the Colombian $ma#on in"ol"es ritual ayahuasca into?ication. The 'ndians are blowing sacred bark flutes. CEREMONIAL USES o% aya"uasca are o% $a+or i$!ortance in t"e li#es o% Sout" A$erican Indians. In eastern .eru& $edicine $en ta*e t"e dru to dia nose and treat diseases. In Colo$bia and 0ra'il& t"e dru is e$!loyed in dee!ly reli ious cere$onies t"at are rooted in tribal $yt"olo y. In t"e %a$ous 4uru!ari cere$ony o% t"e Tu*anoan Indians o% A$a'onian Colo$bia 5 a cere$ony t"at initiates adolescent boys into $an"ood 5 t"e dru is i#en to %orti%y t"ose ("o $ust under o t"e se#erely !ain%ul ordeal t"at %or$s a !art o% t"e rite. T"e into-ication o% aya"uasca or caa!i a$on t"ese Indians is t"ou "t to re!resent a return to t"e ori in o% all t"in sK t"e user )sees) tribal ods and t"e creation o% t"e uni#erse and o% $an and t"e ani$als. T"is e-!erience con#inces t"e Indians o% t"e reality o% t"eir reli ious belie%s& because t"ey "a#e )seen) e#eryt"in t"at underlies t"e$. To t"e$& e#eryday li%e is unreal& and ("at caa!i brin s t"e$ is t"e true reality. CHEMICAL STUDIES o% t"e t(o aya"uasca #ines "a#e su%%ered %ro$ t"e botanical con%usion surroundin t"e$. Ho(e#er& it a!!ears t"at bot" s!ecies o(e t"eir "allucino enic acti#ity !ri$arily to "ar$ine& t"e $a+or &05carboline al*aloid in t"e !lants. Har$aline and tetro"ydro"ar$ine& al*aloids !resent in $inor a$ounts& $ay also contribute to t"e into-ication. Early c"e$ical studies isolated t"ese se#eral al*aloids but did not reco ni'e t"eir identity. T"ey (ere i#en na$es as )ne() al*aloids. 7ne o% t"ese na$esJ tele!at"ineJis an indication o% t"e (ides!read belie% t"at t"e drin* !re!ared %ro$ t"ese #ines a#e t"e Indian $edicine $en tele!at"ic !o(ers.

6,

Chemical formulas of 2anisteriopis caapi and 2.inebrians alkaloids. 'ndole nucleus is shown in red.

PLANTS ADDED TO AYAHUASCA by so$e Indians in t"e !re!aration o% t"e "allucino enic drin* are a$a'in ly di#erse and include e#en %erns. Se#eral are no( *no(n to be acti#e t"e$sel#es and to alter e%%ecti#ely t"e !ro!erties o% t"e basic drin*. A$on t"ese are Datura suaveolens G!. 12;H and a s!ecies o% Brunfelsia G!. 12=HJbot" $e$bers o% t"e ni "ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae& and bot" containin acti#e !rinci!les. T(o additi#es& e$!loyed o#er a (ide area by $any tribes& are es!ecially si ni%icant. T"e lea#es Gbut not t"e bar*H o% a t"ird s!ecies o% Banisteriopsis % B. rusbyana 5 are o%ten added to t"e !re!aration )to len t"en and bri "ten t"e #isions.) Called oco5ya+C in t"e (estern$ost A$a'on re ion o% Colo$bia and Ecuador& t"e liana is culti#ated %or t"is !ur!ose& alon (it" B. caapi and B. inebrians. 7#er a $uc" (ider area& includin A$a'onian 0ra'il& Colo$bia& Ecuador& and .eru& t"e lea#es o% se#eral s!ecies o% Psychotria % es!ecially P. viridis % are added. T"is >=5%oot %orest treelet belon s to t"e co%%ee %a$ily& Rubioceae. Li*e B. rusbyana& it "as been %ound recently to contain t"e stron ly "allucino enic N. N5di$et"yltry!ta$ine.

(, (-@imethyltryptamine 9@>T:

6-

ANOTHER KIND OF CAAPI is !re!ared %ro$ &etrapteris methistica& a %orest #ine also belon in to t"e %a$ily Mal!i "ioceae. 7ne rou! o% Ma*u Indians o% t"e nort"(estern$ost !art o% t"e 0ra'ilian A$a'on !re!ares a cold5(ater drin* %ro$ t"e bar*. T"ere is no ot"er !lant in redient. T"e drin* is #ery bitter and "as an unusual yello( "ue. T"is $ay be t"e ) second *ind) o% caa!i $entioned by se#eral e-!lorers as caa!i5!ini$a& $eanin )!ainted caa!i.) Alt"ou " &. methystica !roduces e%%ects identical (it" t"ose o% Banisteriopsis caapi& (e still *no( not"in o% its c"e$istry. Ho(e#er& it is closely related to 0anisterio!sis and t"ere is e#ery !robability t"at si$ilar or identical al*aloids are !resent. T"ere are A= s!ecies o% &etrapteris 5 #ines and s$all trees %ound t"rou "out t"e "u$id A$erican tro!ics.

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SHANSHI G!oriaria thymifoliaH is a (ides!read Andean s"rub lon reco ni'ed as #ery !oisonous to cattle. It "as recently been re!orted as one o% t"e !lants used as an "allucino en by !easants in Ecuador. S"ans"i is t"eir na$e %or t"e !lant. T"e %ruits are eaten %or t"eir into-icatin e%%ects& ("ic" include t"e sensation o% %li "t. T"e (eird e%%ects are due !ossibly to an unidenti%ied lycoside& but t"e c"e$istry o% t"is s!ecies is still !oorly understood. S"ans"i is one o% 1; s!ecies o% !oriaria& $ost o% ("ic" are s"rubs. T"ey are %ound in t"e $ountains %ro$ Me-ico to C"ile& %ro$ t"e Mediterranean area east(ard to Da!an& and also in Ne( Fealand. !orioria is t"e only *no(n enus in t"e %a$ily& Corioriaceae.

SINICUICHI GHeimia salicifoliaH is a !oorly understood but %ascinatin auditory "allucinco en o% central Me-ico. Its lea#es& sli "tly (ilted& are crus"ed and soa*ed in (ater. T"e resultin +uice is !ut in t"e sun to

66

%er$ent into a sli "tly into-icatin drin* t"at causes iddiness& dar*enin o% t"e surroundin s& s"rin*a e o% t"e (orld& and dro(siness or eu!"oria. Eit"er dea%ness or auditory "allucinations $ay result& (it" #oices or sounds distorted and see$in to co$e %ro$ a distance. .arta*ers clai$ t"at un!leasant a%ter5 e%%ects are rare& but e-cessi#e drin*in o% t"e into-icant can be Euite "ar$%ul. Sinicuic"i is a na$e i#en also to ot"er !lants t"at are i$!ortant bot" $edically and as into-icants in #arious !arts o% Me-ico. 7t"er into-icatin sinicuic"is are Erythrina& 4hynchosia& and Piscidia& but Heimia salicifolia co$$ands t"e reatest res!ect. Wit" t"e closely related H. myrtifolia& it "as interestin uses in %ol* $edicine. 7nly in Me-ico& "o(e#er& is t"e "allucino enic use i$!ortant. Hei$ia belon s to t"e loosestri%e %o$ily& Lyt"roceae& and re!resents an A$erican enus o% t"ree "ardly distin uis"able s!ecies t"at ran e in t"e "i "lands %ro$ sout"ern United States to Ar entina. .resence o% "allucino enic !rinci!les (as un*no(n in t"is %a$ily& but c"e$ists "a#e recently %ound si- al*aloids in Heimia salicifolia. T"ey belon to t"e Euinoli'idine rou!. 7ne& cryo enine or #ertine& a!!ears to be t"e $ost acti#e& alt"ou " t"e "allucino enic e%%ects %ollo(in in estion o% t"e total !lant "a#e not yet been du!licated by any o% t"e al*aloids isolated t"us %ar. T"is !ro#ides us (it" anot"er e-a$!le o% t"e o%ten a!!reciable di%%erence bet(een t"e e%%ects o% dru s ta*en as natural !roducts and t"e e%%ects o% t"eir !uri%ied c"e$ical constituents.

67

SAN PEDRO G&richocerous pachanoiH is a lar e colu$nar cactus (idely culti#ated as a "allucino en in t"e Andes o% .eru& Ecuador& and 0oli#ia. T"e nati#es& ("o also call it a uacolla& or i anton& reco ni'e se#eral )*inds&) ("ic" di%%er $ainly in t"e nu$ber o% ribs& t"e $ost co$$on ty!e "a#in se#en. T"is cactus is so$eti$es !lanted alon %ields as a %ence ro( to *ee! s"ee! and cattle %ro$ ra'in . An into-icatin drin* called ci$ora is $ade %ro$ t"e San !edro cactus. S"ort len t"s o% t"e ste$& o%ten sold in nati#e $ar*ets& are sliced li*e loa#es o% bread and t"en boiled in (ater %or se#eral "ours& so$eti$es (it" su!erstitious ob+ects suc" as ce$etary dust and !o(dered bones.

Alt"ou " ci$ora is o%ten $ade %ro$ San .edro alone& se#eral %ield researc"ers indicate t"at a #ariety o% ot"er !lants $ay so$eti$es be added to t"e bre(. T"ese include t"e cactus 1eoraimondia macrostibas& an Andean s!ecies t"e c"e$istry o% ("ic" "as not yet been deter$ined3 t"e s"rub Pedilanthus tithymaloides o% t"e castor oil %a$ily3 and t"e ca$!anulaceous 5sotoma longiflora. All t"ese !lants $ay "a#e biodyna$ic constituents. 7n occasion& ot"er $ore ob#iously !otent !lants are added 5 Datura& %or e-a$!le. 7nly recently "a#e researc"ers beco$e a(are o% t"e i$!ortance o% t"e )secondary) !lant in redients o%ten e$!loyed by !ri$iti#e societies. T"e %act t"at $escaline occurs in t"e San .edro cactus does not $ean t"at t"e drin* !re!ared %ro$ it $ay not be altered by t"e addition o% ot"er !lants& alt"ou " t"e si ni%icance o% t"e additi#es in c"an in t"e "allucino enic e%%ects o% t"e bre( is still not %ully understood.

6;

Ci$ora is t"e basis o% a %ol* "ealin cere$ony t"at co$bines ancient indi enous ritual (it" i$!orted C"ristian ele$ents. An obser#er "as described t"e !lant as )t"e catalyst t"at acti#ates all t"e co$!le%orces at (or* in a %ol* "ealin session& es!ecially t"e #isionary and di#initory !o(ers) o% t"e nati#e $edicine $an. 0ut t"e !o(ers o% San .edro are su!!osed to e-tend beyond $edicine3 it is said to uard "ouses li*e a do & "a#in t"e ability to ("istle in suc" uneart"ly %as"ion t"at intruders %lee in terror. Alt"ou " San .edro is not closely related botanically to !eyote& t"e sa$e al*aloid& $escaline& is res!onsible %or t"e #isual "allucinations caused by bot". Mescaline "as been isolated not only %ro$ San .edro but %ro$ anot"er s!ecies o% &richocereus. C"e$ical studies o% &richocereus are #ery recent& and t"ere%ore it is !ossible t"at additional al*aloids $ay yet be %ound in &. pachanoi. &richocereus co$!rises about 2= s!ecies o% colu$nar cacti t"ot ro( in subtro!ical and te$!erate !arts o% t"e Andes. T"ere is no reason to su!!ose t"at t"e use o% t"e San .edro cactus in "allucino enic and di#inatory rituals does not "a#e a lon "istory. We $ust reco ni'e& certainly t"at t"e $odern use "as been a%%ected reatly by C"ristian in%luences. T"ese in%luences are e#ident e#en in t"e na$in o% t"e cactus a%ter Saint .eter& !ossibly ste$$in %ro$ t"e C"ristian belie% t"at Saint .eter "olds t"e *eys to "ea#en. 0ut t"e o#erall conte-t o% t"e ritual and our $odern understandin o% t"e San .edro cult& ("ic" is connected inti$ately (it" $oon $yt"olo y& leads us to belie#e t"at it re!resents an aut"entic a$al a$ o% !a an and C"ristian ele$ents. Its use see$s to be s!readin in .eru.

69

Cawe or Pachycereus pecten3aboriginum, is one of the plants combined with the ,an +edro cactus by the Tarahumare of >e?ico. 't is not definitely known whether this tall organ cactus is hallucinogenic.

PEYOTE Glophophora *illiamsiiH& an unobtrusi#e cactus t"at ro(s in roc*y deserts& is t"e $ost s!ectacular "allucino enic !lant o% t"e Ne( World. It is also one o% t"e earliest *no(n. T"e A'tecs used it& callin it !eyotl. .eyote is a s$all& %les"y& s!ineless cactus (it" a rounded ray5 reen to!& tu%ts o% ("ite "air& and a lon carrotli*e root. It rarely e-ceeds <51O> inc"es in len t" or B inc"es across. T"e Indians cut o%% t"e cro(ns to sun5dry into bro(n& discoidal )$escal buttons) t"at last lon !eriods and can be s"i!!ed to distant !oints %or use. W"en t"e to! is se#ered& t"e !lant o%ten s!routs ne( cro(ns so t"at $any5"eaded !eyotes are co$$on.

7<

.eyote (as %irst described botanically in 1@2; and called Echinocactus *illiamsii. It "as been i#en $any ot"er tec"nical na$es. T"e one used $ost co$$only by c"e$ists "as been Anhalonium le*inii. Most botanists no( a ree !eyote belon s in a distinct enus& "ophophora. T"ere are t(o s!eciesK t"e (ides!read ". *illiamsii and t"e local ". diffusa in PuerCtaro. .eyote is nati#e to t"e Rio 6rande #alley o% Te-as and nort"ern and central !arts o% t"e Me-ican !lateau. It belon s to t"e cactus %a$ily& Cactaceae& co$!risin so$e >&=== s!ecies in ;= to 1;= enera& nati#e !ri$arily to t"e drier !arts o% tro!ical A$erica. Many s!ecies are #alued as "orticultural curiosities& and so$e "a#e interestin %ol* uses a$on t"e Indians.

71

USE OF PEYOTE BY THE AZTECS (as described by S!anis" c"roniclers. 7ne re!orted t"at t"ose ("o ate it sa( %ri "t%ul #isions and re$ained drun* %or t(o or t"ree days3 t"at it (as a co$$on %ood o% t"e C"ic"i$eca Indians& )sustainin t"e$ and i#in t"e$ coura e to %i "t and not %eel %ear nor "un er nor t"irst3 and t"ey say t"at it !rotects t"e$ %ro$ all dan er.) In 1;A1& anot"er c"ronicler (rote t"at t"e nati#es ("o eat it )lose t"eir senses& see #isions o% terri%yin si "ts li*e t"e de#il& and are able to !ro!"esy t"eir %uture (it" ,satanic tric*ery., ) Dr. HernInde'& t"e !"ysician to t"e 9in o% S!ain& described t"e cactus as Peyotl /acatecensis and (rote o% its )(onder%ul !ro!erties.) He too* note o% its s$all si'e and described it by sayin t"at )it scarcely issues %ro$ t"e eart"& as i% it did not (is" to "ar$ t"ose ("o %ind and eat it.) Recent arc"aeolo ical %inds o% !eyote buttons in t"e state o% Te-as are a!!ro-i$ately 1 &=== years old. OPPOSITION TO THE USE OF PEYOTE by t"e A'tecs (as stron a$on t"e S!anis" conEuerors. 7ne early S!anis" c"urc" docu$ent li*ened t"e eatin o% !eyote to cannibalis$. U!set by t"e reli ious "old t"at !eyote "ad on t"e Indians& t"e S!anis" tried& (it" reat #i or but little success& to sta$! out its use. 0y 1<>=& t"e eatin o% !eyote (as !ro"ibited t"rou "out Me-ico. 0ut des!ite %our centuries o% ci#il and ecclesiastical !ersecution& t"e use and i$!ortance o% !eyote "a#e s!read beyond its early li$ited con%ines. Today it is so stron ly anc"ored in nati#e lore t"at e#en C"ristiani'ed Indians belie#e t"at a !atron saintJEl Santo NiQo de .eyotlJ(al*s on t"e "ills ("ere !eyote ro(s. T"ere is continuin o!!osition in certain reli ious or ani'ations in t"e United States to t"e Indians, use o% !eyote as a cere$onial sacra$ent. Ne#ert"eless& t"e %ederal o#ern$ent "as ne#er seriously Euestioned or inter%ered (it" t"e !ractice since it is essentially a reli ious one. T"ose tribes li#in %ar %ro$ sources o% !eyoteJso$e as %ar nort" as CanadaJcan le ally i$!ort $escal buttons by $ail. Des!ite constitutional uarantees se!aratin c"urc" and state& "o(e#er& a %e( states "a#e en%orced re!ressi#e la(s a ainst e#en t"e reli ious use o% !eyote.

7+

Huichol 'ndian art indicating the importance of peyote in a trinity in"ol"ing man and the mai#e plant. RELIGIOUS IMPORTANCE OF PEYOTE !ersists a$on t"e Taro"u$are& Huic"ol& and ot"er Me-ican Indians. T"e Tara"u$are belie#e t"at ("en /at"er Sun le%t eart" to d(ell abo#e& "e le%t !eyote& or "i*uli& to cure $an,s ills and (oes3 t"ot !eyote sin s and tal*s as it ro(s3 t"at ("en at"ered it sin s "a!!ily in its ba s all t"e (ay "o$e3 and t"at 6od s!ea*s t"rou " t"e !lant in t"is (ay. Many le ends about t"e su!ernatural !o(ers o% !eyote underlie its reli ious i$!ortance. It $i "t be estee$ed $erely as an e#eryday $edicine& but it "os been e-alted to a !osition o% near5di#inity. T"e !eyote5collectin tri! o% t"e Huic"ols& %or e-a$!le& is "i "ly reli ious& reEuirin !il ri$s to %ore o adult e-!eriences& es!ecially se-ual& %or it reenacts t"e %irst !eyote Euest o% t"e di#ine ancestors. T"e !il ri$s $ust con%ess in order to beco$e s!irit and enter into t"e sacred country t"rou " t"e ate(ay o% clas"in clouds& a +ourney ("ic"& accordin to t"eir tradition& re!eats t"e )+ourney o% t"e soul o% t"e dead to t"e under(orld.)

7,

+araphernalia used in a typical +lains 'ndian peyote ceremony. (ote the blend of Christian and pagan symbols on the smoke-stick.

EFFECTS OF PEYOTE on t"e $ind and body are so utterly un(orldly and %antastic t"at it is easy to understand t"e nati#e belie% t"at t"e cactus $ust be t"e residence o% s!irit %orces or a di#inity. T"e $ost s!ectacular o% t"e $any e%%ects is t"e *aleidosco!ic !lay o% indescribably ric"& colored #isions. Hallucinations o% "earin & %eelin & and taste o%ten occur as (ell. T"e into-ication $ay be di#ided into t(o !eriodsK one o% content$ent and e-trasensiti#ity& %ollo(ed by arti%icial cal$ and $uscular slu is"ness at ("ic" ti$e t"e sub+ect be ins to !ay less attention to "is surroundin s and increase "is intros!ecti#e )$editation., 0e%ore #isions a!!ear& so$e t"ree "ours a%ter eatin !eyote& t"ere are %las"es and scintillations in colors& t"eir de!t" and saturation de%yin descri!tion. T"e #isions o%ten %ollo( a seEuence %ro$ eo$etric %i ures to un%a$iliar and rotesEue ob+ects t"at #ary (it" t"e indi#idual. T"ou " t"e colored #isual "allucinations undoubtedly underlie t"e ra!id s!read o% t"e use o% !eyote& es!ecially in t"ose Indian cultures ("ere t"e Euest %or #isions "as al(ays been i$!ortant& $any nati#es assert t"at #isions are )not ood) and lac* reli ious si ni%icance. .eyote,s re!utation as a !anacea and all5!o(er%ul )$edicine) 5 bot" in !"ysical and !syc"ic sense 5 $ay be eEually res!onsible %or its s!read. USE OF PEYOTE IN THE UNITED STATES %irst ca$e to !ublic attention about 1@@= ("en t"e 9io(a and t"e Co$anc"e Indians establis"ed a !eyote cere$ony deri#ed %ro$ t"e Me-ican but re$odeled into a #isionEuest ritual ty!ical o% t"e .lains Indians. Use o% !eyote "ad been recorded earlier& in 1<>=& in Te-as. Ho( t"e use o% !eyote di%%used %ro$ Me-ico nort"& %ar beyond t"e natural ran e o% t"e cactus& is not %ully *no(n. Durin t"e 1@@=,s& $any Indian $issionaries (ere acti#e in s!readin t"e !eyote cere$ony %ro$ tribe to tribe. 0y 1A>=& t"e !eyote cult nu$bered o#er 1B&=== %ait"%ul in $ore t"an B= tribes in Nort" A$erica. It (as le ally or ani'ed& !artly %or !rotection a ainst %ierce C"ristian 5 $issionary !ersecution& into t"e Nati#e A$erican C"urc"& ("ic" no( clai$s >;=&=== $e$bers. T"is cult& a co$bination o% C"ristian and nati#e ele$ents& teac"es brot"erly lo#e& "i " $oral !rinci!les& and abstention %ro$ alco"ol. It considers !eyote a sacra$ent t"rou " ("ic" 6od $ani%ests Hi$sel% to $an. THE PEYOTE RITUAL as !racticed by Indians in t"e United States #aries so$e("at %ro$ tribe to tribe. A ty!ical .lains Indian cere$ony ta*es !lace (ee*ly in an all5ni "t $eetin in a tee!ee. Wors"i!ers sit in a circle around a "al%5$oon altar o% sand Gsee !. ?H on ("ic" a lar e s!eci$en called a )/at"er .eyote) is set and at ("ic" a sacred %ire burns. T"e as"es are s"a!ed into t"e %or$ o% a t"underbird. T"e cere$ony& led by a )road$an&,, consists o% c"antin acco$!anied by rattle and dru$& alternatin (it" !rayers& lessons& testi$onies& and occasionally a curin ritual. At ni "t dried !eyote to!s G$escal buttonsH are

7-

$oistened and s(allo(edJ%ro$ 2 to B= or $ore. T"e ritual ends (it" brea*%ast at do(n ("en t"e tee!ee is "auled do(n.

'ndian painting of +eyote 6roadman6Bleader of the +eyote ceremony. 9)riginal painting is by ,tephen >opope, Iickapoo 'ndian artistJ in collection of Har"ard -otanical >useum.:

A PEYOTE VISION (as described by a scientist ("o e-!erienced it as %ollo(sK ) . . . clouds . . . 7il o% !"easant turns into bri "t yello( star3 star into s!ar*s. Mo#in & scintillatin scre(3 "undreds o% scre(s. A seEuence o% ra!idly c"an in ob+ects in a reeable colors. A rotatin ("eel in t"e center o% a sil#ery round . . . T"e u!!er !art o% a $an (it" a !ale %ace and red c"ee*s& risin slo(ly %ro$ belo(. W"ile I a$ t"in*in o% a %riend& t"e "ead o% an Indian a!!ears. 0eads in di%%erent colors . . . so bri "t t"at I doubt $y eyes are closed.... 4ello( $oss li*e salt(ater ta%%y !ierced by t(o teet". Sil#ery (ater !ourin do(n(ard& suddenly %lo(in u!(ard . . . e-!lodin s"ells turn into stran e %lo(ers . . . A dra(in o% a "ead turns into a $us"roo$& t"en a s*eleton in lateral #ie( . . . Head and le s are lac*in . . . So%t& dee! dar*ness (it" $o#in ("eels and stars in . . . !leasant colors. Nuns in sil#er dress . .. Euic*ly disa!!earin . Collection o% bluis" in* bottles (it" labels. Red& bro(nis"& and #iolet t"reads runnin to et"er in t"e center. Autu$n lea#es turnin into $escal buttons . . . Man in reenis" #el#et +u$!in into a dee! c"as$. Stran e ani$al turns into a !iece o% (ood in "ori'ontal !osition.) THE CHEMISTRY OF PEYOTE is e-tre$ely interestin and is still sub+ect to intense study by c"e$ists and !"ar$acolo ists. More t"an B= acti#e constituents "a#e been %ound in t"e !eyote tissues. T"ey are $ainly al*aloids o% t(o ty!esK !"enylet"yla$ines and isoEuinolines. Muc" !"ar$acolo ical and !syc"olo ical researc" "os been done on $escaline& t"e al*aloid res!onsible %or t"e colored #isions& but t"e e%%ects o% $ost o% t"e ot"er constituents& alone or in co$bination& are not (ell understood.

7:

FALSE PEYOTES are ot"er s!ecies o% cactus used by t"e Tara"u$are and Huic"ol Indians o% nort"ern Me-ico. 7ne& called "i*uli $ulato& is belie#ed to $a*e t"e eyes so lar e and clear t"at t"e user can see

76

sorcerers. T"is s$all cactus "as been identi%ied as Epithelantha micromeris. A s!ecies *no(n as "i*uli suna$i GAriocarpus fissuratusH is said to be $ore !o(er%ul t"an !eyote G"i*uliH& and t"e Tara"u$are belie#e t"at robbers are !o(erless to steal ("en t"is cactus calls soldiers to its aid.

Hi*uli (alula saelia$i& $eanin )"i*uli o% reatest aut"ority&) is so rare t"at it "as not yet been identi%ied& but it is re!utedly t"e $ost !o(er%ul o% all "allucino enic cacti. A$on t"e Huic"ol& tsu(iri GAriocarpus retususH is considered dan erous to eat3 it is belie#ed ca!able o% sorcery and dece!tion& dri#in a $an $ad in t"e desert i% "e "as not been !ro!erly instructed by t"e s"a$an or is not in a state o% ritual !urity t"at allo(s "i$ to %ind t"e true !eyote !lant. Not"in is *no(n o% t"e c"e$istry o% Epithelantha. Se#eral to-ic al*aloids& es!ecially an"alonine& "a#e been %ound in Ariocarpus& but $escaline is a!!arently absent. Pelecyphora aselliformis& anot"er )%alse !eyote&) "as recently been %ound to contain al*aloids.

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HIERBA LOCA and TAGLLI GPernettya furens and P. parvifoliaH are t(o o% about >; s!ecies o% Pernettya& $ostly #ery s$all subs"rubs t"at ro( in t"e "i "lands %ro$ Me-ico to C"ile& t"e 6alI!a os and /al*land islands& Tas$ania& and Ne( Fealand. T"ese !lants belon to t"e "eat" %a$ily& Ericaceae& alon (it" t"e cranberry& blueberry& Scotc" "eat"er& r"ododendron& and trailin arbutus. Se#eral s!ecies are *no(n to be to-ic to cattle and $an& but only t"ese t(o are *no(n de%initely to be e$!loyed as "allucino ens. Pernettya furens& ("ic" in C"ile is called "ierba loca G)$addenin !lant)H or "ued"ued& "as %ruits t"at& ("en eaten& can cause $ental con%usion& $adness& and !er$anent insanity. T"e into-ication rese$bles t"at %ollo(in t"e in estion o% Datura. T"e %ruit o% ta ili& o% Ecuador& is (ell reco ni'ed as !oisonous& ca!able o% inducin "allucinations and ot"er !syc"ic alterations as (ell as a%%ectin t"e $otor ner#es. T"ou " t"e c"e$istry o% t"ese and ot"er s!ecies o% Pernettya needs %urt"er study& it see$s t"at t"e to-icity $ay be due to andro$edoto-in& a resinoid& or to arbutin& a lycoside. 0ot" co$!ounds are rat"er co$$on in t"is !lant %a$ily.

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79

SACRED MEXICAN MORNING GLORIES o% t(o s!ecies G4ivea corymbosa and 5pomoea violaceaH !ro#ide Me-ican Indians (it" "allucino enic seeds. Alt"ou " t"e $ornin lory %a$ily& Con#ol#ulaceae& "as been i$!ortant as t"e source o% se#eral $edicines and $any orna$entals& only in recent years "as it been disco#ered t"at so$e o% t"e 1&<== te$!erate and tro!ical s!ecies contain "i "ly into-icatin !rinci!les. In ot"er !arts o% t"e (orld t"e concentration o% t"ese !rinci!les $ay be "i "er t"an in t"e Me-ican $ornin lories& yet t"ey see$ ne#er to "a#e been used as "allucino ens.

4arliest illustration of Rivea corymbosa, also !no#n as ololiu/ui 5Hernande&% Rome, (6+(7.

S"ortly a%ter t"e conEuest o% Me-ico& S!anis" c"roniclers re!orted t"at ololiuEui and tlitlilt'in (ere i$!ortant di#inatory "allucino ens o% A'tec reli ion& $a ic& and $edicine. 7loliuEui is a s$all& round& bro(nis" seed %ro$ a #ine& coatl5-o-ou"Eui G )sna*e !lant) H& (it" "eart5s"a!ed lea#es and ("ite %lo(ers3 tlitlilt'in is a blac*& an ular seed. T"ese (ere recently identi%ied res!ecti#ely as t"e seeds o% 4ivea corymbosa and 5pomoea violacea. Since botanical no$enclature in t"is %o$ily is not al(ays clear& t"ese t(o s!ecies are so$eti$es called &urbina corymbosa and 5pomoea tricolor& res!ecti#ely. W"ereas $uc" (as (ritten about ololiuEui& tlitlilt'in (as $erely $entioned in t"e ancient (ritin s. MEDICAL AND RELIGIOUS USES of the morning glory called ololiu ui were of maCor importance to the $#tecs. )loliu ui is presumed to ha"e pain-killing properties. -efore making sacrifices, $#tec priests rubbed themsel"es with an ointment of the ashes of insects, tobacco, and ololiu ui to benumb the flesh and lose all fear. HernFnde#, physician to the Iing of ,pain, wrote that 6when the priests wanted to commune with their gods and recei"e messages from them, they ate this plant to induce a delirium, and a thousand "isions . . . appeared to them.6 )ne early chronicler wrote that ololiu ui 6depri"es of his senses him who has taken it, for it is "ery powerful.6 $nother contended that 6the nati"es communicute in this way with the de"il, for they usually talk when drunk with ololiu ui and are decei"ed by the hallucinations which they attribute to the deity residing in the seeds.6 The seeds were "enerated and placed in the idols of 'ndian ancestors. )fferings were made to them under the strictest secrecy in places unknown to persons not in"ol"ed in the worship. IDENTIFICATION o% ololiuEui and tlitlilt'in as $ornin lories "ad to (ait %or %our centuries& because e%%orts o% t"e S!anis" to eradicate t"e use o% t"ese sacred "allucino ens dro#e t"e$ into t"e "ills. Se#eral crude dra(in s in t"e c"ronicles indicated t"at ololiuEui (as a $ornin lory. Me-ican botanists identi%ied it as suc" as early as 1@;2. 0ut doubts !ersisted because t"e $ornin lory %a$ily (as t"ou "t to be de#oid o% into-icatin !rinci!les& and no $e$ber o% t"e %a$ily "ad e#er been seen e$!loyed as an "allucino en. Mainly on t"e basis o% si$ilarity o% t"e %lo(ers& it (as su ested early in t"e 1A==,s t"at ololiuEui (as not a $ornin lory but a Datura G!. 12>H& a *no(n "allucino en still used in Me-ico. Not until 1ABA (ere actual s!eci$ens o% 4ivea corymbosa used in Ma'atec Indion di#inatory rituals collected in 7a-aca and identi%ied as t"e ololiuEui o% t"e ancient A'tecs. 5pomoea violacea (as %ound >= years later in cere$onial use a$on t"e Fa!otecs o% t"e sa$e re ion and identi%ied as tlitlilt'in. PRESENT USE o% t"e sacred Me-ican $ornin lory seeds di%%ers little %ro$ ancient !ractices. T"e seeds are used %or di#ination& !ro!"ecy& and dia nosis and treat$ent o% illness by $any tribes& es!ecially t"e C"atinos& C"inantecs& Ma'atecs& and Fa!otecs. In al$ost all 7a-acan #illa es& t"e seeds ser#e t"e Indians )as an e#er !resent "el! in ti$e o% trouble.) T"e $odern cere$ony& %eaturin t"e use o% $ornin lory seeds to treat an illness& is a curious blendin o% old Indian belie%s and C"ristianity. T"e nati#e ("o is to be treated collects t"e seeds "i$sel%. About a t"i$ble%ul o% t"e seedsJo%ten t"e $a ic nu$ber is 1B J is $easured out. T"e seeds are round by a #ir in& usually a c"ild& in a s!ecial ritual acco$!anied by co$!le- !rayer. Water is added& t"e resultin be#era e is strained& and t"e !atient drin*s it at ni "t in silence. A%ter $ore !rayers& "e lies do(n (it" so$eone by "is side ("o listens to ("at "e says ("ile into-icated. T"is deter$ines t"e cause o% "is troubles.

;<

$n illustration of ololiu ui in fruit, from ,ahagKnDs Historia de las Cosas de (ue"a *spaLa, "ol. 'G, book =l. ,ahagKn, a ,panish friar, wrote about the mar"els of the (ew World in the years 4;18-4;8..

Indian patient drinking potion prepared from Ipomoea seeds.

Indian girl from Oaxaca grinding Ipomoea seeds on a metate.

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EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES o% t"e narcotic $ornin lories be an in 1A;; ("en a !syc"iatrist !ublis"ed notes on sel%5e-!eri$entation (it" 4ivea seeds& s"o(in t"at t"ey brou "t on an into-ication acco$!anied by "allucinations. T"is announce$ent !ro$!ted c"e$ists to e-a$ine t"e !lant& but no acti#e !rinci!le could be %ound until t"e 1A?=,s. At t"at ti$e t"e c"e$ist ("o disco#ered LSD analy'ed t"e !lant and %ound se#eral al*aloids closely related to t"at !otently "allucino enic synt"etic co$!ound. His astonis"in disco#ery $et (it" (ides!read disbelie%& !artly because t"ese Iyser ic5acid deri#ati#es "ad "it"erto been *no(n in nature only in t"e !ri$iti#e %un us er ot G !laviceps purpureaH& a !arasite on t"e rains o% rye in Euro!e& ("en er ot (as accidentally round u! in a $ill (it" rye %lour and eaten in bread $ade %ro$ t"e %lour& it !oisoned ("ole to(ns& causin a terrible into-ication and leadin %reEuently to (ides!read insanity and deat". In t"e Middle A es& be%ore causes (ere understood and !re#entati#e $easures ta*en& t"ese $ysterious $ass attac*s (ere called St. Ant"ony,s /ire and (ere attributed to 6od,s (rat". Hal% a do'en o% t"ese er oline al*aloids "a#e been %ound in seeds o% 4ivea corymbosa and 5pomoea violacea. T"e $ain "allucino enic constituents o% bot" seeds are er ine Gd5lyser ic acid diet"yla$ideH and isoer ine& but ot"er related beses occur in $inor a$ounts 5 c"ie%ly c"anocla#ine& ely$ocla#ine& and lyser ol. T"e total al*aloid content o% I!o$oea #iolacea is %i#e ti$es t"at o% 4ivea corymbosa& ("ic" e-!lains ("y t"e nati#es use %e(er o% t"e 5pomoea seeds in !re!arin %or t"eir rituals. W"ile t"ese al*aloids are not unco$$on in nu$erous $ornin lories around t"e (orld& a!!arently only in Me-ico "a#e t"e !lants been utili'ed as narcotics.

$lkaloids of the sacred >e?ican morning glorys, showing their chemical relationship to %,@.

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MANY HORTICULTURAL VARIETIES o% 5pomoea violacea& includin t"e !o!ular orna$ents Hea#enly 0lue& .early 6ates& /lyin Saucers& 0lue Stars& and Weddin 0ells& as (ell as ot"er #arieties o% 5pomoea& contain "allucino enic constituents. 7t"er enera& notably Argyreia and Stictocardia& also contain t"ese substances. T"e Ha(aiian (ood rose GA. nervosaH& %or e-a$!le& "as been %ound to be "i "ly into-icatin . Seeds o% 5. carnea& ("ic" are *no(n to !ossess biodyna$ic constituents& are said to be used as "allucino ens in Ecuadorian %ol* $edicine. In %act& "allucino enic co$!ounds are so !re#alent in t"is %a$ily& bot" eo ra!"ically and botanically& t"at it is di%%icult to e-!lain ("y t"e $ornin lories "a#e not been $ore (idely e$!loyed as narcotics by !ri$iti#e societies. 7r "a#e t"ey:

HOJAS DE LA PASTORA GSalvia divinorumH& o% Me-ico& Is t"e only one o% <== s!ecies o% Sal#ia *no(n to be used as an "allucino en. Ma'atec Indians o% 7a-aca e$!loy t"e lea#es as a di#inotory narcotic& "ence di#inoru$ G)o% t"e di#iners)H. T"e Ma'atecs call t"e !lant "o+as de la .astora in S!anis" and s"*a5.astora in t"eir nati#e ton ue& bot" na$es $eanin )lea#es o% t"e S"e!"erdess.) T"e lea#es are c"e(ed %res"& or t"e !lonts are round on a $etote& t"en diluted (it" (ater and %iltered %or drin*in . T"e !lant is not *no(n in t"e (ild and rarely& i% e#er& de#elo!s %ro$ seed. T"e Ma'atecs !lant t"is $int #e etati#ely in re$ote $ountain ra#ines& and $ost %a$ilies use it as a dru ("en t"e sacred $us"roo$s G!. ;@H or $ornin lory seeds G!. 1>@H are scarce. It is co$$only belie#ed to be t"e "allucino enic !i!il'int'intli o% t"e ancient A'tecs. In estin lea#es o% t"e !lant "as been %ound e-!eri$entally to induce an into-ication si$ilar to t"at o% t"e sacred $us"roo$s but less stri*in and o% s"orter duration. It is c"aracteri'ed by t"ree5di$ensional colored desi ns in *aleidosco!ic $otion. C"e$ical studies "a#e as yet %ailed to isolate any !syc"oacti#e co$!onent.

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(note: the flower has white end, not purple.)

COLEUS G!oleus pumas and !. blumeiH is culti#ated by t"e Ma'atecs o% 7a-aca& Me-ico& ("o re!utedly e$!loy t"e lea#es in t"e so$e (ay as t"ey use t"e lea#es o% Salvia divinorum G see !. 1B<H . Indeed& t"e Indians reco ni'e t"e %a$ily relations"i! bet(een t"ese t(o enera o% $ints& bot" o% t"e %a$ily "abiatae. T"ey re%er to S. divinorum as la "e$bra G)t"e %e$ale)H and to !. pumilus as el $ac"o G)t"e $ale)H. T"ere are t(o %or$s o% !. blumei& ("ic" t"ey call el niQo G)t"e c"ild)H and el a"i+ado G)t"e odson)H. T"ese t(o s!ecies are nati#e to Asia& ("ere t"ey are #alued in %ol* $edicine but a!!arently "a#e not been used as "allucino ens. No "allucino enic !rinci!le "es yet been disco#ered in t"e 1;= *no(n !oleus s!ecies.

BORRACHERA Glochroma fuchsioidesH is one o% about t(o do'en s!ecies o% lochroma& all nati#e to t"e "i "lands o% Sout" A$erica. T"ere are sus!icions and uncon%ir$ed re!orts t"at se#eral s!ecies o% loc"ro$o are locally ta*en in "allucinatory drin*s& eit"er alone or $i-ed (it" ot"er narcotic !lants& by Indians in t"e Sibundoy Valley o% sout"ern Colo$bia. Alt"ou " no c"e$ical studies "a#e been $ade o% lochroma& it belon s to t"e ni "ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae& (ell reco ni'ed %or its to-ic and "allucino enic !rinci!les. ARBOL DE LOS BRUJOS G)sorcerers, tree)H or latuC G"atua pubifloraH is used by t"e Ma!uc"e Indian $edicine $en o% Valdi#ia& C"ile& to cause deliriu$& "allucinations& and occasionally !er$anent insanity. T"ere is no cult or ritual surroundin its use& but t"e tree is (idely %eared and res!ected. Dosa es are a closely uarded secret& and it is (idely belie#ed t"at a $adness o% any desired duration $ay be induced by a $edicine $an ("o *no(s "o( to $easure t"e doses !ro!erly. T"e nati#es e$!loy t"e %res" %ruits. T"e al*aloids "yoscya$ine and sco!ola$ine "a#e been isolated %ro$ t"e %ruit and are res!onsible %or its !otent e%%ects. T"e only s!ecies o% "atua *no(n& t"e tree is con%ined to coastal $ountains o% central C"ile. It belon s to t"e ni "ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae.

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CHIRIC-CASPI and CHIRIC SANANGO GBrunfelsiaH are t"e $ost co$$on o% t"e nati#e na$es %or se#eral s!ecies o% s"rubs t"at a!!ear to "a#e been i$!ortant "allucino ens a$on so$e Sout" A$erican Indian tribes. T"e use o% t"e na$e borrac"ero& ("ic" $eans ) into-icator&) indicates t"at t"e nati#es o% Colo$bia& Ecuador& and .eru reco ni'e t"e s"rub,s narcotic !ro!erties& and t"e s!ecial care ta*en in its culti#ation see$s to su est a %or$er reli ious or $a ic !lace in tribal li%e. Recently& real e#idence "as !ointed to t"e use o% se#eral s!ecies o% Brunfelsia eit"er as t"e source o% an "allucino enic drin*& as a$on t"e 9ac"inaua o% 0ra'il& or as an additi#e to ot"er "allucino enic drin*s& as a$on t"e DR#aro and 9o%In Indians o% Ecuador '

T"e s!ecies "allucino enically e$!loyed are B. grandiflora and B. chiricaspi. All s!ecies& "o(e#er& enter into %ol* $edicine& bein used es!ecially to reduce %e#ers and as antir"eu$atic a ents. B. uniflora Gas B. hopeanaH "as been included in t"e 0ra'ilian !"ar$aco!oeia. C"e$ical in#esti ation o% t"e acti#e co$!ounds in t"e #arious s!ecies o% Brunfelsia is still in t"e initial sta e& and ("at t"e acti#e !rinci!les $ay be "as not yet been deter$ined. T"e enus co$!rises 2= s!ecies o% s"rubs nati#e to tro!ical Sout" A$erica and t"e West Indies. It belon s to t"e ni "ts"ade %a$ily& Solonaceae.

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DATURAS GDaturaH %or$ a enus o% so$e >= s!ecies o% t"e ni "ts"ade %o$ily& Solanaceae. T"ey occur and are used as "allucino ens in bot" "e$is!"eres. T"e dru is usually !re!ared by dro!!in !ul#eri'ed seeds into %er$ented drin*s or by stee!in lea#es and t(i s in (ater. Use di%%ers (idely %ro$ tribe to tribe. Into-ication caused by t"e dru is c"aracteri'ed initially by e%%ects so #iolent t"at !"ysical restraint $ust be i$!osed until t"e !arta*er !asses into a sta e o% slee! and "allucinations. T"e $edicine $an inter!rets t"e #isions as #isitations o% t"e s!irits and is su!!osedly t"us able to dia nose disease& a!!re"end t"ie#es& and !ro!"esy t"e %uture. So$e o% t"e Indians in t"e Andes o% sout"ern Colo$bia culti#ate a nu$ber o% clones o% "i "ly atro!"ied )#arieties&) !er"a!s inci!ient s!ecies. T"ey $ay be t"e result o% $utations induced by #iruses. 0iolo ical $onstrosities& t"eir identi%ication to s!ecies is o%ten di%%icult.. Medicine $en $aintain t"at t"ey di%%er in !otency %ro$ t"e usual Daturas& an indication t"at !er"a!s t"eir c"e$ical constitution as (ell as t"eir $or!"olo y "as been c"an ed. T"ey see$ to be con%ined to Sibundoy& a $ountain5 irt #alley in t"e "i " Andes o% Colo$bia. 0asically& all s!ecies o% Datura "a#e a si$ilar c"e$ical co$!osition. T"eir acti#e !rinci!les are $ainly "yossya$ine and sco!ola$ine& ("ic" are tro!ane al*aloids. Sco!ola$ine is o%ten t"e $a+or constituent. A nu$ber o% $inor& c"e$ically related al*aloids $ay be !resentK atro!ine& norsco!ola$ine& $eteloidine. T"e di%%erences a$on s!ecies are c"ie%ly in t"e relati#e concentrations o% t"ese #arious al*aloids. T"ou " "i "ly to-ic& $ost s!ecies "a#e been used e-tensi#ely in $edicine %ro$ early ti$es to t"e !resent. T"eir use in %ol* $edicine deri#es %ro$ t"eir "i " concentration o% al*aloids. JIMSON WEED or t"orn a!!le GDatura stramoniumH is an illscented (eedy annual (it" ("ite to !ur!lis" %lo(ers. .robably nati#e to Nort" A$erica& it no( ro(s in te$!erate and subtro!ical re ions around t"e (orld. All !arts o% t"e !lant& es!ecially t"e bro(nis"5blac* seeds& are to-ic. T"is s!ecies is belie#ed to "a#e been t"e c"ie% in redient o% (ysoccon& used by t"e Al onEuin Indians o% eastern Nort" A$erica be%ore t"e ritual o% initiation into $an"ood G !. AH. TORNA-LOCO GDatura ceratocaulaH is a %les"y !lant (it" t"ic*& %or*in ste$s t"at ro(s in $ars"es and s"allo( (aters. Its unusual "abitat and its stron narcotic !ro!erties earned it a s!ecial !lace a$on t"e ancient Me-ican "allucino ens. T"e A'tecs& ("o in#o*ed its s!irit in treatin certain diseases& re%erred to it as )sister o% ololiuEui&) one o% t"e $ornin lories Gsee !. 1>@H. Its $odern Me-ican na$e& tornaloco G)$addenin !lant)H& indicates its !otency as a narcotic.

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TOLOACHE GDatura ino$ia3 *no(n also as D. meteloidesH& a coarser cli$bin annual nati#e to Me-ico and sout"(estern United States& "as a lon "istory o% use as an "allucino en. It (as e-tre$ely i$!ortant to t"e A'tecs& ("o called it toloat'in. HernInde' recorded $any $edical uses but (arned t"at ta*en in e-cess it (ould dri#e a !atient to $adness. T"e $odern Tara"u$ares still add t"e roots& seeds& and lea#es to t"eir $ai'e beer. Funis #alue t"e !lant as a narcotic& an anest"etic& and a !oultice %or treatin (ounds. 7nly t"e rain !riests are !er$itted to at"er it. T"e !riests !ut t"e !o(dered root in t"eir eyes3 also t"ey c"e( t"e root to co$$une (it" s!irits o% t"e dead& as*in intercession %or rain. T"e LuiseQos use an in%usion o% toloac"e in an initiation cere$ony. T"e youn !artici!ants ("o drin* it dance& screa$in li*e ani$als& until t"ey dro! and succu$b to t"e dru ,s e%%ects. 4u$ans ta*e it to induce drea$s& ain occult !o(ers& and !redict t"e %uture. 4o*uts use t"e dru in a s!rin cere$ony to assure ood "ealt" and lon li%e to t"e youn . T"e related D. discolor and D. *rightii o% t"e sa$e re ion are si$ilarly used.

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TREE DATURAS o% se#eral s!ecies are nati#e to Sout" A$erica ("ere t"ey o by suc" nati#e na$es as borrac"ero& ca$!anilla& $aicoa& %lori!ondia& "uanto& toC& and tan a. All are culti#ated !lants& un*no(n in t"e truly (ild state and associated (it" $an since earliest ti$es. Datura suaveolens is indi enous to t"e (ar$er lo(lands. Reco ni'ed as to-ic and narcotic& it is used as an "allucino en& alone or as an ad$i-ture. T"e nort"ern Andes& %ro$ Colo$bia to .eru& a!!ears to be t"e center o% t"e rou!,s ori in. S!ecies %ro$ t"is re ion are D. arborea& D. aurea& D. candida& D. dolichocarpa& D. sanguinea& and t"e ne(ly disco#ered D. vulcanicola Gsee !!. 12?512< %or e-a$!lesH. Abori inal !eo!les %ro$ Colo$bia to C"ile #alue t"ese trees as sources o% ritualistic "allucino ens and $edicines. In C"ile& t"e Ma!uc"e Indians use D. candida and D. san uinea to correct unruly c"ildren. T"e Di#aros say t"at t"e s!irits o% t"eir ancestors ad$onis" recalcitrant c"ildren durin t"e "allucinations. T"e ancient C"ibc"as o% 0o ota used D. aurea seeds to induce stu!or in t"e (i#es and sla#es o% dead (arriors and c"ie%tains be%ore t"ey (ere buried ali#e to acco$!any "usbands and $asters on t"e last tri!. At So o$o'a& Colo$bia& Indians too* D. sanguinea cere$onially in t"e Te$!le o% t"e Sun. T"e narcotic !re!ared %ro$ t"is red5%lo(ered s!ecies is *no(n locally as ton a. Many .eru#ian nati#es still belie#e t"at ton a !er$its t"e$ to co$$unicate (it" ancestors or ot"er de!arted souls. In Matucanas& .eru& Indians say it (ill re#eal to t"e$ treasures !reser#ed in ancient ra#es& or "uacas& "ence t"e local na$e %or t"e !lantJ"uacacac"u G) ra#e !lant)H. T"e tree daturas are so$eti$es considered a distinct enusK Brugmansia.

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,ibundoy 'ndion witch doctor collecting lea"es and flowers of Methysticodendron amesianum. +erhaps nowhere in the (ew World does the importance of hallucinogens in nati"e magic and medicine ac uire such significance as in the Galley of ,ibundoy, which has been characteri#ed as 6the most narcotic conscious area of the (ew World.6 CUIEBRA BORRACHERO G#ethysticodendron amesianumH& a tree reac"in a "ei "t o% >; %eet& is *no(n only %ro$ culti#ated trees in t"e 9a$sI Indian to(n o% Sibundoy& Colo$bia. T"e Indians also call it $its*(ay borrac"era G)sna*e into-icant)H. T"is tree is t"e only s!ecies o% its enus and $ay re!resent an e-tre$ely aberrant %or$ o% a tree s!ecies o% Datura. Its 11 5 inc" ("ite %lo(ers di%%er %ro$ t"ose o% t"e tree daturas in "a#in t"eir bell5 s"a!ed corolla s!lit nearly to t"e base. An in%usion o% t"e lea#es is said to be $ore !otent and dan erous to use t"an si$ilar !re!arations o% Datura. T"e c"e$ical co$!osition e-!lains its reat !otencyK @= !ercent o% t"e se#eral ty!ical tro!ane al*aloids !resent is sco!ola$ine. E#en in s$all doses& t"is dru $ay cause e-cite$ent& "allucinations& and deliriu$. T"e trees are t"e s!ecial !ro!erty o% certain $edicine $en ("o e$!loy t"e dru in di%%icult cases o% disease dia nosis& di#ination& !ro!"ecy& or (itc"cra%t.

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SHANIN GPetunia violaceaH is one o% t"e $ost recently re!orted "allucino ens. It is ta*en by t"e Indians in Ecuador to induce t"e sensation o% %li "t. Alt"ou " an al*aloid o% un*no(n identity "os been re!orted %ro$ t"is s!ecies o% !etunia& !"ytoc"e$ical in#esti ation o% !etunias is ur ently needed. So$e 2= s!ecies o% !etunias ro( in Saut" A$erica and in (ar$er !arts o% Nort" A$erica. Me$bers o% t"e ni "ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae& t"ey are closely allied to t"e enus 1icotiana GtobaccoH. Petunia violacea as (ell as ot"er s!ecies are "orticulturally i$!ortant. Culti#ated #arieties& (it" t"eir attracti#e& %unnel5s"a!ed bloo$s& are !o!ular arden %lo(ers t"at bloo$ !ro%usely t"rou "out t"e su$$er $ont"s.

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KEULE GGomortega )euleH is a s$all tree restricted to about 1== sEuare $iles in central C"ile. It is t"e only s!ecies in a rare %a$ily& 6o$orte aceae& related to t"e nut$e %a$ily. T"e Ma!uc"e Indions o% C"ile are soid to eat t"e %ruit o% *eule& or "ual"ual& %or into-ication& but ("et"er t"e e%%ects are truly "allucino enic is not yet *no(n. So %ar& t"ere "a#e been no c"e$ical studies $ade o% t"is tree.

TAI!UE GDesfontainia hoo)eriH is a s"rub o% Andean #alleys. Its lea#es& $ade !robably into a tea& are e$!loyed in sout"ern C"ile as a %ol* $edicine and as a narcotic. W"et"er t"eir e%%ects are truly "allucino enic is not *no(n& nor "as t"eir c"e$ical co$!osition been in#esti ated. T"e enus Desfontainia contains one or t(o ot"er Andean s!ecies and belon s to t"e %a$ily Des%ontainiaceae. A related %a$ily& Lo aniaceae& includes t"e !lants %ro$ ("ic" certain Sout" A$erican arro( !oisons are $ade.

9-

TUPA Gtobelia tupa0& a tall& #ariable !lant o% t"e "i " Andes& is also called tabaco del diablo G)de#il,s tobacco)H. In C"ile& t"e Ma!uc"e Indians s$o*e t"e dried lea#es o% t"is beauti%ul red5%lo(ered !lant %or t"eir narcotic e%%ects. W"et"er t"ey are truly "allucino enic "as not yet been establis"ed. T"ey contain t"e al*aloid lobeline and se#eral deri#ati#es o% it. T"e sa$e al*aloid occurs in so$e Nort" A$erican s!ecies o% "obelia& es!ecially ". inflata& *no(n locally as Indian tobacco. It "as been used $edicinally and as a s$o*in deterrent. T"ere are B== s!ecies o% "obelia& $ostly tro!ical and subtro!ical& and t"ey belon to t"e bluebell %a$ily& Ca$!anuloceae. So$e are "i "ly !ri'ed as arden orna$entals.

ZACATECHICHI G!alea /acatechichiH& an incons!icuous s"rub ran in %ro$ Me-ico to Costa Rica& is a recently disco#ered "allucino en t"at see$s to be used only by t"e C"ontals o% 7a-aca. T"ey ta*e it to )clari%y t"e senses) and to enable t"e$ to co$$unicate #erbally (it" t"e s!irit (orld. /ro$ earliest ti$es& t"e !lant,s intensely bitter taste G 'acatec"ic"i is t"e A'tec (ord $eanin )bitter rass)H "as $ade it a %a#orite %ol* $edicine %or %e#ers& nausea& and ot"er co$!laints.

9:

A%ter drin*in a tea $ade %ro$ t"e s"rub,s crus"ed dried lea#es& an Indian lies do(n in a Euiet !lace and s$o*es a ci arette $ade o% t"e dried lea#es. He *no(s t"at "e "as "ad enou " ("en "e %eels dro(sy and "ears "is o(n !ulse and "eartbeat. Recent studies indicate t"e !resence o% an unidenti%ied al*aloid t"at $ay be res!onsible %or t"e auditory "allucinations. T"ere are a "undred or $ore s!ecies o% !alea. T"ey belon to t"e daisy %a$ily& Co$!ositae& and ro( on o!en or scrubby "illsides in tro!ical A$erica. So$e s!ecies enter into %ol* $edicine.

rayon dra#ing by a Tu!anoan $ndian of Ama&onian olombia, depicting one of the images e,perienced during an aboriginal caapi into,ication. ollected in the field by the olombian anthropologist Dr. 8erardo Reichel3Dolmotoff, #ho studied the mythological significance of hallucinogens among the $ndians.

96

PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY .syc"o!"ar$acolo y studies t"e e%%ects o% dru s& es!ecially "allucino ens& on t"e central ner#ous syste$. T"e e%%ects o% !syc"oacti#e a ents result %ro$ constituents t"at belon to $any classes o% c"e$icals. All "a#e one c"aracteristic in co$$onK t"ey are biodyna$ic& a%%ectin nor$al $etabolis$ o% t"e ani$al body. Hallucino ens act directly on t"e central ner#ous syste$& but t"ey $ay also a%%ect ot"er !arts o% t"e body. T"ey "a#e bot" !"ysical and !syc"ic acti#ity. T"eir e%%ects are usually s"ort5li#ed& lastin only as lon as t"e c"e$ical re$ains at t"e !oint o% action in t"e body. .seudo"allucinations 5 o%ten indistin uis"able to t"e lay$an %ro$ true "allucinations 5 $ay be caused by $any abnor$al conditions u!settin body "o$eostasis& or nor$al $etabolis$K %e#ers& %astin & lac* o% (ater %or lon !eriods& !oisons& etc. .seudo"allucinations $ay o%ten be o% $uc" lon er duration t"an "allucinations. I% a !lant contains an acti#e substance& its $edical !otential is o% interest to !"ar$acolo ists. In#esti ation $ay indicate t"at true "allucino enic co$!ounds "a#e #alue %or !ur!oses %ar re$o#ed %ro$ t"eir !syc"oacti#ity. An e-a$!le is sco!ola$ine& an al*aloid o% t"e ni "ts"ade %a$ily. Ta*en in !ro!er doses& it into-icates& inducin a state bet(een consciousness and slee! and c"aracteri'ed by "allucinations. Sco!ola$ine& "o(e#er& "as $edical uses not associated (it" t"e central ner#ous syste$K it is antis!as$odic and antisecretory& $ainly in t"e ali$entary canal and urinary tracts. So$e !syc"iatrists belie#e t"at $ental disorders are t"e result o% an i$balance in body c"e$istryK )/or e#ery t(isted t"ou "t& t"ere is a t(isted $olecule.) So$e s!ecialists %or$erly t"ou "t and still $aintain t"at )$odel !syc"oses) 5 arti%icially induced states si$ilar to so$e abnor$al $ental conditions 5 $i "t be a #aluable analytic tool. T"ere are $any si$ilarities bet(een !syc"otic conditions& suc" as sc"i'o!"renia& and t"e $ental state induced by "allucino ens. W"et"er or not t"e use o% "allucino ens to create suc" $odel !syc"oses (ill be o% t"era!eutic #alue is still a Euestion& but t"ere is little doubt t"at "allucino ens $ay be o% e-!eri$ental "el! in understandin t"e %unctionin o% t"e central ner#ous syste$. 7ne s!ecialist states t"at studies o% )#arious as!ects o% t"e nor$al and t"e abnor$al) $ay elucidate certain areas o% t"e )"interland o% c"aracter.) It $ust be re$e$bered t"at alteration o% t"e %unction o% t"e central ner#ous syste$ by c"e$icals is not ne(3 it is older t"an (ritten "istory. In t"e !ast& es!ecially in !ri$iti#e societies& "allucino ens (ere e$!loyed in $a ico5reli ious and curin rituals& rarely %or !leasure. In so$e cultures& notably t"ose su%%erin acculturation& "allucino ens are so$eti$es used to en"ance social contacts or e#en %or e-!lainin $ental disorders. I% (e co$!are uses o% "allucino enic !lants in !ri$iti#e societies (it" t"e $edical #alue clai$ed %or t"e$ by so$e !syc"iatrists& (e see t"at $odel !syc"oses are not a ne( de#elo!$ent. Arti%icially induced !syc"oses "a#e lon been used as "ealin !ractices in !ri$iti#e cultures. Alt"ou " $any $odern !syc"iatrists are critical o% c"e$ical !syc"oses as tools in treatin $ental aberrations& it is too early co$!letely to rule out t"eir !ossible $edical #alue. OTHER HALLUCINOGENIC PLANTS In addition to t"e "allucino enic !lants used by !ri$iti#e !eo!les& nu$erous ot"er s!ecies containin biodyna$ic !rinci!les are *no(n to e-ist. Many are co$$on "ouse"old #arieties li*e catni!& cinna$on& and in er. No reliable studies "a#e been $ade o% t"e "allucino enic !ro!erties o% suc" !lants. So$e o% t"e e%%ects re!orted to "a#e been caused by t"e$ $ay be i$a inary3 ot"er re!orts $ay be outri "t "oa-es. Ne#ert"eless& $any o% t"ese !lants do "a#e a c"e$istry t"eoretically ca!able o% !roducin "allucinations. E-!eri$entation continues (it" !lants 5 co$$on and unco$$on 5 *no(n or sus!ected to be "allucino enic& and ne( ones are continually bein disco#ered.
6ORE %N=OR6)4%ON Coo!er$ >ohn 6'$ **Sti ul"nts "n( N"r&oti&s$** in ?)ND@OOK O= SOA4? )6ER%C)N %ND%)NS$ >' ?' Se1"r( 7E('9$ @ure"u o. ) eri&"n Ethnolog#$ @ulletin No' 1-,$ A'S' Go/ern ent Printing O..i&e$ W"shington$ D'C'$ 19-9 E.ron$ D' ?' 7E('9$ E4?NOP?)R6)COLOGlC SE)RC? =OR PSYC?O)C4%BE DRAGS$ Publi& ?e"lth Ser/i&e Publ' No' 16-:$ A'S' Go/ern ent Printing O..i&e$ W"shington$ D'C'$ 1967 E bo(en$ Willi" >'$ >r'$ N)RCO4%C PL)N4S$ 6"& ill"nl Co'$ Ne1 Yor0$ 197+ ?"rner$ N' >'$ ?)LLAC%NOGENS )ND S?)6)N%S6$ O5.or( Ani/ersit# Press$ Ne1 Yor0$ 197, ?"rt1i&h$ C'$ D%E 6ENSC?L%C?EN GENASS6%44EL$ Chr' ?er ' 4"u&hnitC$ Lei!Cig$ 1911 ?ei $ R'$ "n( R' Gor(on W"sson$ LES C?)6P%GNONS ?)LLAC%NOGENES DA 6ED%EAE$ E(it' 6us' ?ist' N"t'$ P"ris$ 19:; ?o..er$ )'$ "n( ?' Os un($ 4?E ?)LLAC%NOGENS$ )&"(e i& Press$ Ne1 Yor0$ 1967 Kee!$ W'$ DRAG )@ASE - CARREN4 CONCEP4S )ND RESE)RC?$ Ch"rles C' 4ho "s$ Publisher$ S!ring.iel($ %ll'$ 197+ Le1in$ Louis$ P?)N4)S4%C) - N)RCO4%C )ND S4%6AL)4%NG DRAGSF 4?E%R ASE )ND )@ASE$ Routle(ge "n( Keg"n P"ul$ Lon(on$ 196Pelt$ >'-6'$ DROGAES E4 PL)N4ES 6)G%EAES$ ?oriCons (e =r"n&e$ Str"ssbourg$ 1971 S"..or($ Willi" E'$ **N"r&oti& Plonts "n( Sti ul"nts o. the )n&ient ) eri&"ns$ in )NNA)L REPOR4 O= 4?E S6%4?SON%)N %NS4%4A4%ON$ 1916$ W"shington$ D'C'$ 1917 S&hlei..er$ ?'$ S)CRED N)RCO4%C PL)N4S O= 4?E NEW WORLD %ND%)NS$ ?".ner Press$ Ne1 Yor0$ 197,

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S&hultes$ Ri&h"r( E/"ns 34he @ot"ni&"l "n( Che i&"l Distribution o. the ?"llu&inogens in )NNA)L REB%EW O= PL)N4 P?YS%OLOGY$ +1$ 197<' S&hultes$ Ri&h"r( E/"ns$ "n( )lbert ?o. "nn$ 4?E @O4)NY )ND C?E6%S4RY O= ?)LLAC%NOGENS$ Ch"rles C' 4ho "s Publisher S!ring.iel($ %ll'$ 197, 4"#lor$ Nor "n$ =L%G?4 =RO6 RE)L%4Y$ Duell$ Slo"n "n( Pe"r&e$ Ne1 Yor0$ 19-9 W"sson$ R' Gor(on$ SO6)$ D%B%NE 6AS?ROO6 O= %66OR4)L%4Y$ ?"r&ourt$ Ne1 Yor0$ 1967

9;

Hallucino enic .lants IndeAcorus calamus, 0/ $fghanistan, /., /<, 2., 21 $frica, nati"es of, 8, 14, 18, /<, 22, ;2 $gara, 1< $lgon uin 'ndians 9&.,.:, 8, 2/ $lkaloids, 43, 40-48, 14, 13-10, 1<, 18, 2/, 2;, 23, 2<, ;4, ;1, ;2, 0., <4, <2, <3, 8/, 82, 83, 80 4./, 4.2, 4.3, 4.<, 441, 411-41/, 41;, 4/2, 4/; 4/8, 421, 42<, 4;., 4;1, 4;2 defined, 43 Amanita muscaria, 2, 1/-10 $ma#on, 'ndians of, 8, 3;, 01, 03, <4, 8<, 4.., 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 Anadenanthera sp., 14, <3-84, 81 $ndes, 'ndians of, 4.0, 44., 421, 42;, 4;. $ndromedoto?in, 413 Anhalonium le#inii, 44; $rbol de los bruCos, 4/< $rbutin, 413 Argyreia sp., 4/3 Ariocarpus sp., 412, 41; $rrow poison, 08, <1, 83, 4;. $sia, /4, /<, 2., 21, ;1 Atropa belladonna, 2, 23-20 $tropine, 23, 421 $"icenna, 9$rab. phys.:, ;1 $yahuasca, 0, 8, 44, 14, 8<-4.; $#tecs, <, ;<, 34, 31, 3/, 38, 80, 442, 41<, 418, 4/., 4/0, 42/, 422, 4;1 2anisteriopsis sp., 0, 14, 8<-4.;, 4.3 -ellladonna, 4;, 11, 23-20 -hang, /., /< -orrachera, 4/<-4/8 2rugmansia sp., 42; 2runfelsia sp., 14, 4.2, 42.-424 -ushmen 18 -witi cult, ;2 Caapi, 0, 8, 14, 8<-4.3 alea &acatechichi, 4;1, 4;/ Canada, 'ndians of, 0/ Cannabinols, 43, /3, 2. annabis sp,, 42, 14, 11, /.-24, 2;, ;1, ;3 ,ee also >arihuana Catnip, 4;3 Cawe, 44/ Central ner"ous system, 4<, ;2, 4;2, 4;; Charas, /., /< Chemistry of hallucinogens, 43-48, 13-10, /3, 0.-04, 4./, 4.2, 411-41/, 4/2-4/; China, /2, ;1 Chiric-caspi, 42.-424 Chiric sanango, 42.-424 Christianity, ;2, 31, 3;, 441, 443, 41., 4/4 Cimora, 8, 44.-441 Cinnamon, 4;3 laviceps purpurea, 4/; Coca, ;3 Cocaine, ;3 oleus sp., 4/<-4/8 Colorines, ;8, 83 onocybe sp., ;<, 3;, 30 oriaria thymifolia, 4.0 Culebra borrachero, 42<-428

Curare, <1 Curing rituals, 8, 03, 00, 441, 41., 4/4 Cytisine, 8/, 82 ytisus canariensis, 8/ @atura 9(ew World sp.:, 2, 8, 14, 4.2, 444 413, 4/., 421-420 42< Datura 9)ld Warld sp.:, ;1 -;/ @aturas, 421-422 @aturas, tree, 42;-420, 42< @elphi, )racle of, 0, ;1 Desfontania hoo!eri, 4;.-4;4 @hatura, ;1-;/ @iben#opyrans, 43 6@octrine of ,ignatures,6 ;. @utra, ;1-;/ *ast 'ndies, ;1 4chinocactus #illiamsii, 44; 4li&abetha princeps, 0< *ndocannibalism, <. *pena, 14, 00, << 4pilobium, 1; 4pithelantha micromeris, 412-41; *reriba, 1< *rgot, 4/2 4rythrina sp., 83, 4.< *urope, medie"al, 11, 23, 2<, ;.-;4 7alse peyotes, 412-41; 7ly agaric, 4;, 1/, 12 7olk medicine, 0, 8, /3, 21, 2/, 80 4.<, 4.8, 44<, 448, 4/4, 4/3, 4/<, 424, 421, 422, 42;, 42<, 4;., 4;1, 4;3 !alanga, 18 8albulimima belgraveana, 1< !alen 9!r. physician:, /2 !anCah, /<-/8 8enista canariensis, 8/ !inger, 4;3 8omortega !eule, 4;. Hallucinations, ;. 1., 1<, 18, 2.-24, 22, 23, 2<, ;2, ;0, 34, 3<, 0/, <2, 8., 4.4, 4.<, 441, 443, 44<-448, 411, 418, 4/0, 4/<, 421, 42<, 4;1 audltory, ;0, 3<, 4.<, 44<-448, 4;1 defined and causes, ; Hallucinogens and deity, ;, 0, 12, ;8, 4.1, 44< and psychiatry, 3<, 4;2-4;3 and spirit world, 8, 44< chemistry, 43-48 defined, ; how taken, 14 in modern world, 4.-44 in plant kingdom, 42-4; in primiti"e societies, 0-8, 14 medical uses, 0 (ew World, 14, /;, ;3-4;/ )ld World, 11-;; psychic powers from, 0 religious uses, 0, /4 Hasheesh, 14, /.-24 Hawaiian wood rose, 4/3 Heimia sp., <, 4.<-4.8 Hemp, /.-24 Henbane, 11, 2<-28 HernFnde# 9,pan. phys.:, 443, 418, 422 Hierba loca, 413-410 HoCas de la +astora, 4/0 Homalomena sp., 1<

99

Hop, /4 Hottentots, 22 Huichol 'ndians 9>e?.:, 44<, 412, 41; Humboldt, $le?ander "on, <0-<< Humulus, /4 Hyoscyamine, 23, 2<, ;4, 4/8, 421 Hyoscyamus niger, 2, 2<-28 'boga, 8, 14, ;2-;; 'bogaine, 4<, 48, ;2 'botenic acid, 13, 10 'ncas, 81 'ndia, 11, 13, /4, /2, 2/, 23, ;1 'ndian tobacco, 4;1 'ndoles, 40-48, ;2, 4./ $ochroma fuchsiodes, 4/<-4/8 $pomoea sp., 41<-4/3 $sotoma longiflora, 444 Himson weed, 42/ Hurema, 8, 14, <2-<; 9usticia sp., 0<, 08, </ "aempferia galanga, 18 Ianna, 22-2; Ieule, 4;.-4;4 Iif, /. Iiowa 'ndians 9&. ,.:, 3, 41. Iwashi, 18 -agochilus inebrians, 21 -atua pubiflora, 4/<, 4/8 -obelia sp., 4;1-4;/ -ophophora sp., 442-41/ %,@, 4<, 4/2, 4/; -ycoperdon sp., ;0 >ace, 1., 02 >acropsia, 1;, <4, 8. Mandragora officinarum, ;.-;4 >andrake, 11, ;.-;4 >apuche 'ndians 9,.$.:, 4/<, 42;, 4;., 4;1 Ma/uira sclerophylla, 01 >araba, 18 >arihuana, 43, /.-24 chemistry, /3 classification, /4 effects, 2. history, /2-/; medicinal "alue, /3 methods of using, /< narcotic use, /8 >asha-hari , </ >aya 'ndians 9!uat.:, ;8, 3. >a#atec 'ndians 9>e?.M, 32-3;, 4/., 4/4, 4/0, 4/< >edical uses af hallucinogens, /3, 23, 2<, ;1, 82, 4.<, 421, 422, 4;1, 4;2 >escal bean, 82-8;, 83 >escal buttons, 442, 44;, 443, 440, 44<, 448, 41. >escaline, 4<, 444, 441, 411, 41/, 41; Mesembryanthemum sp., 22-2; Methysticodendron amesianum, 42<-428 >e?ico, 'ndians of, 8, 14, ;3, ;0, ;<-3;, 3<, 8/, 82, 83, 80, 44/, 443, 44<, 412, 41;, 4/., 4/4, 4/<, 422, 4;1 Mimosa hostilis, <2-<; >i?tecs 9>e? :, 8, ;0 6>odel psychoses,6 4;2-4;3 >orning glories, <, 8, 4;, 14, 80, 41<-4/3, 4/0, 42/ $#tec use, 41<, 418 chemistry, 4/2, 4/; identification, 4/. medical uses, 418, 4/4

religious uses, 418, 4/4 "arieties, 4/3 >oslems, /<, 2. >ushrooms, <, 8, 4;, ;<-04, 4/0 $#tec use, ;<, 34-3/ chemistry, 0., 04 effects, 3<, 38 identification, 3/ modern >a#atec ceremony, 32-3; opposition to, 31 stones, ;8, 3. worship, ;8 Myristica fragrans, 1. (arcotic, defined, ; :eoraimondia macrostibas, 444 :epeta cataria, 1. (ew !uinea, 18 :icotiana sp, <, 4;. (icotine, 40 (utmeg, 1., 02 )a?aca 9>e? :, ;0, 32, 4/., 4/4, 4/0, 4/<, 4;1 ;lmedioperebea sclerophylla, 01 )loliu ui, 31, 41<, 418, 4/., 42/ )racle of @elphi, 0, ;1 )rinoco -asin 9,. $.:, <3, <<, 84, 8<, 4.. Pachycereus pectenoboriginum, 44/ +akistan, /< +ancratium trianthum, 2, 14, 18 +apua, nati"es of, 1< +aricF, 00, <3-84 Pedilanthus tithymaloides, 444 Peganum harmala, 2, 2/ Pelecyphora aselliformis, 41; Pernettya sp., 413-410 +etunia "iolacea, 4;.-4;4 +eyote 3, 8, 42, 4<, 14, 34, 3/, 82, 442-41/ $#tec use, 443 chemistry, 411-41/ effects, 44< modern use in &.,, 440, 41. opposition to, 443 religious importance, 44<-448 ritual, 41. "ision, 443 411 +eyotes, 6false,6 412-41; +harmacology, see $lkaloids, Chemistry Piptadenia peregrina, <3-84 Piscidia, 4.< +iule, 80 +lains 'ndians 9&. ,.:, 448, 41. +lant kingdom, 41-4; +seudohallucinations, 4;2 +seudohallucinogens, 1. Psilocybe sp., <, ;<, 3;, 33, 30, 38 +silocybin, 48, 0. +sychedelics, ; +sychophormacology, 4;2-4;; +sychotara?ics, ; +sychotomimetics, ; Psychotria viridis, 4.2, 4.; +uffballs, 8, ;0 Nuinine, 40 5apO dos indios, 14, 01 5ed -ean @ance, 82 65eefers,6 /<, 24 Rhynchosia sp., 80, 4.< 5ig-Geda, 13

1<<

5io !rande Galley 9Te?.:, 44; Rivea corymbosa, 2, <, 41<-4/; ,t. $nthonyDs 7ire, 4/2 <alvia divinorum, 14, 4/0, 4/< ,an +edro cactus, 14, 44.-44/ ,copolomine, 23, 2<, ;4, ;1, 4/8, 421, 42<, 4;2 ,cythians, /2, /; ,Obil, 14, 81 ,erotonin, 4<, 48 ,hanin, 4;. - 4;4 ,henshi, 4.0 ,iberian tribes, 12-10 ,ibunday Galley 9,.$.:, 4/<, 42< ,inicuichi, 4.<-4.8 ,nuff, 14, 01, 03-<4, <3-<8, 81, 8< ,oma, 13 <ophora sp., 82-8; ,orcererDs tree, 4/< ,outh $merican 'ndians, 0, 8, 44, ;3, 3;, 01, 02, 03-<1, </, <2, <3-84, 81, 4.., 4.1, 4.2, 4.0, 44., 441, 4/<, 424, 421, 42;, 42<, 4;., 4;1 ,pruce, 5ichard, <<, 4.. <tictocardia, 4/3 <tropharia sp., ;<, 3;, 30 ,weet calomel, 0/ ,weet flag, 42, 0/ ,yrian rue, 2/ Tabernanthe iboga, ;2-;; Taglii, 413-410 Taino 'ndians 9W. 'ndies:, <3 Tai ue, 4;.-4;4 TaCik tribes, 21 Tarahumare 'ndians 9>e?.:, 44/, 44<, 412, 422 Tartar tribes, 21 Teonanacatl, 14, ;<, 31, 3/ Terpenphenolic compounds, 43 Tetrahydrocannabinols, 43, /3, 2. Tetrapteris methystica, 4.3 Tlitlilt#in, 41<, 4/. Tobacco, 14, ;3 Toloache, 14, 31, 422 Torna-loco, 42/ Tree daturas, 42;-420 Trichocereus sp., 44.-441 Tropanes, 4<, ;4, 42< Tryptamines, 4<, 48, 14, 0., <4, <2, <3, 4.2 Tupa, 14, 4;1-4;/ Turbina corymbosa, 41< Turkestan mint, 21 Turkoman tribes, 21 &nited ,tates 'ndians, 3, 8, ;3, 82, 83, 448, 41., 42/ &rine drinking ritual, 1; &#bek tribes, 21 1accinium, 1; Gilca, 81 1irola sp., 14, 02-<1, </ Girolas, 14, 02-<1, </ as poison, 08, <1 chemistry, <4 effects, <4 ritual, <. snuff, 02 - 03, <4 WaikF 'ndians 9,.$.:, 00, 08, <.-<4, </ West 'ndies, <3 'isteria sinensis, 1. WitchesD brews, 11, 23, 2<, ;4 Wood rose, 4/3

Wysoccan, 8, 42/ AaCO, 0, 14, 8< Aopo 14, <3 - 84 Aurupari ceremony, 4.1 Pacatechichi, 4;1-4;/

1<1