Group Theory M3P10/M4P10 Solutions to Homework 1 Qu. 1. Let G be a nite group, and let H and K be subgroups of G.

Recall that HK = {hk : h H, k K }. 1. Show that |HK | = |H ||K |/|H K |. 2. Prove that HK is a subgroup of G if and only if HK = KH . 3. Find a group G and subgroups H and K such that HK is not a subgroup of G. Solution. 1. Notice that |H ||K | is the size of H K . Dene a map f from H K to HK by f : (h, k ) hk . We shall show that for each x HK , the number of preimages of x in H K is |H K |; this clearly implies the result. Suppose that f (h, k ) = hk = x. Then for any g H K we have x = hgg 1 k = f (hg, g 1 k ). It follows that for every element hg of h(H K ) there is a preimage of x in H K whose H coordinate is hg , and so there are at least |H K | preimages. Conversely, if f (h1 , k1 ) is a preimage of 1 x then hk = h1 k1 , and so h1 h1 = kk1 . Setting g = h1 h1 , it is clear that g H K , and that h1 = hg . So all preimages of x have their H coordinate in h(H K ), and so there are exactly |H K | of them. 2. Notice that (hk )1 = k 1 h1 . Therefore for g G we have g HK g 1 KH . It follows immediately that if HK is a subgroup then HK = KH . For the converse, suppose that HK = KH . Then certainly HK is non-empty, and contains inverses of its elements; so we need show only that it is closed under the group operation. But we have (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 ) h1 (KH )k2 = h1 (HK )k2 = HK. 3. The smallest group for which this is possible is S3 . Take H = (1 2) and K = (1 3) . Then (without even multiplying any permuations) we see that |HK | = 4 by part 1, and so certainly HK is not a subgroup of S3 . Qu. 2. Let G be a cyclic group of order n, and let a and b be divisors of n. Let A and B be the subgroups of G of orders a and b respectively. Let be a homomorphism from G to another group, such that the kernel of is A. Show that (B ) is a cyclic group of order lcm(a, b)/a. Solution. Note that the intersection A B is cyclic of order hcf(a, b). Hence |AB | = ab/hcf(a, b), by Qu.1.1. This is equal to lcm(a, b). Since G is abelian we have AB = BA, and so AB is a subgroup of G of order lcm(a, b). Now by Proposition 6 from lectures, (B ) = (AB ), and by the First Isomorphism Theorem, (AB ) = AB/A. So (B ) has size lcm(a, b)/a, as required. The group 1

AB is cyclic, since it is a subgroup of the cyclic group G. If g is a generator of AB , then clearly gA generates AB/A, since every coset of AB/A is g k A = (gA)k for some integer k . So (B ) is cyclic. [NB. In the last sentence we proved a general proposition: any quotient of a cyclic group is cyclic.] Qu. 3. Let G be a group, and H a subgroup of G. A complement of H in G is a group K such that H K = {e}, and such that HK = G. 1. Find a group G and a subgroup H which has no complement in G. 2. Prove that if H is normal, and if K1 and K2 are complements of H in G, then K1 = K2 . 3. Find a group G and a subgroup H which has two non-isomorphic complements in G. Why does this not contradict part 2? Solution. 1. Take G to be cyclic of order 4. Let H be the unique subgroup of order 2. Then the only subgroups of G are {e}, H , and G, and it is clear that none of these is a complement to H . 2. Using the Third Isomorphism Theorem for the rst = , we have G/H = K1 H/H = K1 /H K1 = K1 /{e} = K1 . Similarly we have G/H = K2 , and so K1 = K2 . 3. Take, for example, G = S4 and H = S3 , treating H as the stabilizer of the point 4 in G. Then we can take K1 = V4 and K2 = (1 2 3 4) ; each of these has size 4, and intersects trivially with H , and so both are complements to H . But K2 is cyclic, whereas K1 is not. This does not contradict part 2, since H is not normal in G. Qu. 4. Let G be a group, and H a subgroup of G. 1. Show that gHg 1 is a subgroup for any g G, and that H = gHg 1 . 1 (We say that H and gHg are conjugate subgroups. 2. Let G act on a set , and let x, y be such that y OrbG (x). Show that StabG (x) and StabG (y ) are conjugate subgroups. 3. Show that the map (g, H ) gHg 1 denes an action of G on the set of subgroups of G. In the case that G = A4 , nd the orbits and the stabilizers for this action. (Hint: A4 has 10 subgroups.)

Solution. 1. Write g k for gkg 1 . We note that for any k1 , k2 G we have g k1 g k2 = gk1 g 1 gk2 g 1 = gk1 k2 g 1 = g (k1 k2 ). It follows that the map : k g k is a homomorphism from G to itself. For H G we see that gHg 1 = (H ), which is therefore a subgroup of G by Proposition 1 from lectures. Suppose that g k = e; then k = g 1 eg = e. So the kernel of is trivial. But now by the First Isomorphism Theorem we have H/{e} = g H , and so H = gH as required. [NB. This can all be done directly without reference to the results from lectures if you prefer.] 2. Since y OrbG (x), there exists g G such that gx = y . Suppose that h StabG (x); then g hy = gh(g 1 y ) = ghx = gx = y , and so g h 1 StabG (y ). Similarly, if k StabG (y ), then g k StabG (x). Hence g StabG (x) = StabG (y ), as required. 3. We have shown that conjugation by g maps subgroups to subgroups. It is obvious that e H = H for all subgroup H . If g, h G, then
gh

H = ghH (gh)1 = ghHh1 g 1 = g (hHh1 ) = g (h H ),

and so this map denes an action of G on its subgroups. Applying the Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem to the action of A4 on its subgroups, we see that for each subgroup H we have |OrbA4 (H )||StabA4 (H )| = 12. By part 1, conjugate subgroups are isomorphic (and so in particular, they have the same order). A4 lies in an orbit by itself, and is equal to its own stabilizer. V4 is the only subgroup of order 4, and so lies in an orbit by itself. Its stabilizer is A4 . There are four subgroups of order 3, namely: (1 2 3) , (1 4 2) , (1 3 4) , (2 4 3) .

These are all conjugate, since the generating elements listed here form a single conjugacy class under the action of V4 (and in fact, also under the action of A4 itself.) Since the orbit has size 4, each stabilizer has order 3. Hence each of these subgroups is equal to its own stabilizer. There are three subgroups of order 2, namely (1 2)(3 4) , (1 3)(2 4) , (1 4)(2 3) .

These are all conjugate, since the double transpositions which generate them are conjugate in A4 (simply by the action of any 3-cycle). Since the orbit has length 3, the stabilizers have size 4; hence in every case, the stabilizer is V4 . Finally, the trivial subgroup {e} lies in an orbit by itself, and has stabilizer A4 .