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Sedimentary Geology 148 (2002) 185 202 www.elsevier.

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Sedimentary facies distribution and genesis of a recent carbonate-rich saline lake: Gallocanta Lake, Iberian Chain, NE Spain
n a, A.C. Roc a, A.R. Soria a, M.J. Mayayo b, J.A. Sa rez a,*, A. Luzo nchez c A. Pe
Area of Stratigraphy, Department of Earth Sciences, Zaragoza University, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain Area of Mineralogy, Department of Earth Sciences, Zaragoza University, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain c Area of Geodynamic, Department of Earth Sciences, Zaragoza University, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain
b a

Accepted 1 August 2001

Abstract The study focuses on the Holocene sedimentary infill of the Gallocanta lacustrine basin in the Iberian Chain, NE Spain. The Gallocanta lake is a saline wetland with a maximum length of 7.5 km and a maximum width of 2.85 km. The water depth varies significantly, from a maximum depth of 2 m to completely dry. In the central areas (central subenvironment) sapropels and salts develop, with halite, gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite, aragonite, calcite, magnesite, and lesser amounts of quartz and clay minerals. Cyanobacteria filaments are related to the aragonite and dolomite crystals. The marginal subenvironment either has a gradual or a sharp change from that of the central subenvironment. An inner area with desiccated light grey lutites is present in this marginal subenvironment. In SEM and X-ray diffraction analyses, quartz, clay minerals, aragonite, calcite and small quantities of dolomite, gypsum, anhydrite and halite can be identified. This inner area is surrounded by an external fringe composed of light brown lutites and a high concentration of Salicornia meadwod and microbial mats. This zone is only occasionally submerged and contains sandy and conglomerate islets. Active palustrine areas are flood zones, where grey lutites with a significant quantity of vegetation, such as reeds, are common. In general, this entire sector is being modified by human action. Five sedimentary facies have been defined, and this has enabled the identification of three distinct stages in the general evolution of the basin. The first stage is an alluvial period, developing during an arid climate. After this, a more humid stage facilitated the installation of a shallow carbonate-rich lake. A reduction of the water level, probably due to a more arid stage, induces a salinity increase of the lacustrine brine and the change to the third stage, which corresponds to the present conditions. The water level experienced frequent oscillations, and alternations between humid conditions with a high production of organic matter, which favors carbonate formation, and water level dropdowns, even to total dryness, with saline sedimentation. D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Lake sediment; Evaporite; Carbonate; Bacteria; Holocene; NE Spain

1. Introduction
Corresponding author. Fax: +34-761088. rez), E-mail addresses: anperez@posta.unizar.es (A. Pe mayayo@posta.unizar.es (M.J. Mayayo), joseange@posta.unizar.es nchez). (J.A. Sa
*

In north-east Spain (Fig. 1) there are over 100 small closed depressions where highly mineralised lakes form, locally called saladas. Most of these

0037-0738/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 3 7 - 0 7 3 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 1 7 - 2

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Fig. 1. Situation of Gallocanta lake and geological framework of the NE of Spain. Main saline lakes areas in the Tertiary fill of the Ebro basin are mentioned.

lakes contain evaporites derived from Cl SO4 Na (Mg) and Na Mg Cl (SO4) surface brines. These are chlorides (halite), sulphates (gypsum, anhydrite, mirabilite thenardite, hexahydrite, and bloedite) and small quantities of carbonates (calcite, dolomite, aran, 1942; Iban ez, 1975; gonite and magnesite) (Dant n Pueyo, 1979; Comin et al., 1990; Schu tt, 1998; Luzo rez et al., 1999). These saline lakes are et al., 1999; Pe located on mudstone, sandstone, carbonate and gypsum deposits of Triassic age in the Iberian Chain (Buntsandstein, Muschelkalk and Keuper facies) and Tertiary age (upper Oligocene lower Miocene) in the Ebro Basin (Bujaraloz Member of the Alcubierre Formation, and Zaragoza Formation). The climate of these areas is markedly arid, with an average annual rainfall of less than 350 mm in the Ebro Basin located at 300 m upper the sea and 488 mm in the Iberian Chain located at 1000 m upper the sea. Extreme temperatures (absolute values varying from 15 to 42 C) and dry north-westerly winds are common. The evaporation is 850 mm/year. The sediments generated in existing saline lakes have been studied by numerous authors due to their economic and environmental interest. They are

ephemeral saline lakes, in areas where the evaporation rate is greater than the annual rainfall, and they are therefore similar to playa lakes. This type of lake can be found in many places around the world and they have a great variety of local names. In the north of Africa there are about 1000 playas where they are known as dayas (Mitchell and Willimott, 1974; Babikir, 1986) or Sebkhas (Perthuisot, 1977). In the Southern High Plains of Texas and New Mexico there are approximately 30,000 small ephemeral lakes, that are in most cases the remains of Pleistocene lakes (Morrison, 1968; Gustauson et al., 1980; Wood et al., 1992; Brown and Sharp, 1992; Wood and Sanford, 1995). In Southern and Western Australia there are hundreds of silt clay ponds known as dongas (Bowler, 1986). They can also be seen in the Atacama Desert and the Andes, in northern Chile, in the fringes of the Indus Plain in Pakistan, where they are called chor, and in South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Zambia (Goudie and Thomas, 1985). Basic summaries of carbonate and evaporitic lacustrine sedimentation include the reviews by Kelts and Hsu (1978), Dean (1981), Dean and Fouch (1983),

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Eugster and Kelts (1983), Platt and Wright (1991), Renaut and Last (1994) and Gierlowski-Kordesch and Kelts (1994). The reconstruction of seasonal production, temperature changes, and pa-laeohydrology of these lakes is based primarily on the combination of sedimentological and geochemical studies (Kelts and Talbot, 1990; Talbot, 1990; Camoin et al., 1997). The texture of microbial sediments has been analysed by Cryo-scanning electron microscopy and the processes and types of bacterial carbonate genesis have been revealed in numerous studies (Castanier, 1987; Adolphe et al., 1989; Chafetz and Buczynski, 1992; Folk, farge et al., 1996; Braithwaite and Zedef, 1993b; De 1996; McGenity and Sellwood, 1999; Castanier et al., 1999a). The important role of bacteria has recently been revealed as a mediator in the precipitation and diagenesis of dolomite in anoxic conditions in a current lagoonal medium (Vasconcelos et al., 1995; Vasconcelos and McKenzie, 1997), in the formation of aragonite (Riccioni et al., 1996; Coshell et al., 1998), of magnesite (Pontoizeau et al., 1997) as well as in the nucleation of salts ooid (Castanier et al., 1999b). These observations can be applied to our study area, the Gallocanta lake, since sedimentary processes are currently mainly controlled by the cyanobacteria action. The principal objective of this paper is the characterisation and mapping of the sedimentary facies developed in the lake, with particular emphasis on sediments with microbial textures. The lateral and vertical relations that these facies hold within them allow to depict the evolution of this lacustrine area.

2. The Gallocanta lake The Gallocanta lake is the largest continental saline wetland in the northeast of the Iberian peninsula. It has a surface area of 14.14 km2, most of which belongs to the province of Zaragoza and only its southeast fringe is within the province of Teruel. Its co-ordinates are 40500N, 2110W, and it is situated at an altitude of 990 m, in a large endorheic depression which extends from Cubel towards the region of the Jiloca river. The depression parallels the orientation of the structural features of the region. The climate is sub-arid Mediterranean, and is also highly continental.

The temperature varies from 15 C in January to 29.5 C in July. The prevailing winds come from of the NW and can reach speeds of 100 km/h. The mean annual rainfall is 488 mm. The lake is situated in the central sector of the Iberian Range, and more specifically where the Aragonese and Castilian branches meet. It is situated on carbonated and evaporitic Triassic deposits, and is bounded to the north and northwest by the predominantly quartzite Palaeozoic lineaments of the Santa Cruz mountain range (Fig. 2), and to the south and southwest by carbonate Mesozoic outcrops of the Lower Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous. There is also substantial development of coarse detrital Pliocene and Holocene deposits bordering the lake. The lake is elongated, with a maximum length of 7.5 km and an average width of 2.85 km. Within this area three quite morphologically distinct sectors can be identified. In the extreme NW is El Lagunazo de Gallocanta, which is almost circular in shape and has a diameter of 1.2 km. It is separated from the main part of the lake by a conglomerate ridge locally known as Los Picos, although this has been cut, possibly by human action, to join the different sectors of the lake. El Lagunazo grande/central is the main body of the lake. It is elongated in a NW SE direction, approximately 5 km long and 3 km wide, and several springs (Los ojos de la laguna) are located in its western part, around which is an extensive marshy zone, much affected by human action. In the eastern fringe is Los lagunazos de Tornos, which consists of a marshy area 2.9 km long by 4.2 km wide. The lake does not exceed 2 m in depth and dries out in summer. The composition and hydrochemical characterisation of its waters (Comin et al., 1990) shows that it is a hypersaline lake of the type Na Mg Cl (SO4), which during dry periods exhibits the precipitation of various salts such as halite, bischofite, epsomite, hexahydrite and mirabilite. The waters come from subterranean flows, although torrential flows, which carry surface waters, also exist. Schu tt (1998) carried out a geochemical study on samples taken from 90 cm short core obtained from the northeastern sector of the lake. She established three superposed sedimentary units characterised by different mineralogical associations, which this author inter-

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Fig. 2. Location of sampling stations in Gallocanta lake. The correlation sketch of Fig. 8 is drawn from A B transect.

prets as related to climatic changes from sub-arid conditions to sub-humid and then back to sub-arid, respectively. Previously, Calvo et al. (1978) and lez-Lo pez et al. (1983) revealed that primary Gonza dolomite was precipitated in this lake. More recently, Burjachs et al. (1996) carried out a palynological study. Using a 110-cm sequence of sediment extracted from the centre of the lake, which was dated using 14C, 210Pb and 137Cs, the climatic history and lake level changes for the last 150 years was established. The base of the core (93 95 cm) gave an age of 12.230 70 years BP, and the interval between 58 and 60 cm gave age of 840 70 years BP. The origin of the basin, which contains the lake, is ndez Pacheco very controversial. Traditionally (Herna n, 1941), it is believed to and Aranguren, 1926; Dant have a tectonic origin; this basin has been interpreted as a graben that originated from the activity of tension

faults. Presently this interpretation is being questioned a et al. (1999) who consider that it could be a by Grac large polje, which, during its Quaternary evolution, produced the present Gallocanta lake. This interpreta nchez et al. tion agrees with that formulated by Sa (1998) on the origin of the shallow lakes in the Ebro Basin (region of Monegros), in which the combined action of subterranean flows and wind processes are thought to be the principal causes of these depressions.

3. Materials and methods To carry out the cartography of the facies and the precise delimitation of the sub-environments, aerial photographs at scale 1:33,000 (1957 flight) and scale 1:18,000 (1978 flight) have been used, in addition to

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satellite images and aerial photos taken in July 1998. The field research was carried out between September and November 1998 and from July to September 1999 as the studied sector of the lake was almost dry during this period of the year. In fact, there were only thin layers of water in the northwestern sector (region of Los Aguanares) and the central sector (Ojos de la Laguna), which correspond, respectively, to in-flow areas of water from the ravine emerging from Santed and to the presence of springs. The sediment samples that were studied originated from 31 sedimentary cores, between 1 and 2.33 m long, taken from different points around the lake (Fig. 2). The sampling was carried out using 4-cm diameter PVC tubes, between 1 and 3 m in length, which were driven into the ground manually with a 1.8-kg mallet. The tubes were connected to a vacuum pump to aid driving and sediment retention. For extrusion of the tube sampler, a pulley system and a platform were used. In addition, a modified Livingstone piston corer (5 cm in diameter) was also used. The degree of sediment compaction was monitored in-situ by noting the difference between the sampling depth and the total length of sediment recovered. After sectioning the tubes in the laboratory and making a photographic record, a visual description of each one of the samples was made, identifying the lithology, colour, grain size, macroscopic plants remains, organic content and sedimentary structures. Subsequently, samples were taken every centimeter.

X-ray diffraction and SEM analysis were used in order to determine the mineralogical composition. For the X-ray analysis, a Philips 1729 X-ray generator was used, by the powder and orientated aggregate method. The SEM studies were performed using a JEOL JSM 6400 scanning electron microscope coupled with an energy dispersive X-ray for elemental identification. For the SEM analysis the samples were coated with gold according to the standard procedures for using SCD 004 equipment. Photomicrographs and quantitative analyses of chemical elements were undertaken. The carbonate content was analysed in a GEOSERVICES calcimeter, which calculates the total percentage of carbonate and the calcite/dolomite ratio. C, N and S analyses were done in a PERTINEERKIL-ELMER 24 microanalyser. The pH, Eh, conductivity, Na and K values, were calculated using 0.25-g solutions of finely powdered specimen in 100 cm3 of distilled water, which were shaken for 120 min, using a pH meter 3071 and conductivity meter 4071 JENWAY and a meter NAK-I.

4. Characterisation of the sedimentary facies 4.1. Facies description Based on the study carried out on the samples, we have defined five sedimentary facies in the Gallocanta lake (Fig. 3). They are numbered I to V from bottom

Fig. 3. Characterisation of the sedimentary facies defined in Gallocanta lake.

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to top. The overall thickness of the deposits varies between 70 and 145 cm. An average compaction of 25% have been calculated for muddy facies, with only 9% for sandy facies. The sediments contain authigenic minerals (gypsum, dolomite, calcite, aragonite, magnesite, hexahydrite, bloedite, halite, anhydrite, thenardite, bassanite and traces of smectite), diatomites, ostracods, charophytes, organic material and detrital silicates (quartz and very small quantities of feldspars and clay minerals: illite, kaolinite and chlorite). Facies I consists of lutites, sands and orange-ochre gravels with reddish patches. The gravels are composed of angular or sub-angular siliceous granules, from 1 mm to 3 cm in diameter. The sands are fine- to coarse-grained, with occasional millimetric quartzite particles. This facies, which has a maximum known thickness of 45 cm, is bedded in various decimetric thick sequences, with gravels at the base, sands in the middle and lutites at the top. In the samples from the central sector, the lutites display 1-cm thick laminations of different colours (from ochre to brown). The lutites consist of quartz and dolomite (both between 70% and 20%), the remainder composed of clay minerals and traces of calcite and halite. Facies II consists of orange-ochre lutites with occasional sand-size siliceous particles. Red or grey patches can be seen, which are more abundant towards the upper part of the facies. The thickness of this facies varies between 8 and 27 cm. X-ray diffraction analysis shows it consists solely of quartz (50 75%) and dolomite (50 25%). Facies III is the thickest among all collected samples. Its thickness varies between 20 and 75 cm, which are reached in the central area of the lake. It consists of marls, clayey marls, and grey and whitish grey marley clays, massive or with vertical bioturbation (Fig. 4C). The bioturbation, which are centimetric in length and millimetric in diameter, was due to roots. Its contains dolomite (25 50%), quartz and clay minerals (5 50%), and in smaller proportions, calcite, halite, gypsum, anhydrite (2 25%) and traces of magnesite and bassanite. Dolomite is present throughout the whole section, but dominates in the lower part. The calcite muds, however, are only present in the upper part of the section. There are occasional levels consisting almost entirely of gypsum. Samples contain large quantities of charophytes

remains and sporadic remains of ostracods. The volatile elements are composed of: 2.9% TOC, 0.8% N and 0.8% S. The sampling carried out at the far edges of the lake identified grey patches of gravels and sands, which predominate towards the base of the marley sequence. The sands are mainly siliceous, fine- to medium-grained, and the gravels consist of white quartzite and grey limestone granules, which are round and 1 cm in diameter. These lithologies are much more developed in the southern area of the lake, where they reach thicknesses of more than 30 cm and constitute a cyclic sequence with gravels at the bottom and top, and sands in the middle. A maximum thickness of 6 cm can be observed in the rest of the lake. Facies IV consists of grey marls with black and brown patches, which are more abundant towards the upper section (Fig. 4B). This facies can be seen in all of the samples although it is thinner than facies III. Its thickness varies between 10 and 30 cm and the lower part exhibits a gradual transition with facies III. The mineralogical content is composed of clay minerals and halite in similar proportions, between 25% and 50% of each one, as well as quartz, calcite, aragonite, gypsum, and traces of dolomite, magnesite, bassanite, and anhydrite. In SEM analysis framboidal pyrite has been observed (Fig. 6C). It contains 3.3% TOC, 1.1% N and 4.1% S. Facies V consists of black muds, which are either laminated, an alternation of dark and light layers, or massive (Fig. 4A). The total thickness of the section varies between 20 and 30 cm. The mineralogical composition is very similar to the previous facies and is characterised by halite, gypsum, clay minerals, quartz, calcite, dolomite, aragonite, and traces of hexahydrite, bloedite, magnesite, and feldspars. The black layers have thicknesses between 0.5 and 4 cm and contain clay minerals (66%), halite (15%), quartz, calcite, aragonite and, magnesite (19%) and traces of dolomite. The SEM reveal a generalised development of layers of cyanobacteria which contain authigenic and detrital minerals, pollen grains, and diatoms (Figs. 5 and 6A,B). It is worth pointing out the spectacular growth of salts in cubic and hopper crystals, as well as the development of aragonite. Occasionally, within this black mass a millimetric lamination is observed, which was created by accumulations of diatoms or grey marls.

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Fig. 4. Photographs of sediments. From the top to the base, A: facies V; B: facies IV; C: facies III.

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Fig. 5. SEM images of facies V black mud. A and B: microbial filaments covering clay minerals and carbonate particles. C and D: aragonite aggregates with filaments of cyanobacteria. E and F: algae and diatoms between carbonated particles.

The light layers are ochre, with a thickness varying between 1 ml and 1 cm. They predominantly consist of gypsum and/or halite, which can exceed 70% of the total composition, about 10% each of quartz, calcite, and magnesite, and also some traces of detrital feldspars. In these layers, algal structures can hardly be recognised, although in some places (central areas of

the lake) around 2-cm-thick halite crusts (Fig. 6D,E,F) can be observed (cubic and hopper crystals), appearing intermingled with filamentous algae. Different specimens from both layers have been analysed quantitatively by SEM and the results are consistent with the composition stated previously. It is necessary to note the high content of titanium in some particles,

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Fig. 6. SEM micrographs of facies V and IV. (A and B) Filaments of cyanobacteria covering clay minerals and carbonate particles of black muds from facies V. (F) Framboidal pyrite between clay minerals of facies IV. (C, D and E) Halite crystals and carbonate particles in light laminae of facies V.

which indicates the presence of rutile grains. In some areas, the previously mentioned laminations are observed, 2 to 3 cm thick, within a basal lamina of dark grey marls, an intermediate section of black muds, and a lighter upper section of salts.

4.2. Interpretation Facies I and II are interpreted as alluvial deposits, with streams originated from the surrounding relief. These subenvironment correspond to mudflats where

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occasionally tractive flows deposit layers of sand and gravel. These materials were subject to subaerial conditions, as demonstrated by the reddish and ochre tones. SEM analysis showed that the halite in facies I is a cemented form of detrital grains. In this context, the high content of Mg2 + in the brines favour the early diagenetic transformations of calcitic micrite to dolo, 1994). Facies II characterises micrite (Salvany and Ort more distal environments than facies I and is the result of edaphic processes acting upon the sediment. The color of the lutites in this case suggest that the area was subject to frequent fluctuations of the phreatic level. The sediments of the facies III and IV are specifically lacustrine. The materials have been deposited by floculation under a permanent or semi-permanent layer of water and their sedimentation is directly or indirectly related with the arrival of fine terrigenous particles from surrounding areas. The flora and fauna (ostracods and charophytes) are typical of shallow carbonate-rich lakes (generally less than 2 m deep) with high levels of oxygen and light. In these lakes the origin of the carbonates is mainly bio-induced. The marls show deposition in zones far away from the influence of coarse terrigenous particles. In such areas the bioturbation of the sediment, generated by organic activity, distorts the lamination produced by the floculation process. In contrast, the action of bioturbation by roots in the central areas (facies III) is correlative with high concentrations of gypsum and halite around the edges. These relationships show that during the evolution of the lake, there have been variations in water level. The presence of bassanite (CaSO41/2H2O), a highly unstable calcium sulphate salt, produced by dehydration of gypsum, has been reported by Akpokodje (1984) in ground from arid areas of Australia and by Mees (1998) regarding saline lake deposits in north Mali. Such studies indicate the arid and warm environmental conditions which have been experienced by the studied area, since gypsum begins to dehydrate at 50 C. In the southern sectors, gravel lenses form small deltaic systems at the opening of stream channels. The distinctive characteristic of the facies V is the presence of laminations. Laminations in lacustrine deposits with light and dark bands are frequently associated with the existence of stratified waters and the development of a hypolimnion, a characteristic of deep lakes. Only anaerobic bacteria or aerobic anaerobic facultative bacteria live beneath the lower hypo-

limnion and the laminations are preserved because of the lack of bioturbation (Ludlam, 1976; Freytet, 1984). However, Freytet (1984) recognized finely laminated levels without bioturbation in old lake deposits, which occasionally have indications of immersion. In this case the interpretation of a deposit in lakes with deep hypolimnion with rapid water level variations is not very appropriate, so the author considers that the deposits are generated in shallow lakes. Vasconcelos and Mckencie (1997) identified laminated facies in the present lagoon of Vermelha, in Rio de Janeiro. It is a small lake, with a surface area of 2.4 km2 and shallow waters (less than 2 m deep), where sulphate-reducing bacteria of the Desulfovibrio group grow. The sediments analysed by these authors are mainly carbonate-rich muds, with alternating light and dark layers. In shallow lakes, the lighter layers generally develop during hot, humid periods (with greater water dilution), when there is a significant abundance of living organisms and the biotically induced precipitation of carbonates. The dark layers represent very dry periods during which the layer of water body is shallower and there is a lower water oxygenation. Such conditions, in combination with the high organic production in the lacustrine area, favour the waters eutrophication and a change to anoxic conditions at the water sediment interface. This induces bacterial sulphate reduction of previously deposited materials and the genesis of a black layer of mud, which is very rich in organic material. The interpretations of Vasconcelos and Mckencie (1997) may explain the genesis of the dark bands in facies V of the Gallocanta lake. However, owing to current observations and to the significant presence of salts, the interpretation of more humid conditions for the light layers does not apply to Gallocanta lake deposits. As a matter of fact, it has been observed that the black muds of the Gallocanta lake are forming under a very thin water sheet, no more than 30 cm thick. Besides extremely dry conditions, a crust of saline efflorescences of gypsum, halite, hexahydrite and bloedite has formed on the lacustrine surface. Presently, the main water supply comes from the highly mineralised groundwater flows and the phreatic level stays a few centimetres below the surface. During stormy periods the stream channels discharge, introduce detrital particles and slightly dilute the superficial water body. In addition, such conditions

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favour the gathering of aquatic birds up, whose biological activity produces a great volume of excrement which is incorporated into the sediment. This fact, combined with the significant development of microbial mats means that, during the periods of low water level, highly anoxic conditions prevail and bacteria sulphate-reducing favours the precipitation of authigenic minerals. During extremely dry periods the phreatic level drops down, leaving the sediment surface uncovered with water for long periods of time. The intense evaporation during these periods causes capillary rise of subterraneous water flows, which generates salinity increase, thus giving rise to precipitation of previously mentioned salts. Furthermore, as surface deposits and organic material are in contact with the air, they are oxidised, the sediment turns to grey or brown tones while becoming enriched with carbonate or evaporitic particles. In this way, the black layers of facies V correspond to the dampest con-

ditions that currently prevail (with a shallow layer of anoxic water). The light layer corresponds to dry periods, with a high insolation. The phreatic level drops down, and capillary ascension of the brines occurs and salts deposition takes place.

5. Mapping of lacustrine subenvironments The mapping of the facies (Fig. 7) corresponds to periods when the water layer is at a low level, that is to say when the lake is practically dry. However, at high level some observations have also been done. The present distribution of facies in the Gallocanta lake allows three sedimentary subenvironments to be identified, each with well-defined characteristics: central lacustrine area, the marginal lacustrine area, and the palustrine area. Amongst the central and marginal lacustrine areas there are some points where there is a

Fig. 7. Map of sedimentary subenvironments and alluvial systems in the Gallocanta basin.

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sharp change, and some with a more gradual transition. Exists an area of intermediate characteristics, which we have named central/marginal lacustrine area. The subenvironments distribution within the lake is asymmetric, such that the marginal lacustrine facies are more developed in the SW margin, whereas the palustrine facies are dominant in the SE sector and in the springs area of Los ojos de la Laguna. 5.1. Central lacustrine subenvironment This area is located to the immediate NW and SE of the Los picos de la laguna sector. In the area of Lagunazo it occupies an area of 1 0.5 km and 4.2 1.2 km in Laguna Grande. During conditions of low water level the central sector is covered by a thin layer of water, which is only a few centimetres deep, and in extreme conditions it can be totally dry, although the phreatic level always stays just below ground level. This sector is characterised by the development of black muds and the growth of halite hopper crystals intermingled with filamentous cyanobacteria, as a consequence of the rise of phreatic level. In the samples taken, and especially in the upper part of them, the black laminated lutites predominate with the typical characteristics of facies V, which are here exceptionally well developed. Through SEM it is possible to observe aragonite crystals on fibres or aggregates covered with cyanobacteria filaments and unicellular bacteria (Figs. 5C,D and 6A,B). NaCl crystals occur in cubic or hopper form. The filaments may also cover other carbonate and clay particles (Fig. 5A,B). Occasionally, remains of pollen and diatoms are seen (Fig. 5E,F), the latter in accumulations up to 100 mm thick. Underneath facies V, grey marls have been identified with abundant black patches and little or no development of cyanobacteria. These materials correspond with facies IV and frequently contain of pyrite framboids (Fig. 6F). In the basal samples from this sector only grey marls with charophytes have been identified. They correspond to facies III. A few layers of facies II, made of ochre and brown lutites, are also encountered. 5.2. Marginal lacustrine subenvironment This surrounds the central subenvironment and occupies most of the Gallocanta lake. During con-

ditions of low water level it is emergent, whereas in the winter it may be covered by a thin layer of water only a few centimetres deep. During dry periods this subenvironment is characterised by the presence of grey or brown marly sediments on the surface, which are affected by the development of desiccation cracks and by root or worm bioturbation (of little significance). Under conditions of maximum aridity, the surface is partially covered by a crust of saline efflorescence which disappears with the first autumn rain. During winter, given the larger quantity of water, it is common to observe discoloured marls on the surface with the typical characteristics of facies IV, or the early development of black organic mud of facies V. Underneath, a generalised development of grey marls can be observed, which display brown patches on the surface in the external sectors. These materials present the typical characteristics of facies III. In this subenvironment it is possible to distinguish an internal area and an external one. The internal marginal subenvironment occupies a 0.2- to 0.5-km-wide band, around the central area. It has a very low topographic gradient and shows a marked asymmetrical distribution of the facies, so that it is more developed in the S and NW areas (Lagunazo de Gallocanta) of the lake. In this subenvironment, grey or brown marls and lutites predominate. They often have desiccation cracks on the surface and occasionally stromatolitic laminations with halite crystals. In the NW area there are sands and isolated quartzite blocks. The granulometric analysis carried out on these sands reveals that they have been transported in suspension. In conditions of low water level these materials may have brown tones on the surface due to oxidation, as a result of aeration and very little bioturbation. When they are covered by a layer of water and under reducing conditions, grey or black colouring predominates (facies IV). The sediments are composed of brown lutites, grey marls, and light brown coarse sands with dispersed quartzite pebbles. The marl of facies III, which is the first lacustrine facies, is the thickest one, and sometimes constitutes almost all the sedimentary column in this sector. The external marginal subenvironment occupies a 0.7-km-wide band along the edge of the lake; it consists of an irregular area. It is rarely inundated and the brown marls and lutites predominate. The

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topographic gradient in this subenvironment is greater than that of the internal marginal. At low level water, there is a characteristic development of Salicornia ramosissima between which the development of microbial mats can be identified, which gives way to stromatolitic levels frequently affected by desiccation cracks. In the area SE of Lagunazo de Gallocanta S. ramosissima do not grow, because of the presence of beach deposits of calcareous and quartzitic sands and conglomerates. The location of the beach deposits is consistent with the direction of the prevailing winds of the region. In the external marginal sector, sediments are composed of grey or brown sands and lutites of facies III and IV. These facies lie on brown lutites and gravels, typical of facies II and I, respectively. In conditions of intermediate lake level that are frequently reached during winter, this sector represents the limit of the shoreline. 5.3. Palustrine subenvironment This is an asymmetric sector with a variable area. It occupies a 2.9-km-wide and 4.2-km-long area. Palustrine facies are concentrated in two main regions. The first one is in the NW of the lake and is characterised by the existence of numerous springs (Los ojos de la laguna). The second one is in the SE of the lake. In this subenvironment, dark grey marl with gastropods, reeds, and rushes can be observed. Most of the marly area is now being cultivated land. Towards the SE area, between the central and marginal sectors, sediments with mixed characteristics are identified; this area has been named the marginal central sector. In contrast, in the south fringe there is an area named the lacustrine/palustrine area in which sand bars can be identified. This area may have been covered by water during maximum inundation conditions, in relation to humid periods during the last 100 years, when the lake depth could have reached 2 m.

essentially lacustrine one. Furthermore, the evolution of the strictly lacustrine area can be subdivided into at least two stages (Fig. 8). 6.1. Alluvial stage The lowermost sediments reached in sampling demonstrate that the initial sedimentation was mainly detrital deposition. The detritus originated from upland Mesozoic and Palaeozoic areas adjacent to the current Gallocanta lake. These were typical mud-flat environments, which received tractive flows carrying sand and gravel. As a result of a decrease in the flow capacity, probably in relation to a reduction of the topographic gradient, the detrital materials were deposited in this zone. The correlation sketch (Fig. 8) demonstrates a reduced terrigenous supply from near the source area to more distal zones. Facies I demonstrates that the materials were frequently subjected to aerial exposure, and that the region evolved under an (1994), arid subarid climate. After Salvany and Ort in such conditions the cementation of terrigenous materials by salts is favoured. The reduction in coarse terrigenous supplies, the development of edaphic processes, and frequent fluctuations of the phreatic level favoured the development of the facies II lutites. Hence, the succession of facies I and II demonstrates the retrogradation of the alluvial environments with time. Facies I is organised in fining-upward sequences, which implies changes in the energetic conditions of the flow during its development. 6.2. Lacustrine stage After the period of alluvial sedimentation represented by facies I and II, a lacustrine period settle (facies III to V), and is still lasting to date. The lake has experienced frequent variations in the water depth. In the past, there have been times when the water layer has been rather deep and times in which it has been totally or almost totally dry. Facies III, interpreted as deposits generated in a carbonate-rich lake, indicates that the beginning of the lacustrine sedimentation took place under humid conditions. The water level was higher than today, and the salinity was moderate. During these conditions, it was essentially a shallow carbonate-rich lake, with ostracods and charophytes. In this phase, the water depth could have

6. Evolution of the Gallocanta basin The facies sequence observed in the Gallocanta lake, together with the characteristics and the distribution of the present subenvironments, allow to tentatively redraw the evolution of the area. Sedimentation was at the beginning typically alluvial and turned to an

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Fig. 8. Facies correlation sketch along A B transect (see Fig. 2).

reached 4 m. The sedimentation during this period was predominantly marley, and organisms were abundant. The bioturbation of the sediment gave it a uniform appearance. At the periphery of the lake, notably in southern sectors, an essentially detrital sedimentation took place. Under subaquatic conditions, small deltaic systems developed. The characteristics of facies III and the vertical sequence indicate that during this period water level fluctuations occurred and that the terrigenous supplies flowed into the lake predominantly during its initial development. Midway up the sequence, a section of bioturbated marls can be seen (probably due to plant colonisa-

tion), which are interbedded with gypsum lamina in the central area and high gypsum content levels near the marginal areas. Such a feature displays a drop dower of water level, the colonisation of the bottom of the lake by vegetation while the brine concentration favoured salt (gypsum) precipitation. Such occurs repeatedly, and the presence of bassanite between these deposits suggests periods of aridity and very intense insolation. After this period of decrease of main water layer, an increase occurred during which the upper part of facies III was deposited. In more recent times, the lacustrine level falls due to a more arid period, and this favoured the change to

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more saline conditions that were not very favourable for the growth of the previously mentioned organisms. During these conditions, diatoms were common and the lacustrine bottom was colonised by microbial mats. The eutrophication of the waters, favoured by intense organic activity, provides an environment suitable for the conservation of organic material generated not only by the activity of the lacustrine organisms, but also by the numerous aquatic birds that temporarily occupied Gallocanta lake. Under those conditions, which correspond with those of the central lacustrine subenvironment, facies V was generated. In this special environment, the organic material can be recycled by sulphate-reducing bacteria whose activity should favour the precipitation of Mg calcite and Ca dolomite. Such phenomena are also favoured by the high concentration of sulphate ions, and calcium and magnesium ions. The precipitation of carbonated minerals by bacterial mediation in nature and in laboratory experiments have been reported during the last 100 years (Nadson, 1903, 1928; Bavendam, 1932; Krumbein, 1974, 1979; Chafetz and Folk, 1984; Adolphe et al., 1989; Chafetz and Buckzynski, 1992; farge et al., 1996; Chafetz, 1994). Folk, 1993a,b; De Castanier (1987) and Chafetz (1994) obtain precipitation of calcite, aragonite, and high-Mg calcite in the laboratory, and the investigations of Vasconcelos et al.

(1995) and Vasconcelos and McKencie (1997) confirm the relation between dolomite precipitation and bacterial activity. During drier periods the phreatic level drops down, leaving the sediment surface exposed. The capillary fringe is occupied by highly mineralised interstitial waters, with a high concentration of SO42 , Ca2 + and Mg2 + ions. This is because the main groundwater supplies pass through the gypsum of Keuper facies. Upon evaporation, these waters generate salt layers (gypsum and halite, also bloedite, hexahydrite, and magnesite). The surface deposits oxidise when in contact with air, acquiring light brown or grey tones. These characteristics currently develop in the internal marginal subenvironment. These combinations of processes have generated the laminations that are observed in the surface deposits of the Gallocanta lake. If the water layer is lowered further, the superficial sediment can become totally exposed, and under conditions of high oxygenation, can acquire light ochre or grey tones and undergo processes of bioturbationtypical characteristics of facies IV. It may also dry up completely, and undergo partial or even total brecciation. These characteristics are present in the external marginal subenvironment. The general evolution of this area can be characterised by three main periods (Fig. 9). During the first

Fig. 9. Evolutive stages interpreted for the Gallocanta lake.

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one, a sedimentation typical of distal alluvial areas occurs. The materials originated from the surrounding Mesozoic and Palaeozoic outcrops. With time, these areas undergo a retrogradation towards the source area. During this first period, the climatic conditions should have been notably arid. The alluvial facies possess playa-lake characteristics with development of salts and smectites. After this time, during a more humid period, a carbonate-rich lacustrine area develops. Within this phase, generally more humid, a more arid period occurs in which the lake might have even totally dried up. Afterwards, the water level drop down is probably in relation to a more arid stage. The basin changes to the present conditions (third stage), in which a carbonated evaporitic sedimentation is produced with high production of organic matter linked to the occupation of the zone by migratory aquatic birds and microbial mats. During this final stage, the water layer has undergone frequent variations and lake-bed surface has been sometimes subaerially exposed. As it is indicated on the correlation sketch, the lacustrine depo-center has been displaced towards the NE in recent times.

conditions, this subenvironment appears partially covered by a salt crust, whilst during humid periods this crust disappears and there is an early development of black organic muds. The marginal subenvironment is divided into an internal zone of low topographic gradient, and an external zone that is only occasionally covered by water. The external zone is also characterised by the development of Salicornia vegetation, microbial mats, and stromatolitic constructions, often affected by desiccation cracks. The active palustrine areas consist in dark grey marls with gastropods, reeds, and rushes. The general evolution of the basin is characterised by the development of three different stages. The first one is an alluvial stage, which developed under particularly arid conditions. The second stage is of carbonate shallow lake and the third stage corresponds to an evaporitic carbonated sedimentation with a high production of organic matter. The genesis of the carbonated deposits in the last stage is directly related to the development of cyanobacteria, which facilitates the precipitation of aragonite, calcite and dolomite. The genesis of salts results from periods of high concentration of the lacustrine brine.

7. Conclusions The sedimentological study of the Gallocanta lake has identified five different facies, two correspond to distal subenvironments of alluvial fans and the rest to lacustrine deposits. The alluvial facies are found at the base of the sequence which fills the Gallocanta basin. These facies were deposited on mud flats, onto which tractive flows occasionally arrive. The present distribution of lacustrine facies enables to define three sedimentary subenvironments: central lacustrine, marginal lacustrine, and palustrine. The distribution of the subenvironments is asymmetrical, so that the marginal facies are better developed in the SW margin, whilst the palustrine facies are predominant in the SE sector. The central lacustrine subenvironment is characterised by the development of black organic muds and the growth of halite, calcite, aragonite, and dolomite crystals intermingled with filamentous cyanobacteria. The marginal subenvironment contains grey or brown marls affected by desiccation cracking and bioturbation. During extremely arid Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Government of Aragon, project no. P122/97. Our very special thanks to Dr Angel Corrochano and Dr Pedro Barba of n Villena, Salamanca University and to Drs Joaqu Angel Gonzalez, Arsenio Munoz, and Concha Arenas for their assistance in sampling and helpful comments during the investigation phases, and to Dr. Mariano Laguna (University of Zaragoza) for the geochemical analysis. Reviewers Sabine Castanier and Henry Chafetz offered many useful suggestions.

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