Contents

To the Teacher 1. Estimating Repairs (Car repairs are used as an example) 2. Technical Report and Estimate (House decorating is used as an example) 3. Car Running Instructions 4. Tape-deck Maintenance 5. The Electrical Engineer 6. Machines w i t h Brains 7. Electronics 8. Television 9. Air-conditioning 10. M a n the Master-builder 11. System Building 12. A Contract between a Builder and his Client: Excerpts 13. Cranes 14. Fire Protection 15. Solar Energy 16. Drainage 17. Ship Repairing 18. Arc-welding 19. The Internal Cornbustton Engine 20. Hydraulics Conversion Tables

UNDERSTANDING TECHNICAL ENGLISH 3

K. METHOLD, D.D.WATERS & A. KOHLER

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Longman

Longrnan Group (Far East) Limited

Quarry Bay, Hong Kong

Associated companies, branches and representatives throughout the world

@ Longman Group (Far East) Ltd 1980

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Copyright owner.

First published 1980

Typeset in Hong Kong by Pearl Island Filmsetters (HK) Ltd. Set in Monophoto Univers Medium 10/12 pt. Printed in Hong Kong by Sing Cheong Printing Co. Ltd.

The cover photograph shows the Shell/Esso Brent 'D' production platform in the North Sea.

To the Teacher

This three-stage graded reading course is intended for those students of English as a foreign language w h o w i s h t o relate their reading i n English t o topics relevant t o their future careers as craftsmen or technicians. The course contains the following features: 1. The reading passages Each passage is complete i n itself. The length of the passages varies from about 200 words i n Book One t o about 300 words i n Book Three. The topics are of general interest t o all technical students and require little specialised technical knowledge o n the part of either the student or the teacher. M o s t of the technical terms can be understood from the context or from accompanying illustrations. The course can, therefore, be used w i t h confidence by general English teachers w h o have little technical knowledge.

they w i l l be able t o find the root o f a w o r d even if they cannot f i n d the exact form they are looking for. The n e w Longman Dictionary of Conternporary English is recommended.

3. Structural control All the material is structurally graded. A basic assumption has been made concerning the students' knowledge at point of entry, and details of w h a t the students are expected t o know, if only passively, are given i n the teacher's handbook. Other structures are i n troduced gradually, and are carefully dealt w i t h i n the exercises. The complete structure list is provided in the teacher's handbook. This list differs from other widely used lists i n that i t takes into account those sentence patterns most commonly used i n technical writing. 4. The exercises These are designed t o 'exercise' and t o test the students' knowledge. The exercises require the students t o use words a n d structures that they have encountered i n the reading passages. A n important feature of the exercises is that they revise the vocabulary introduced i n earlier passages. There is, therefore, a carefully built-in revision factor throughout the book. For this reason there are no separate revision units.

2. The vocabulary The emphasis here is not o n teaching highly specialised technical vocabularies. Throughout, the emphasis is more o n presenting a general technical vocabulary common t o all crafts and technologies. The vocabulary has been selected from a careful analysis o f the words most frequently used i n basic texts o n building and building-associated trades and technologies, maintenance and repairwork, metal-work, civil engineering, and the fundamentals of computer a n d electrical technology. Attention has also been paid t o the associated paper-work involved i n giving estimates and d r a w i n g - u p contracts. Full details of this technical lexis and of the core general English lexis are given i n the teacher's handbook t o the series. A t various places throughout this book, students are asked t o look u p words i n their dictionaries. They should remember that not all dictionaries contain all words. I n many cases, however,

5. Objectives This course is not intended t o be a basic English course, and should be used i n conjunction w i t h any g o o d general English course. Its purpose is t o provide English for a Specific Purpose. The need for ESP has become more and more apparent over recent years. This book provides supplementary material t o the usual English programme, w i t h a technical bias.

Acknowledgements

TEXT

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:

the author, E.W. Brown for an adapted extract from Ships Modern Industry series; Consumers' Association for an extract from 'Extending Your House' and an extract from 'Owning A-Car' used by permission of the publishers, Consumers' Association. Copyright; Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. for an extract from 'Costing and Decorating' by F.E. Chalrners from / C l Decorating News July 28 1970; Lutterworth Press for an adapted extract from Engineer, A Picture Career Book by Stewart Macmillan and an adapted extract from Boy's Book of Scientific Hobbies by R . H . Warring; Fredrick Muller Ltd. for an adapted extract from This is Television by Richard Carrickford; Newsweek International Editorial Service for an adapted extract from 'Man The Master-Builder' in Newsweek September 12th 1977 @ ' l977 Newsweek Inc; Oxford University Press for adapted extracts from Machines and Engines by A.G. Winterburn (Oxford Children's Reference Library Vol 20) @ Oxford University Press 1973 by permission of Oxford University Press; Popular Science for an adapted extract from Popular Science p 146 November 1976. Reprinted from Popular Science with permission. @ 1976 Times Mirror Magazines Inc; Purnell Books for adapted extracts from Engineering Technology Foundations of Science Library @ Sampson Low, Marston and Company Ltd; TEAC Corporation for an adapted extract from TEAC A-350 instruction Manual Stero Cassette Deck; Wormald lnternational ( U K ) Ltd. for an adapted extract from an advertising leaflet.

ILLUSTRATIONS We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright photographs and illustrations: Architectural Press for page 63; Arnhold b Co. Ltd. for page 61; Australian Information Service for page 21 top-left and bottom-left; Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd. for page 54; British Crown Copyright, Science Museum, London for page 62; Camera Press for page 21 centre-left; Commission of India for page 20 top-right; Department of Energy, U.S.A. for pages 63 and 64; Gammon Building Construction Ltd. for page 51; Hong Kong Government: Government lnformation Service for pages 2, 15, 21 bottom-right, 23 top-right and bottom, 28, 33, 36 top, 41, 43, 49, 52, 55, 57, 67, 69, 71 left, 74, 81 and 85; Public Works Department for page 45; Hong Kong Oxygen for pages 76 and 77; Hong Kong Tourist Association for page 20 centre; Hong Kong United Dockyards Ltd. for pages 71 right and 75; K.L.M. Royal Dutch Airlines for page 20 bottom-left; Leung Kai Tong for pages 14, 21 centre-right and 36 bottom-right;

Mass Transit Railway Corporation for page 21 top-right; National Museum of Wales for page 20 top-left; Oxford Children's Reference Library Vol. XX Machines and Engines by A.G.C.A. Winterburn, published by Oxford University Press, for page 27; The Shell Company of Hong Kong Limited for the cover photograph; South China Morning Post for page 36 bottom-left; The Science Museum, London for page 23 top-left; Wong Che Leung for page 36 bottom-right; Wormald International (UK) Ltd. for page 58. We are also very grateful to the following: Veronika Nell for drawing most of the illustrations; Sony Corporation of Hong Kong Ltd., without whose assistance the photographs on page 14 would not have been possible; Crown Motors Ltd., for their assistance with the illustration on page 1.

1. ESTIMATING REPAIRS

TOP GARAGES LTD.

DESCRIPTION OF WORK
Labour Charges Engine complete overhaul Regrind crankshaft & rebore cylinder Remove & reinstall air conditioner Refill freon for air conditioner Material Supplied 4 Piston sub-assembly w/pin 1 Piston ring set 1 Bearing set - crankshaft 1 Bearing set - connecting rod 1 Washer set thrush 1 Gasket set - engine overhaul 1 Chain sub-assembly 1 Tensioner assembly 1 Timing gear 1 Water hose 4 Spark plug 1 Contact point l Air filter 1 Fuel filter 1 Point set washer
--.

US$ CHARGES
263.00 90.00 80.00 27.00

51 .OO
27.00 30.00 18.00 7.00 34.00 14.00 13.00 18.00 2.50 2.50 2.80 5.20 3.00 2.00
--

- --

- -

TOTAL

-- - ---

690.00 -- -

Fig. 1. l

A motor car repair estimate

When y o u take your car-or, indeed, any piece o f machinery-to be repaired, it is generally an advantage t o ask for an estimate. You should make sure an estimate is fully itemised so that y o u can check it afterwards. Then y o u cannot be charged for unnecessary work. Sometimes the repair cannot be accurately estimated until some parts have been dismantled. I f so, authorise this amount of work first and ask for an accurate estimate after i t has been done. Wages and methods of costing differ from garage t o garage. Some garages pay their mechanics a flat rate per hour and pay time and a half for overtime. Others add a fixed percentage hour t o the hourly rate. They - per ~ a v the overtime at the same rate. . , for Garages w h i c h have an incentive scheme pay the mechanic a part, usually thirty per

cent or thirty-three and one-third per cent, o f w h a t the customer is charged. They don't usually pay attention t o the time the mechanic has taken. The charge t o the customer is based o n the manufacturer's suggested timeschedules for work. For example, if the time allowed is three hours and the mechanic takes t w o and a half, the customer is charged for three hours. The mechanic receives thirty per cent of the total amount charged, n o t thirty per cent of the charge for t h e t w o and a half hours he actually worked o n the j o b . Labour charges t o customers cover not only the cost of wages b u t also overheads. To get the cost per hour of the overheads, divide t h e cost of running the workshop itself b y the number of hours of work available. Then add t o this an amount for profit.

We acknowledge the Consumers' Assoc~at~on for an extract from ' O w n ~ n g A Car' used by perrnlsslon of the publ~shers.Consumers' Assoc~atlon Copyr~ght

A mechanic working on a car engine

A mechanic working underneath a car

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A. Study this sentence: When you take your car to be rt?aired, it is an advantage to ask for an estimate. Change the following into sentences i n the style of the sentence abol-e: (i) When your car needs to be repaired, obtain estimates from several garages. (ii) When you want to buy a second-hand car, have it checked by a good mechanic first. (iii) When you have a difficult job t o do, plan it carefully beforehand.

C. State which words i n the passage mean the following: (i) the amount of money left after all expenses have been paid (ii) hours worked in addition to normal working hours (iii) a plan or programme of work (iv) an extra payment made to encourage more or better work (v) expenses needed for carrying on a business

B. Study this sentence: Methods of costing differ from garage to garage. Change the following into sentences i n the style of the sentence above: (i) The grades of oil needed are not the same for every make of car. (ii) The types of spanners used are not the same for every job. (iii) The method of paying mechanics is not the same for every garage.

D. L earn these prefixes: dis, di, dif = away or from dismantle = to take pieces away from; to take to pieces. Look up the meanings of these words i n your dictionaries: differential diffused distributor distorted distilled Complete each of these sentences w i t h a w o r d taken from the above list: (i) The driver poured the water into the battery. (ii) They repaired the and then checked the rear wheels. (iii) The light in the garage made it difficult to see, so they used a spotlight as welt.

(iv) The metal w a s so that the mechanic c o u l d n o t straighten t h e wheel. ( v ) If the gets wet, a car w i l l n o t start.

3 Language Practice
A. Study these sentences: ( i ) M a k e sure t h e estimate is f u l l y itemised. Y o u m a y w a n t t o check t h e w o r k afterwards. ( i i ) M a k e sure t h e estimate is f u l l y itemised, so that y o u c a n check t h e w o r k afterwards. Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence i n the style of ( i i ) above: ( i ) M a k e sure all t h e spare parts are genuine. Y o u m a y w a n t t o claim under the guarantee. (ii) M a k e sure y o u obtain more than o n e estimate. Y o u may w a n t t o get t h e w o r k d o n e as cheaply as possible. (iii) M a k e sure y o u keep a c o p y of t h e estimate. Y o u may w a n t t o refer t o i t later. (iv) M a k e sure a record is kept o f t h e t i m e t h e mechanic takes. Y o u may w a n t t o check his pay.

2 Comprehension
A . List all the items which make up t h e overheads of a workshop.
B. Choose the correct answer a, 6, c, or d, to each of the following questions.. (i) According t o the passage, w h y is it important t o obtain a f u l l y itemised estimate? a. Y o u w i l l always obtain a lower price. b. You w i l l get better service. c. Y o u w i l l n o t have t o pay for unnecessary w o r k . d . Y o u w i l l n o t have t o pay any overtime. (ii) According t o t h e passage, h o w are mechanics p a i d ? a. an hourly rate b. according t o the skill needed c. i n a number of different ways d. b y a percentage o f t h e total overheads (iii) According t o t h e passage, w h i c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g does the customer n o t have t o pay for? a. labour charges b. overheads d. t h e profit c. the estimate (iv) According t o t h e passage, h o w c a n a mechanic estimate t h e cost o f a job? a. H e is unable t o estimate it. b. H e can charge a percentage of t h e total workshop costs. c. He can use the manufacturer's schedules. d . He can ask t h e customer.

B. Study these sentences:

( i ) S o m e garages have a n incentive scheme. They pay t h e mechanic a percentage o f w h a t t h e customer is charged. (it) Garages w h i c h operate a n incentive scheme pay t h e mechanic a percentage of w h a t t h e customer is charged. Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence i n the style of (it) above: (i) S o m e estimates are n o t f u l l y itemised. They d o n o t give a n accurate account o f t h e w o r k t o b e done. (ii) Some garages d o n o t w o r k o u t overheads correctly, They w i l l either overcharge or undercharge their customers. (iii) S o m e machinery is idle for m u c h o f t h e time. It i s a major cost problem i n some workshops.

C. Explain what the following refer to: (i) 'this amount o f w o r k ' i n lines 9 a n d 10 (ii) 'itself' i n line 35

(iv) Some garages have poorly skilled mechanics. They find it difficult to keep their customers.
C. Study these sentences.. ( i ) Labour charges cover the cost of the wages. They also cover the overheads. (ii) Labour charges cover not only the cost of the wages, but also the overheads.
Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence in the style of (it) above: (i) An estimate should include the cost of

his custom and you intend t o write him a rep1y. Use the following information as well as that in the passage: Price of gear-box $30 Wages $8 an hour Overheads: Lighting Advertising per week of 45 Rent $1 15 hours $1 0 Telephone Profit 20% The job took one mechanic three hours.
Complete the letter below, explaining t h e charges:

spare parts. It should also include the labour costs. (ii) Good garages employ skilled mechanics. They also employ good supervisors. (iii) The good mechanic is highly skilled. He is also a fast worker. (iv) Some machinery is expensive to install. It is also expensive to maintain.

Watson's Garage, Main Street, Hopetown. 26th August 1 9 . . Mr F. Jones, Short Street, Hopetown. Dear Sir,

D. Study this sentence: T h e charge is based on the manufacturer's time schedules.

Change the following into sentences in the style of the sentence above: (i) the cost per hour of the overheads / calculated / cost of running the workshop (ii) mechanic's wage / based / on the hours worked (iii) cost of spare parts / worked out / supplier's price

With reference to your complaint of 24th November, I am sorry that you find our charges too high. Because methods of costing , I would like t o take this opportunity of explaining our charges. The cost of the gear-box itself The job took our mechanic three hours. He is paid at the rate of Hence his wages for the job amounted t o However, labour charges to our customers cover not only the cost of wages . They include . p . Our charges for overheads for this job came to is added t o these A profit of combined charges for labour and overheads,

4 Composition
Y o u are the manager of a garage. A n angry customer has written that he has been overcharged for a new gearbox in his car. He believes that the amount charged is too much for the job. You do not want t o lose

making a total of You may remember that you did not ask for an estimate when you brought your car to us. When you take your car to be repaired, -. l am sure that if you check with other garages, you will find that our charges are quite reasonable. Therefore we look forward to receiving your cheque in the next mail. Yours faithfully, William Watson (Manager)

2. TECHNICAL REPORT AND ESTIMATE

THE REPORT The present condition of the surfaces and the proposed finishes is as follows: Ceiling : Soft distemper on plaster, badly cracked. Hang textured paper at $8.00 per roll and finish emulsion paint t o match BS 3-3033. C o r n i c e : Soft distemper, some damage t o external mitre on elevation. Finish to match B S 3-3033. W a l l s : Emulsion paint in reasonable condition, but some cracking and flaking apparent on elevations. Two walls t o be finished as the ceiling but to match B S 5-058. Other t w o walls to be lined and hung with Vinyl wallhanging at $18.00 per roll. D o o r s : Varnished oak, varnish badly chipped. Finish gloss to match B S 5-059. A r c h i t r a v e s a n d s k i r t i n g : Generally in poor state, badly chipped. Finish in gloss white. W i n d o w - f rames : Existing paintwork in bad condition and requires stripping. Finish gloss white. THE ESTIMATE Ceiling : Wash off all existing distemper, cut out and make good all cracks, size and hang with paper, pattern number XXX at $8.00 per roll and emulsion paint t w o coats. $250 Cornice : Wash off all existing soft distemper, repair defective angle, prepare, seal and paint one undercoat and one coat egg-shell finish. $60 W a l l s : Wash down, remove all loose paint, make good cracks and size. Two walls t o be hung with paper, pattern number XXX at $8.00 per roll and emulsion paint t w o coats. Two walls t o be lined with white lining paper, and hung with Vinyl, pattern number XXX at $18.00 per roll. $420

Doors and w i n d o w - f r a m e s : Remove all existing paint, rub down, knot, prime and stop, apply t w o coats undercoating and one coat gloss finish. $210 A r c h i t r a v e s and s k i r t i n g : Wash and rub down, fill all indentations and apply t w o coats undercoating and one coat gloss finish. $60 M i s c e l l a n e o u s : Prepare and sheet-up room and adjacent areas; remove fittings, clean and replace fittings, remove debris from site. $30

EXERCISES

I Vocabulary
Walls are sized to make them non-porous. This is particularly necessary in countries where the plaster on walls is soft and thus easily absorbs water. Priming paintwork achieves several things. It gives protection against the weather for wood that is exposed t o the elements. It helps cover u p any defects there may be in the wood. It adds body t o the paintwork. (Subsequent coats of paint will be much thinner.) Knotting is the process of treating knots in the wood, prior t o painting, to prevent them exuding resin. Stopping is the process of filling any holes in the wood. Sometimes, the word fill is used instead of stop. Vinyl is a special type of wall-covering, also sold in rolls. It is plastic-coated and easy t o clean. Textured paper is paper that has a design you can feel with your fingers. Making good cracks means filling them in before painting, to give a surface that is as perfect as possible. Varnish is coating that can be seen through, and is often applied to wood.

Fig. 2.1
walls

A room interior showing doorway and

Fig. 2,2 A damaged interior showing doorway and walls

A . The words in List A are used in the passage. Pair these with the words from List B which could be substituted for them in the passage. Keep the original meaning: List A List B present imperfect proposed nearby apparent existing stripping noticeable size suggested defective removing stop seal adjacent fill angle corner

Complete each of these sentences with the correct form of a word taken from the list above: ( I ) T h e wall had not been sized properly, so the wall-paper would not (ii) Because the job was so difficult, the decorator asked for an on the payment for the work. (iii) The window was too high and too small to very much light, so they decided to enlarge it. (iv) The workshop the office building. (v) The rates of pay w e r e out of date, and had to be

B. Label figure 2.1 correctly, using the terms be10 W : cornice mitre architrave skirting angle
C. Label the imperfections illustrated in figure 2.2 correctly, using the terms below: cracked flaking chipped indentations

2 Comprehension
A E-xplain how the report is different from
the estimate.

B . Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d,

to each of the following questions:

(i) According to the paskage, on which surface or surfaces is textured paper to be used ? a. the ceiling only b. all walls c, two walls only d. two walls and the ceiling

D , L earn this prefix: ad = to adjacent = next to

Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: adjust adjoin admit adhere advance

(ii) According to the passage, what is to be put underneath the Vinyl wall-hanging? a. emulsion paint b. distemper c. white lining paper d, one coat gloss finish (iii) According to the passage, which of the following mat.erials will not be used for the proposed finishes ? a. distemper b. paper c. emulsion paint d. Vinyl (iv) According to the passage, when is size applied to a surface7 a. before it is painted b. before the paper is hung c. after it has been painted d. during stripping

(it) Finish two walls the same as the ceiling. Change the following into the style of (ii) above: (i) The other two walls to be lined and hung with Vinyl. (ii) All existing paint to be rubbed down. (iii) Defective angle to b e repaired. (iv) Cracks to be made good and sized. (v) Two walls to be hung with oatmeal paper.
C . Study this example: (i) What is the present state of the surfaces and what finishes do you propose? (ii) The present state of the surfaces and the proposed finishes are as follows: Respond to the following questions in the style of (ii) above: (i) What are the mechanical faults in the vehicle and what repairs do you suggest? (ii) What is the condition of the building and what improvements do you recommend? (iii) What are the defects of the system and what modifications do you plan? (iv) What are the health hazards in the factory and what safeguards do you require?

C . List all the materials that will be required

to redecorate the room.

3 Language Practice
A. This technical report and estimate is written in abbreviated English. Many words have been left out: For example: Soft distemper on plaster, badly cracked. For: The distemper on the plaster is soft and badly cracked. Referring to the passage if necessary, rewrite the following in full: (i) Soft distemper, some damage to external mitre on elevation. (ii) Emulsion paint in reasonable condition. (iii) Finish in gloss white, generally in poor state. B . Study this example: (I) Two walls to be finished the same as the ceiling.

D . Study this example: (i) Wash off all existing soft distemper from the ceiling. (ii) Ceiling: Wash off all existing distemper. Change the following into the style of (ii) above: (l) Finish the architraves and skirting in gloss white. (ii) The emulsion paint on the walls is in a reasonable condition. (iii) The varnish on the oak doors is badly chipped. (iv) The existing paintwork of the window frames is in bad condition.

4 Composition
Study this picture of a room very carefully, then write a detailed technical report. T h e owner wants the four walls to be hung with Vinyl, pattern number 49A. You must decide how the rest of the room is to be repaired, painted or plastered.

/
Fig. 2.3
A damaged interior room, with window

3. CAR RUNNING INSTRUCTIONS

Filling up with fuel When filling up with fuel avoid overf,illing the tank. The fuel should not be visible in the filler intake tube. If it is and the car is left in the sun, the fuel may expand. Then there is a danger of fuel leakage. If the tank is accidentally overfilled, park the car in the shade with the filler as high as possible. Starting Check that the gear lever is in the neutral position and that the hand-brake is on. If the engine is cold, pull out the mixture control (choke). Switch on the ignition, check that the ignition and oil-pressure lights glow, and operate the starter. As soon as the engine starts, release the ignition key and warm up the engine. Check that the oilpressure gauge is registering or that the oil -pressure light goes out. Warming up Warming 'p the engine allowing it to idle slowly is harmful and leads t o excessive cylinder wear. The correct procedure is to let the engine run fairly fast, approximately one thousand revolutions (revs) per minute (1000 rpm), corresponding to a speed of twenty-five kilometres per hour (25 kph) in top gear. This allows it t o reach its correct working temperature as quickly as possible. Far less damage is done by driving the car from cold, than by letting the engine idle slowly. Running in The way a new car is looked after will have an important effect on its future life. Engine and road speeds during this early period must be limited. During the first eight hundred kilometres: Do not exceed seventy kilometres per hour, Do not operate at full throttle in any gear. D o not allow the engine to labour in any gear.

Fig. 3.1

An over-filled fuel tank

speed gauge choke

temperature gauge

ignition key

gear lever

il pressure gauge

Fig. 3.2
gauges

A car dashboard, showing dials and

After the running-in period, speeds should be gradually increased up to maximum performance. Ignition light The light should glow when the ignition is switched on. It should go out and stay out at all times while the engine is running above normal idling speed. On cars with an alternator, the warning light should go out immediately the engine is started. Failure to do so shows a fault in the battery charging system. Check that the fan-belt is correctly tensioned, before consulting your dealer. Temperature gauge When the engine is running, the gauge shows the temperature of the coolant leaving the cylinder head. When the ignition is switched off, the needle returns to the 'cold' position.

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A . The words i n List A are used i n the passage. Pair these w i t h the words from List B which could be substituted for them i n the passage. Keep the original meaning: List A List B glow restricted registering showing allowing result effect shine limited permitting B. Study these examples: Verb Noun Adjective expand expansion expanded register registration registered Fill i n the blank spaces i n the table below. (The words d o n o t all f o l l o w the same pattern.) Verb Noun Adjective limitation control operational excessive connection
C. Learn this prefix: (i) over = t o o much; t o o great overfilling = filling t o o m u c h (ii) over =above overhead = above the head (e.g. an overhead cable) L ook u p the meanings o f these words i n your dictionaries: over heat overturn overwork over-produce over-estimate overlay overlap over-time overpass Complete each of these sentences w i t h the correct form of a w o r d taken from the above

list: ( i ) They had t o pull off t h e road w h e n their a n d wait for it t o cool. engine (ii) T o avoid having joins, where water m i g h t leak in, roof-tiles always (iii) The men had t o work SO that they could finish the building b y the completion date i n the contract. the cost of (iv) The builder his materials and lost a contract t o build a new factory.

2 Comprehension
A. Write a paragraph o n each of the following: What drivers should attempt t o avoid when: a) starting a n e w car b) running i n a n e w car

B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, t o each of the following questions: (i) According t o the passage, w h a t may cause fuel t o leak from an overfull t a n k ? a. visible fuel b. expansion of fuel c. a faulty intake tube d. a loose fuel tank (ii) According t o the passage, w h e n should the ignition key be released ? a. w h e n the oil-pressure gauge registers b. w h e n the oil-pressure light goes out c. w h e n the mixture control (choke) is pushed in d. w h e n the engine starts (iii) According t o the passage, w h a t effect can idling have o n a cold engine? a. There is the risk o f fuel leakage. b. The cylinders may be damaged. c. The engine w i l l labour i n any gear. d. Oil pressure w i l l b e increased.

(iv) According t o the passage, what is the running in' period for a new car? a. before the engine warms up b. while the engine is idling c. when the warning lights are still on d. the first eight hundred kilometres
C Explrjtr~what the following refer to. (I) 'it' in l ~ n e 4. (ii) 'so' in line 52.

(iii) Driving at speeds greater than a hundred and twenty kilometres per hour is usually illegal. (iv) Allowing the engine t o labour in any gear is unwise. (v) Filling the petrol tank while the engine is running is prohibited.

C. Study this definition: A jack is a tool which is used for raising a car.
Change the f o l l o w i n g into definitions in the style of the sentence above: (I) alternator / mechanical generator / used for / supplying / alternating current (ii) coolant / liquid / used for / cooling engine (iii) starter / electric motor / used for / starting / car engine (iv) choke / valve / used for / controlling / intake of air (v) gauge / instrument / used for / measuring / oil pressure

3 Language Practice
A Str~dy these sentences: ( i ) When you fill u p with fuel, do not overfill the tank. (ii) When filling up with fuel, avoid overfilling the tank. Change tile followl'ng into sentences i n the style of (it) above: (i) When you run in a new car, do not exceed seventy kilometres per hour. (ri) When you warm u p the engine, do not allow ~tto idle. ( i i ~ )When you top up the brake fluid, d o not spill any of it on the paint-work of the car. (iv) When you park your car, do not park it in the sun. (v) When you operate your vehicle over long distances, do not travel a t high speeds for long periods.

4 Composition
It is important t o keep the bodywork and upholstery of your car in good condition. Use the f ~ l l o w i n g notes t o write o u t some car cleaning instructions: Interior carpets, ashtrays, take out to clean seats: floor-wells, pockets: brush or vacuum upholstery: clean with upholstery cleaner Exterior chrome: ( i ) wash-soapy water (ii) rinse-cold water (iii) dry-chamois

B Study these sentences:

(i) Warming up the engine by allowing it to idle slowly is harmful. (ii) It is harmful to warm u p the engine by allowing it to idle. C f l a t ~ y ethe following into sentences i n the style of (11) above: ( i ) Unscrewing a radiator cap while the englne i s hot is dangerous. (ii) Lying under a jacked-up car is unsafe.

for rust

paintwork: [for dull paint

(i) clean-chrome cleaner (ii) wax (i) wash-detergent cut back- abrasive polish (gives smooth, shiny, finish)-don't rub too hard (expose undercoat)] (ii) protect-wax polish-not in sundries quickly-hard to polish

acuum cleaner

Fig. 3.3

Cleaning the inside of a car

Fig. 3.4

Cleaning the outside of a car

4. TAPE-DECK MAINTENANCE

The inside of a tape-deck

Cleaning the pinch roller

--

. .. .

Cleaning the tape- heads

Removing the pinch roller

A n important procedure i n tape-deck maintenance is t o clean the heads carefully and frequently. The heads should always be cleaned before making recordings and at least once for every eight hours o f use. A higher quality of recording a n d reproduction w i l l be available if the proper cleaning procedure is followed. Dirty heads w i l l cause a reduction i n frequency-response, and irregular head wear. I n extreme cases, the deck may fail t o record at all. Chlorothane and absolute anhydrous alcohol are commonly used cleaning fluids. Chlorothane is non-flammable and has excellent cleaning properties. Alcohol is harmless t o the machine: i t is combustible, however, and its cleaning properties are not completely satisfactory. To clean the heads, first remove t h e head

cover. Using a stiff cotton s w a b or a piece o f gauze dipped i n cleaning fluid, rub the entire head surface. Take care n o t t o scratch it. Repeat t h e procedure o n each head, until all the discolouration a n d tape oxides have been removed. Clean all metal parts over w h i c h t h e tape passes, such as the capstan shafts, tape guides and tape lifters. A satisfactory j o b cannot be d o n e w i t h the thin, flexible shafts often provided b y shops; therefore use a s w a b w i t h a rigid shaft. After a lot of use the pinch-roller w i l l also accumulate a film o f oxide. T o remove the pinch-roller for cleaning, grasp it w i t h the fingers a n d pull it forward. Only fluidssuitable for cleaning rubber surfaces should be used o n t h e pinch-roller. D o n o t use chlorothane as it w i l l cause deterioration of t h e rubber.

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A. Form nouns f r o m each o f the f o l l o w i n g
words.. (i) reproduce (ii) discolour (iii) accumulate (iv) deteriorate ( v ) reduce Complete each o f these sentences w i t h the correct f o r m o f a w o r d taken f r o m the above /is t: (i) All should be removed from the heads. (ii) will be of a higher quality if the proper cleaning procedure is followed. (iii) If the heads are dirty, there may be a in frequency response. (iv) Any of oxides will reduce the quality of the recording. (v) The use of chlorothane as a cleaning of the rubber. fluid will cause
A copy artist reproducing paintings

B Write the opposite o f these words: (i) irregular (ii) non-flammable (iii) harmful (iv) corn bustible (v) satisfactory (vi) flexible (vii) forward (viii) suitable (ix) important (In less technical English, 'inflammable' is often used instead of 'flammable'. Its opposite is 'non-inflammable' instead of 'nonflammable'.)

Look u p the meanings o f these w o r d s i n your dict~onaries: retract reinforced retaining reverse recondition Complete each o f these sentences w i t h the correct f o r m o f a w o r d taken f r o m the above 11s t: (i) Most typewriters have an automatic ribbon (ii) The pilot was worried when the wheels did not after take-off. (iii) He decided to buy a engine rather than a new one. (iv) The wall w a s made of concrete ten centimetres thick.

2 Comprehension
A. List the parts of the tape-deck over w h i c h
the tape passes.

B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, to each o f the f o l l o w i n g questions: ( i ) According to the passage, in what way is alcohol superior t o chlorothane for cleaning purposes ? a. It is non-flammable. b. It is combustible. c. It has excellent cleaning properties. d. It can be used t o clean rubber surfaces.

C. L earn this prefix: (i) re = back reproduction = (in the passage) play-back (ii) re = again reproduction = production again e.g. a reproduction of the famous painting, the 'Mona Lisa'

(ii) According t o the passage, w h i c h of the following parts o f a tape-deck is made of rubber ? a. the tape heads b. the pinch roller c. the capstan shafts d. t h e tape lifters (iii) According t o the passage, w h i c h of the following w o u l d y o u not use t o clean a tape head? a. a cotton swab w i t h a rigid shaft b. a piece of gauze c. chlorothane d, a piece of glass paper (iv) According t o the passage, w h a t is the main purpose of cleaning tape heads? a. t o reduce friction b. t o remove oxides and discolouration c. t o increase tape speed d. t o reduce frequency-response

(iv) the final stage / connect the equipment / verify the voltage (v) an important procedure / maintain tape-deck / clean the heads

C. Explain what the following refer to: (i) 'its' in line 17. (ii) 'it' in line 23.

3 Language Practice
A. Study this example: an important procedure / improve engine performance / adjust the carburettor A n important procedure i n improving engine performance is t o adjust the carburettor. Change the following groups of phrases into sentences i n the same way: (i) the most important procedure / install electrical equipment / double-check all connections (ii) the next step / prepare the solution / weigh and mix the chemicals (iii) one of the stages / clean the surface / remove all discolouration

B. Study these sentences: (i) A higher quality o f recording a n d reproduction w i l l be available. (ii) Greater engine performance w i l l be possible. (iii) More kilometres t o t h e litre w i l l be obtained. (iv) Less damage w i l l b e d o n e t o the surface. (v) Fewer breakdowns w i l l occur. Make n e w sentences by combining one of the sentences above w i t h a suitable phrase from the list below: if t h e vehicle is properly 0) serviced. if t h e most suitable gear (ii) is engaged. if the engine is correctly (iii) tuned. if t h e paintwork is reg(;v> ularly waxed. (V) if the proper cleaning procedure is followed.

C. Study this sentence: The heads should always be cleaned before making recordings. Using the correct form of the words, change each o f the following groups of words into a sentence in the style of the sentence above: (i) estimate / always / checked / pay l bill (ii) walls / never / painted / apply / undercoating (iii) approval / always / given / changing / specifications (iv) the head cover / always / removed / clean / heads

carrlayo

type-face

D T h e following w o r d s are o f t e n used to j o i n statements ( I ) h o w e v e ~ (11) s u c h as (111) t h e r e f o r e C h r r k l70 W ' / l ow r v e r ' and 'therefore' are i ~ s ~ t r l dt l l p passage on p 74 'Such as' IS used tn a slmrlar w a y ( T h e r e IS a n e x a m p l e I n t h e passage i n C h a p t e r 5 p 18 ) Now its(>f / l ~ s rw o r d s t o j o ~ rt~ h e g l o i i p s of sPrI~ P I I I ' P S / I P / ~ W ( T h e n u m b e r s l n d l c a t e the g t o u p s of s e n t e n c e s w h e l e t h e y are t o be used ) ( I ) T h e e n g l n e of t h e c a l w a s I n excellent col~d~tion The b o d y w ok ~ and upholstety wclti 111 R v e l y b a d state (11) Ttiete w e l e several t e a s o n s for t h e ,~cclclent T h o d r ~ v e l ' s carelessness w a s o n e ~casor~ P o o l v ~ s ~ b l l l tw y a s anothet Faulty btakes wa5 t h e t h ~ t d (111) A l l t h t : cstrrnates w e l t ! priced t o o h l g h H r l d t i c l d e d t o do t h e j o b h ~ n i s e l f

Fig 4 1

A cross-sect~on of a typewiltet

C o / ~ ? p l c t tel ~ e fo/low/ily instr!/ctiol~s fo/ tyl)i3 w l i t e r iunt/1te/?ar7ceby f t l l i i l y 111 t/113 O l c ~ i ~ l ( s 117 t110 i l a s s a g p DPIOW w l t l ~ COIIPC~ fotr~~ of f / ? ~ WIIYT/S 111 t/lr list a l , o v ~ Yout t y p c w t ~ t e s~ h o u l d be ,r II c l - by a t y p e w r ~ t e r at least once a yea1 I f y o u d o a great d e a l
of t y p l n g , m o r e f t e q u e n t s e r v i c i n g m a y b e n e c e s s a l y I f y o u h a v e an electric t y p c w l ~ t e t , a l w a y s t u r n ~t a nri t h e p o w e l w h e n n o t 1 1 1 clstr Clear) t h e u s l n r j ;I stlff ot a c o m m e t c l a l t y p e cleanet A v o l d g e t t l t i g ekasel d l ~ it n t o t h e t y p e w l ~ t i : ~ b y cnovlng t h e . t o t h e fat I t 3 f t 0 1 light befot e erasing A n excessive a r l l o ~ r r l t of qltt may cause the to stlck The of t h e typewtlttjl will stay n e w l o o k i r i y f o l yeats w l t t l n rntn117ium of

T t i e f o l l o w ~ l ~w c jo ~ c l s ale used In a typewtltel lIldlIltt'17;1111:f) 111;111~1;-ll extt311 0 1 set vtce I tl~sconnect b l tlsh I11t11 ~c'iltit f a~ ce c a i I lage I ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ I ~t y I~ Cj u I -~ I s~ ty11e l ) c l l off

5. THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER

For thousands of years the only power used by humans was that produced by the muscles of man and of animals. Later, man found ways of making use of the forces of water and wind. Then, in the nineteenth century, steam power revolutionised Europe and created great industrial nations. Steam power had limitations, however; and many industries did not develop until electricity could be widely used. Electricity, made by steam power produced from burning coal, gas or oit, or by the force of water turning turbines, or by atomic power, has dramatically altered our way of life. This cheap form of power that is brought into our homes so easily, operates such modern amenities as lighting, air-conditioning, refrigeration, television and power tools. There is a huge demand for electricity and, as a result of this, an increasing need for electrical and electronic engineers all over the world. Electrical engineering can be divided into t w o main fields: power and electronics. The former includes the manufacture of electricity and generating plants, machinery and components. It ranges from the design of electric razors to the installation of a power station. Electronics covers the field of 'light current' apparatus--including television and telephone engineering-also the design and manufacture of such complex scientific instruments as the electron microscope and the electronic computer. To enter any of these fields of work, the student needs a good knowledge of basic engineering, such as an understanding of the

strength and properties of materials. He also needs a full understanding of circuit theory and a solid knowledge of mechanical engineering. Also he needs some practical experience of manufacturing in the electronic field. At the same time, specialisation is essential. Hence a student has t o decide whether to specialise in heavy or light electrical engineering. Whatever his choice, the opportunities before him are many and varied.

swivels so that it always faces the wind

\
tail (or fin)

direction of blades

direction of w ~ n d

Fig. 5 . 1

A wind generator

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A. Study this example.. Verb Noun Adjective produce production productive Supply the noun and adjective forms of the following verbs: (i) revolutionise (ii) create (iii) develop (iv) strengthen ( v ) include
B. The w o r d s i n List A are used i n t h e passage. Pair each o f these words with the word from List B which is its opposite in meaning (as it is used in the passage). List A List B created decreasing demand excludes increasing destroyed includes supply practical theoretical
C. Learn this prefix: pro = forward produce = to make; t o p u t forward Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: proceed prototype propel progress Complete each of these sentences with the correct form of a word taken from the above /ist: (1) A of t h e machine w a s o n display at the exhibition. (ii) Scientists are experimenting w i t h cars b y electricity. (iii) Before y o u with installing t h e equipment, check t h a t t h e voltage i s correct.

has been delayed because o f a shortage of b u i l d i n g materials.

2 Comprehension
A. Explain briefly, giving examples of each, what you understand by the terms 'light' and 'heavy' electrical engineering.
B. Choose the correct answer a, 6, c, d, or e, to each of the following questions: (i) According t o t h e passage, w h i c h f o r m o f p o w e r has dramatically altered o u r w a y o f life? a. t h e forces o f w i n d a n d water b. muscle p o w e r c, steam p o w e r d . electric p o w e r (ii) According to t h e passage, w h i c h of the f o l l o w i n g is n o t utilised t o p r o d u c e electricity? a. gas b. water c. w o o d d. coal e. atomic p o w e r (iii) A c c o r d i n g t o t h e passage, w h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g is an example of 'power' electrical engineering ? a, t h e design a n d manufacture o f c o m puters b. telephone a n d television engineering c , the manufacture o f generating plants d . t h e manufacture o f scientific instruments (iv) A c c o r d i n g t o t h e passage, w h a t m u s t a student of electrical engineering d e c i d e ? a. whether or n o t t o study t h e strength a n d properties of materials b . whether or n o t t o learn a b o u t circuit theory c . whether or n o t t o obtain some practical experience of t h e electronic field d. whether or n o t t o specialise i n light or heavy electrical engineering

EARLY USES O F POWER

An elghteenth-century kitchen wlth a dog-dr~ven spit (top)

An elephant transporting logs of wood

' . ? *

Pioughing with water buffalo

Thresh~ng rice by hand

&&*

Windmills use natural power

A steam engine

MODERN USES OF POWER

F&-

Combine harvesters

An electric train

A nuclear power station

A microwave oven

A hydro-electric power station

A motorised hand-plough

C. Explain what the following refer to: (i) 'This cheap form of power' i n line 15. (ii) 'The former' i n lines 24 and 25. (iii) 'It' in line 27.

typists t o double their speeds. I t w a s i n vented i n America. (iii) Power is required for driving this machine. I t is provided b y a small motor. (iv) T w o steel towers were erected. They were designed t o resist temperature changes.

3 Language Practice
A. Study these sentences: ( i ) Humans used only t h e power produced b y the muscles of man a n d of animals. (ii) The only power used b y humans was that produced b y the muscles of man and of animals. Change the following into sentences in the style of (ii) above: (i) The engineers used only concrete reinforced b y steel rods. (ii) Builders used only stone quarried locally in the construction of these houses. (iii) The builders used only the material specified i n the contract. (iv) The mechanic used only the oil recommended by the manufacturer. (v) The decorator used only the wall-paper ordered b y his client. B. Study these sentences: (i) Electricity has dramatically altered our w a y o f life. It is made b y steam power produced b y burning oil, gas or coal. (ii) Electricity, made b y steam power produced b y burning oil, gas or coal, has dramatically altered our w a y o f life. Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence in the style of (ii) above: (i) Heavy equipment has made many engineering projects possible i n developing countries. M u c h o f it has been provided by the industrial nations. (ii) The electric typewriter has enabled

C. Study these sentences: (i) There is an increasing need for electrical engineers because there is a huge demand for electricity. (ii) There is a huge demand for electricity and, as a result o f this, there is an increasing need for electrical engineers. Change the following into sentences in the style of (ii) above: (i) The fuel leaked o u t of the tank because i t had been over-filled. (ii) The oil consumption rose because the running temperature was t o o high. (iii) The customer had t o pay more than he expected because t h e estimate was ihaccurate. (iv) A l l the machinery was idle for several hours because there w a s a power failure.

4 Composition
Write a paragraph by joining the groups of sentences that follow. Use the joining words suggested in the list below. (The numbers b y the joining words indicate the groups of sentences where they are t o be used.) (i) w h e n (ii) because. . . until (iii) n o t o n l y . . . (iv) because but also. . . and (v) as well a s . . . (vi) since. . . and whether (i) Steam power was invented i n the nineteenth century. .lt revolutionised industry

i n Europe. (ii) Steam power had its limitations. M a n y industries d i d n o t develop. Electricity was widely used. (iti) Electricity can be produced from steam power. I t can be produced from the force of water. I t can be produced b y nuclear power. (iv) There is a huge demand for electricity.

There is a need for electrical engineers. ( v ) A student needs a g o o d knowledge of basic engineering. H e needs a full understanding o f circuit theory. He needs practical experience. (vi) Specialisation is essential. A student has t o decide. H e w i l l specialise i n heavy or fight engineering.

6. MACHINES WITH BRAINS

A Spinning Jenny

Traditional printing

Electronic spinning machinery

Printing with electronic machinery

During the last hundred years, industry has become more and more mechanised. Machines have taken over much of the work that was formerly done by human hands and muscles. But in the past each machine had to be looked after by a man or a woman whose eyes and brain controlled and guided it. Now a great change in our tools has begun to take place. Industry is being automated. The machines themselves are being given eyes and brains, so that people are not needed to attend them. The eyes and brains are supplied by specially-designed electrical circu its.

The operation of automatic machines is based on 'feedback'. The machine is given a way of 'watching' what it does and of 'recognising' when to stop and do something else. A simple example of feedback can be found in the control of a central-heating oilburner by a thermostat. The working part of a thermostat is a bar made of two pieces of different metals, attached back t o back. The t w o metals expand when they get warm, but one expands faster than the other. As a result, when the bar gets warm, i t begins t o curl. When it

A bar made of one bar of brass, and one of steel alloy, laminated together. The brass expands more quickly than the steel alloy.

screw

Fig. 6.1

A thermostat

EXERCISES 1 Vocabulary
cools off, it straightens out again. The bar is set next to a screw, so that it touches the screw when it is straight, but pulls away when it is curled. The bar and the screw are both part of an electrical circuit that controls the switch mechanism of the oil-burner. When the air in the building becomes cool, the bar cools, straightens, and touches the screw. This completes an electric circuit and the oil-burner is switched on. As the air in the building becomes hotter, so does the bar, and it begins to curl. It pulls away from the screw, the current stops flowing and the oil-burner is switched off. A thermostat of this kind can be adjusted to keep the temperature of the house at any required level. Completely automatic machinery is now used in oil refineries. The oil is 'cracked' by heat with the help of a catalyst-in this case, a powder that speeds up the refining process. The oil is broken up into petrol and other products which are then separated from each other. The process goes on non-stop. Oil flows into the machinery at one end and the refined products flow out of the other. The catalyst is used, cleaned and used again. Automatic controls are used not only to regulate the temperature, but the rate of flow of materials and many other things.

A . Look up the meanings of these groups of words in your dictionaries: operate operation operational mechanise mechanisation mechanical refine refinery refined adj ust adjustment adj usted automate automation automatic Complete each of these sentences w i t h the correct word from each of the groups above: (i) There has been increased m of industry during the past hundred years. (ii) Many workers fear that a may result in unemployment. (iii) The new factory will be o by the end of the month. (iv) Petroleum products are produced from crude oil in a r (v) The temperature of the building can b e regulated by making an a to the thermostat.
B. Look u p the meanings of these words i n your dictionaries: catalyst control thermostat circuit refinery Complete each o f these definitions w i t h a w o r d taken from the above list: (i> A is a complete path through which an electric current can travel. is a substance that (ii) A speeds up a chemical process without being changed itself.

25

(iii) A is a place where substances are made pure. (iv) A is a device for automatically regulating temperature. (V) A is the means by which a machine is operated or regulated.

C. Learn this prefix: semi = partly serni-automatic = partly automatic Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: semi-skilled semi-circular semi -conductor semi-solid semi -transparent Complete each of these sentences with a word taken from the above list: (i) A transistor is a of electricity. (ii) Many workers will be needed to build the gas pipeline. in (iii) The protractor was shape. (iv) They put glass in the window in order to keep out some of the glare. ( v ) Because the mixture was it would not pour easily.

b. Machines are being automated. c. All industrial processes are now completely automated. d. Men and women are not needed in large numbers in industry now. (ii) According to the passage, what is the purpose of 'feedback' in automation? a. It provides power to the machines. b. It provides the machines with information. c. It speeds up the refining process. d. It does the work of a catalyst. (iii) According to the passage, what happens to one of the pieces of metal in the bar when the temperature falls? a. It touches a screw. b. It moves away from a screw. c. It heats the oil. d. It increases the flow of heat. (iv) According to the passage, what is the function of the catalyst in refining oil? a. It operates a thermostat. b. It regulates the temperature, pressure and flow of materials. c. It helps to speed u p the process of 'cracking' the oil. d. It is part of an electrical circuit.

2 Comprehension
A. State what equipment or parts you would need to control an oil-burner according to the temperature of the air.

3 Language Practice
A. Study this example: (i) Automate the machines. (ii) The machines are being automated.
Respond to each of these instructions with
a statement in the style of (ii) above:

B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, to each of the following questions: ( i ) According to the passage, in what way is industry changing now ? a. Machinery has replaced human hands and muscles.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Adjust the thermostat. Regulate the oil flow. Refine the oil. Straighten the bar. Check the bearings.

B. Study these sentences: (i) The temperature of the building can be kept at any required level by adjusting the thermostat. (ii) The thermostat can be adjusted t o keep the temperature of the building at any required level. Change the following into sentences in the style of (ii) above: (i) The refining process can be speeded up by using a catalyst. (ii) Production can be increased b y installing automatic equipment. (iii) Reproduction can be improved by cleaning the recording and playback heads. (iv) The car can be raised t o the required level by applying the jack. (v) The f l o w of a river can be controlled by constructing a dam.
C. Study these sentences: (i) When d o the t w o metals expand? (ii) The t w o metals expand when they get warm. Respond to the following questions using a 'when' clause, as in (ii) above: (i) When does the bar begin t o curl? (ii) When does the bar straighten out again ? (iii) When does the bar touch the screw? (iv) When does the electric current begin t o flow through i t ? (v) When does the current stop flowing through i t ?

Fig. 6.2

An electric lift (elevator)

4 Composition
Using both the diagram and the key supplied, write an explanation of how an electric lift works, by filling in the spaces in the passage below: The ( A ) slides between ( B ) . It is supported

by a ( C ) which is fixed t o a (D). This slides u p and d o w n the lift shaft between another set of (G). The rope goes u p t o the top of the shaft where it passes several times over ( E ) which can be driven i n either direction by (F). When the (E) are driven i n one direction the (A) is raised and the (D) is lowered. When the (E) are driven i n the other direction the reverse occurs. Key A: Carriage or cage which carries passengers or goods u p and d o w n the lift shaft i n the building (not shown here). B: Guide rails o n which the cage slides. C: Wire rope which supports the car and which is fixed at both ends t o the one counter-weight. D: Counter-weight. Its weight is equal t o that of the car plus half the weight of the passengers when the car is full. E: Grooved pulleys. F: Electric motor which can drive the pulley i n either direction. The controls are operated at a distance by electro-magnets. G: Guide rails on which the counter-weight slides.

7 . ELECTRONICS

A computer console

Tapes and tape-drives can do with the computer. The basic unit of memory is the 'byte', which usually consists of eight 'bits'. Each 'bit' is a 0 or a 1, the binary language of the computer. Other uses of electronics are found in such specialised fields as radio, telecommunications, audio and video reproduction systems and control gear, and there are many other uses. In many cases the circuits, although complex, are really combinations or extensions of basic circuits. The brain of an electronic circuit was originally the radio valve or 'tube', as it is sometimes known. Nowadays, although valves are still in use, the transistor h.as largely taken their place.

Electronics is an extension of electricity. It i s the study and application of the phenomena of electrons and electromagnetic waves. In electronics, use is made of complex electrical circuits employing transistors in addition to more elementary components. Such electronic circuits can range from very simple ones which perform elementary 'on-off' functions like a switch, t o those which are so complex that they can be. understood only by specialist engineers. Users of such equipment have to rely on the fact that it does work rather than on an understanding of how it works. If anything goes wrong with it they have to send for an expert to put it right. Computers, for example, are usually serviced by a team of experts who check them. They keep them working instead of waiting for a fault to develop and then dealing with it. Even so, a home-computer industry is expanding rapidly. Low-cost micro-circuits are bringing computing power to thousands of homes in America. These computer kits are not much bigger than a stereo receiver. The microprocessor is the beginning of a system. It miniaturises the central processing unit of the computer. A memory is also needed to hold the computer programme. The larger memory you buy, the more you

Computer terminals or Visual Display Units

List A transistorised computerised miniaturised oxidised magnetised pressurised synchronised

printer '

List B metal aircraft needle camera gears data radio

\I

Fig. 7.1

A computer room

EXERCISES

1 Vocabulary
A. The words in List A are used in the passage. Pair these with the words from List B which could be substituted for them in the passage. Keep the original meaning: List A List B employing equipment elementary (an) additional part(s) of audio making use of gear simple extensions sound B. Study these sentences: (i) H e specialised in radio and telecommunications. (ii) He worked in such specialised fields as radio and telecommunications. In (ii) we see how the verb-form specialised can also be used as an adjective. A number of other verb-forms commonly used in technical and scientific English can also be used as adjectives. Some of these are listed in List A. Look up the meanings of these verb-forms in your dictionaries. Then pair each of them with the word in List B that it describes.

C. Learn this prefix: ex = out, out of extension = stretching out in many directions Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries.. expansion exhaust exceed extract exterior Complete each of these sentences with a word taken from the above list: (i) It is unwise to seventy kilometres per hour when running in a new car. (ii) Fumes rose from the motor because the pipe w a s broken. (iii) The walls had to be stripped and then painted. (iv)Huge machines were used to minerals from the earth. (v) When metals are heated, occurs.

2 Comprehension
A. Describe how electronic circuits are different from ordinary electrical circuits. B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, to each of the following questions: (i) According to the passage, which of the following could be a component of an electronic circuit? a. a function

b. a transistor c, a computer d. a reproduction system (ii) According t o the passage, w h y d o many users of electronic equipment not understand h o w it works? a. They are specialised engineers. b. It performs only simple functions. c. It is extremely complex. d. It combines various basic circuits. (iii) According t o the passage, w h i c h of the following holds the computer programme? a, the micro-circuit b. the byte c. the microprocessor d. the memory (iv) According t o the passage, w h a t are the brains of an electronic circuit? a. the users of the equipment b. the experts c. the specialised engineers d. the valves or transistors

w i t h n e w ones. (iii) Electrical engineering involves many different areas. Students must specialise. (iv) The cost of all r a w materials has risen very much. All estimates w i l l have. t o be revised. (v) The vehicle was very badly damaged. It had t o be t o w e d t o a garage, B. Study these sentences: ( i ) Users of electronic equipment rely o n the fact that it does work. They d o n o t rely o n an understanding o f h o w it works. (ii) Users of electronic equipment rely o n the fact that i t does work rather than o n an understanding of h o w i t works. Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence in the style of (it) above: (i) M o s t accidents are caused b y human error. They are not often caused by mechanical failure. (ii) Modern industry depends o n engineeri n g skills. It does not depend very much o n manual tabour. (iii) M a n y people purchase a car for its appearance. They d o not usually purchase i t for its engine performance. (iv) Mechanics are advised t o refer t o the manual. They should n o t rely o n their memories. (v) Some building materials are chosen for their cheapness. They are often n o t chosen for their quality.

C. Explain what the following refer to. (i) 'they' i n line 15 (ii) 'it' i n line 20

3 Language Practice
A. Study these sentences: (i) Some circuits are very complex. They can be understood only b y specialist engineers. (ii) Some circuits are so complex that they can be understood only b y specialist engineers. Change each of the f o l l o w ~ n g pairs of sentences into a sentence in the style of (it) above: (i) Computers are very costly t o purchase. Many o f them are rented. (ii) Some electrical equipment is difficult t o repair. It is cheaper t o replace defective parts

C. Study these sentences: ( i ) Although the circuits are complex, they are really extensions of basic circuits. (ii) The circuits, although complex, are really extensions of basic circuits. Change the following into sentences in the style of (ii) above:

(i) Although transistors are basically simple components, they can perform complex functions. (ii) Although valves are still in use, they have been largely replaced by transistors. (iii) Although the new paints are expensive, they are extremely durable. (iv) Although alcohol, used for cleaning, is harmless, it is combustible. (v) Although the machines are new, they .are not reliable.

instead of the decimal system. Only two are represented by digits are used which represent the representing switches 'on' and 'off'. The computer needing a programme. Its set of instructions need needs is are fed in to it by a code of holes on can is turned punched tapes. This information turns turn into electric pulses. Some of this goes into when the computer's memory bank where it is which require held in the right order until requiring for required If making calculations. When the computer Until has finished its calculations the result
is printed printed on another punch tape or is will print
typed wiped out. written

4 Composition
Write out this paragraph on computers, choosing the correct w o r d from each group of three: use A computer uses electronic pulses using

to represent can move represent numbers. These moving represented by moved

are
very fast since no moving parts is were involved, only the movement of electric currents. So the computer can do long complicating complicate sums in a few seconds. complicated would work Computers working on the 'binary' work

8. TELEVISION

The w o r d 'television' is made u p o f t w o parts, t h e Greek 'tele' a n d t h e Latin 'video'. Television means seeing a t a distance, a n d i t has taken m a n y years t o develop. I t was n o t until 1936 that t h e B B C {the British Broadcasting Company) started t h e first regular television service i n t h e world. The viewer, l o o k i n g at his television screen, does not see a m o v i n g picture. H e sees a series o f still photographs, each a little different. These pass before h i s eyes so quickly that h e has a n impression o f c o n tinuous movement. The picture o n t h e screen is composed o f a series o f lines w h i c h r u n f r o m left t o right and from t o p t o b o t t o m . These lines are lines of various shades of light. They travel across the screen so quickly that they give t h e impression o f o n e steady continuous picture. The viewer sees t w e n t y - f i v e pictures per second, w i t h a fixed number o f lines making u p each picture. Depending o n w h i c h system is used, the number o f lines is either four hundred and five or six hundred a n d t w e n t y five. Unlike films, w h i c h are taken at one time and then s h o w n at another, a television transmission is usually instantaneous. Events are seen at t h e same time as they take place. I n sound broadcasting, sounds are changed i n t o small electric currents by a microphone. These small currents are t h e n carried b y a cable t o a transmitter. The transmitter sends them o u t i n t o space as radio waves. They can be picked u p b y a s o u n d receiver w h i c h changes t h e m back i n t o the original sounds.
A series of still photographs will b e seen as a moving picture.

A similar m e t h o d is used i n television. The picture i s seen b y a n electric 'eye'---the television camera-which changes it i n t o

small electric currents. A s w i t h s o u n d radio, t h e electric currents are carried b y a cable t o a transmitter w h i c h radiates t h e m i n t o space i n t h e f o r m o f electrical waves. The waves carrying t h e s o u n d a n d the picture arrive at t h e antenna o f the receiver. They create currents w h i c h are sent t o t h e receiver t h r o u g h a transmission line. It changes t h e m back i n t o t h e pictures that t h e viewer sees on his screen.

A telex machine and operator

transmits both sound and picture to a distance by electric current. (V> A is a machine for reproducing music or speech recorded on flat discs. is an instrument for (vi) A changing sound waves into electrical waves. (vii) A is a telegram sent via telex machine. B. The words in List A are used in the passage. Pair these with the words from List B which could be substituted for them in t h e passage. Keep the original meaning. List A List B series made up of continuous sends out non-stop composed of depending on sequence radiates according to

A ship's telegraph room

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A. Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: microphone telephone telegraph videotape gramophone videophone printagram Complete each of these definitions with a word taken from the above list: (1) A is an instrument that transmits the human voice to a distance by electric currents. (ii) A i s a method of sending graphic messages by the use of electric currents along wires or by wireless. (iii) A is a magnetic tape used for recording television programmes. (iv) A is an apparatus that

C. L earn this prefix: trans = across transmit = to send across, to send on Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: transport transformer translucent transfer transparent Complete each of these sentences with the correct form of a word taken from the above /ist: (i) One of the fields in civil engineering is road _ systems. (ii) The builder used glass in the bathroom window. glass in the (iii) He used windows overlooking the garden. was used to convert (iv) A the current into a higher voltage. (v) The engineer was to Ethiopia to work on a new dam.

2 Comprehension
A. Explain briefly the difference between the four hundred and five a n d the six hundred a n d twenty -five systems.

sound or pictures. d. They both use an 'electric eye'

B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, to each of the following questions. (i) According t o the passage, the numbers four hundred and five and six hundred and twenty-five refer to: a. the make or brand of the television set b. the number o f still photographs the viewer sees per second c. the number of lines w h i c h make u p each picture d. the measurement of a small electric current (ii) According t o the passage, w h a t does the viewer see o n his television screen? a. radio waves b. a moving picture c, a sequence of different still photographs d. a series of lines (iii) According t o the passage, what is 'instantaneous transmission of events'? a. the transmission of events into a series of still photographs b. a broadcast of events as they happen c, the separation o f events into a series of still photographs d. the transmission of sound or vision by means of radio waves (iv) According t o the passage, i n what w a y are radio and television similar? a. They both use a microphone t o turn sound into electric current. b. They both use a camera t o turn pictures into an electric current. c. They both use radio waves t o transmit

C. Explain w h a t the f o l l o w i n g refer to: (i) 'These' i n line 11 (ii) 'They' i n line 34 (iii) 'It' in line 39

3 Language Practice
A. Study these sentences: (i) The B B C d i d not start the first regular television service until 1 936. (ii) I t was not until 1936 that the BBC started the first regular television service. Change the f o l l o w i n g into sentences i n the style of (it) above: (i) The B B C d i d not broadcast a second channel until thirty years later. (ii) Colour television was not introduced until the 1970s. (iii) The PAL (Phase Automation Line) system was not developed until many years later. (iv) Viewers d i d not have a choice o f programmes until commercial television was introduced. (v) Calculators d i d not come into common use until they were miniaturised.

B. Study the following: (i) The number o f lines is four hundred and five or six hundred and twenty-five. (system / use) (ii) Depending o n w h i c h system is used, the number o f lines i s four hundred and five or six hundred and twenty-five. Change the f o l l o w i n g i n t o sentences i n the style of ( i i ) above: ( i ) The journey takes four or five hours. (route / take)

striker

(ii) The job will take six or seven days. (method / employ) (iii) The building will last fifty or a hundred years. (materials / use) (iv) The finish will be glossy or mat. (paint / apply)

button /(bell push)

wires along which current flows

C. Study these sentences: (i) A television transmission is usually instantaneous. Films are taken at one time and shown at another. (ii) Unlike films, which are taken at one time and shown at another, .a television transmission is usually instantaneous. (iia) Unlike television transmission, which is usually instantaneous, films are taken at one time and shown at another. Change each o f the following pairs of sentences into a sentence in the style of (it) or (iia) above: ( i ) Ordinary electrical circuits are usually simple. Electronic circuits can be understood only by experts. (ii) Steam power cannot easily be brought into the home. Electric power has few limitations to its use. (iii) Distemper can be washed off a wall. Paint must be removed by heat or with a paint remover. (iv) Engines that run on petrol draw air and petrol vapour through the inlet valve. Diesel engines only draw in air.

electro-magnets

F
battery

Fig. 8.1

An electric bell

4 Composition
The following words are often used to join statements: because if since when so that aS which

Write a paragraph by joining the groups of sentences below. You will have to do some rearrangement of words. Take care with your grammar. Use the following joining words and combinations of joining words. (The numbers indicate the groups of sentences where they are to be used.) (i) because (ii) when . . . so that . . . which (iii) as . . . so that . . . which (iv) if (v) since (i) The electro-magnet is the simplest way of making electricity do work at some distance away. Electro-magnets are used in electric doorbells. (ii) You push a button (or bell push) at the front door. A current flows along wires to a magnet or magnets. This attracts a small metal striker. The striker hits the bell. (iii) The metal striker moves. It switches off the current. The magnet no longer attracts the striker. The striker returns to its original position. (iv) The button is still being pushed. The whole thing is repeated. (v) This all happens very quickly. The bell gives a continuous ringing noise.

9. AIR-CONDITIONING

Air conditionina is needed in druq manufacture,

. . . in operating theatres,

. . ~n printing,

. . and in libraries.

Air-conditioning is a mechanism for cleaning the atmosphere in a confined space. This process also maintains the pure air at a temperature and humidity appropriate for the purpose for which the building i s being used. To most people air-conditioning probably means little more than the provision of cool air in a cinema, restaurant or office, To an industr~alist it means much more. Air-conditioning is used extensively in

many branches of industry. In textile manufacturing, controlled humidity is essential for successful spinning. In the printing industry, the regulation of temperature and humidity is necessary to prevent such faults as paper distortion and bad register in colour printing. In the photographic industry, the emulsion coating of papers, films and plates must be carried out at a given temperature. There must also be a completely dust-free atmosphere.

condenser fan

compressor

tor

cool air

Fig. 9.1

An air conditioner

Drugs and chemicals require controlled atmospheric conditions for their successful manufacture. In libraries and museums, excessive humidity, dust and acid vapours can cause irreparable damage to paintings, the bindings of books and manuscripts. In metal-working, especially where machined parts require close tolerances, a controlled temperature is necessary to prevent parts from expanding or contracting. In hospitals, operating theatres are furnished with air-conditioning equipment especially designed to remove every particle of dust. We can see from the above that airconditioning is far more than just a device to make our lives more comfortable in hot and humid weather. It is an essential part of many industrial processes.

c. an operating theatre d. a builder's yard (ii) Which t w o 'atmospheric conditions' are mentioned in the passage? (iii) What do you understand by the expression 'close tolerances' in lines 28-9 7

B. The words in List A are used in the passage. Pair these with the words from List B which could be substituted for them
in the passage. Keep the original meaning: List A List B maintains provided appropriate specific extensively keeps given widely furnished suitable

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A. Answer these questions: (i) Which of the following is a 'confined space' ? a. a large car park b. a building site

C. Learn these prefixes: ir; il; im; in = not; the opposite of irreparable = not reparable (of non-material things) e.g. an irreparable loss irrepairable = not repairable (of material things) e.g. those shoes are irrepairable Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: illegal irregular inorganic impurities impermeable

Complete each of these sentences with a word taken from the above list: (i) The in the metal were reduced by oxidisation. (ii) Itis to exceed the speed limit. (iii) The mechanic investigated the flow of petrol into the engine. (iv) The geologist found an layer of rock thirty metres down. (v) In some basic engineering courses you are required to do both general and chemistry.

d. the provision of cool air (iv) According to the passage, what is the main function of air-conditioning in hospital operating theatres ? a. temperature control b. the regulation of humidity c. the removal of all dust from the atmosphere d. to increase the comfort of the theatre staff
C. State why it is necessary to control the atmosphere in a library or museum.

2 Comprehension
A. State what air-conditioning can do to the atmosphere in a confined space.
B. Choose the correct answer a, 6, c, or d, to each of the following questions: (i) According to the passage, what is essential in the textile industry? a. low temperatures b. high temperatures c. controlled humidity d. dust-free air (ii) According to the passage, what can cause paper distortion in the printing industry? a. air-conditioning b. controlled humidity c. regulated temperature d. uncontrolled heat and damp (iii) According to the passage, what is an important factor in the emulsion coating of photographic materials? a. maintenance of a particular temperature b. a high dust and acid vapour content c. the prevention of expansion and contraction

3 Language Practice
A. Study this definition: Air-conditioning is a mechanism for cleaning the atmosphere. Complete the following definitions in the style of the sentence above: (i) A pulley is a device for (ii) A computer is a machine for (iii) A refrigerator is an appliance for (iv) A (v) A thermostat telegraph is is an an apparatus instrument for for

B. Study this sentence: The temperature and humidity should be appropriate for the purpose for which the building is being used. Use the following to form statements in the style of the sentence above: ( i ) viscosity / oil (ii) voltage / current (iii) octane grade / fuel (iv) quality / material

C. Study these sentences: (i) Paper distortion can be prevented by the regulation of temperature and humidity. (ii) The regulation of temperature and humidity is necessary to prevent paper distortion. Change the following into sentences in the style of (ii) above: (i) Dust can be removed from the atmosphere only by specially designed air-conditioning. (ii) Drugs and chemicals can be manufactured only in controlled atmospheric conditions. (iii) Close tolerances in machined parts can be obtained only in a controlled temperature. (iv) The emulsion coating of materials can be carried out only in a dust-free atmosphere. (v) Damage to paintings and bindings can be avoided only by the provision of an atmosphere free of acid vapours.

evaporator

Fig. 9.2

An electric refrigerator

4 Composition
Write out this paragraph on refrigeration, choosing the correct w o r d from each group of three: A refrigerator works on the principle that evaporates when a liquid condenses or changes into a solidifies absorbs gas, it releases or takes up heat from its transforms surroundings. An evaporator is used in a turn refrigerator to reverse a liquid into circle

the gas an electricity. By so doing it absorbs heat a oil from the food inside the refrigerator and warm Water turns into keeps the food hot cold steam at a temperature of a hundred degrees centigrade ninety degrees centigrade which is its nought degrees centigrade boiling point. But there are many liquids solids that evaporate or become semi -solids

rates gas-like at much tower temperatures. condensation

heat Then it is pumped through a energy coolness cooled condenser where i t is evaporated back t o a solidified liquid ready t o start around again. The heat collected from the food and from the condenser compressor passes out of the door pipes into the kitchen.

A liquid such as this is made t o circulate

pipes through holes in the refrigerator, picking up inlets
heat from the food. Then as it evaporates it

is sucked into a compressor driven b y an electric motor electro-magnet where it gains more atomic engine

10. M A N THE MASTER-BUILDER

The construction of a race-course,

. . w h i c h cost USS110 million t o complete

Man, in his struggle to tame his environment, has become, since prehistoric times, a master-builder. The practical art and science of civil and mechanical engineering arose from his four basic needs: for agriculture, building, communication and power. The need for agriculture led t o hydraulic engineering; the need for building, t o structural engineering; the need for communication, to a variety of civil engineering; and the need for power, to mechanical and electrical engineering. Today vast building projects are undertaken by construction companies. At James Bay, for example, one construction group is commencing the largest civil-engineering project in Canadian history. Three rivers are being forced into one; and the flow is being channelled through a hundred and fifty dykes and dams into four giant generating stations. These will produce ten million kilowatts of power. In another project, the sleepy SaudiArabian fishing village of Jubayl will be turned into an industrial city of a hundred and seventy thousand people. It will have an airport, harbour, four petro-chemical plants, three oil refineries and a steel mill. The nine-billion-dollar complex will take

twenty years to build. To get a t and mine a rich copper lode on an isolated island in New Guinea, a port and a permanent town for fifteen hundred mineworkers had first t o b e built. Then a seventyfive-mile-long road was cut through the jungle and up along the sheer face of a seven-thousand-foot mountain. This done, a mine was built; also, a mill t o grind the copper into fine powder; and a sluice to carry it down t o waiting cargo ships. In Labrador, an army of twenty-three thousand workers spent five years creating a water-storage area more than one-third the size of Lake Ontario, and in cutting the site for the world's largest underground power-house out of sheer granite. For three years five hundred thousand dollars a day was spent t o create the world's largest petro-chemical complex in Puerto Rico. Two million yards of fill were moved. Eighty-five thousand yards of concrete were poured and ten thousand pilings were driven. This is civil and mechanical engineering on a grand scale, requiring, it seems, almost superhuman effort. To observers, it seems an incredible task; whereas to the men on thc site, it is just another job.

Complete each of these sentences w i t h a w o r d taken from the above list: (i) I n concrete, strong steel bars are used as reinforcing bars. 1 Vocabulary (ii) The thermostat was at thirty degrees centigrade (30C). A. Some of the words listed b e l o w are used houses i n the passage Others are not. 1dentifymthe (iii) After the flood, were shipped t o the disaster area. words that are used i n the passage. Pair each of these w i t h the word from the list which is (iv) The use of steam t o generate power its opposite in meaning, or which has a that of electricity. contrasting meaning t o the meaning the w o r d ( v ) The concrete panels were i n the factory, before being transported to has in the passage. the building site. (i) permanent (ii) fine (iii) vast (iv) coarse (v) small (vi) sloping 2 Comprehension (vii) temporary (viii) sheer

EXERCISES

B. The following words are used i n the passage: project complex lode dyke sluice Complete each of these definitions w i t h a word taken from the above list: (i) A is a layer of metal ore. (ii) A is an artificial water channel. is a plan, scheme, or (iii) A undertaking. is a construction made (iv) A up of different units or buildings. (V) A is a w a l l or barrier that holds back the sea.
C. Learn this prefix: pre = before prehistoric = before recorded history Look u p the meanings of these words i n your dictionaries: pre-set pre-cast prestressed prefabricated preceded

A. State what man has needed in his struggle t o tame his environment.
B. Choose the correct answer a, 6, c, or d, t o each of the following questions: ( i ) According t o the passage, w h i c h of these used t o be the main industry of J u b a y l ? a. mining b. agriculture c. fishing d. oil refining (ii) According t o the passage, w h i c h of the following w i l l not be built at Jubayl? a. an airport b. a harbour c. a hundred and fifty dams and dykes d. a steel mill (iii) According t o the passage, what was built t o grind the copper t o a powder? b. a sluice a. a mill c. a mine d. a refinery (iv) According t o the passage, where is the world's largest underground power- house? a, at Lake Ontario b. i n Labrador c. i n Saudi Arabia d, i n Puerto Rico

C. Explain w h a t the f o l l o w i n g refers to: 'This' in line 37

3 Language Practice
A. Study these sentences: (i) Construction companies undertake vast building projects. (ii) Vast building projects are undertaken by construction companies. Change the following into sentences in the style of ( i i ) above: (i) We pass an electric current across the electrodes. (ii) Regular servicing w i l1 prevent breakdowns. (iii) Engineers invented new methods of communication. (iv) Thermostats can regulate the ternperature. (v) The furnace must supply sufficient heat for the job. B. Study this example: get at / copper lode / company / first / build / port To get at the copper lode, the company first had to bui1d.a port, Change the following groups o f words into sentences in the same way: (i) clean / heads / technican / remove / head cover (ii) build / power- house / workmen / cut / granite (iii) televise / conference / director / apply / permission (iv) win / contract / company / submit / estimate (V) cut / road / surveyor / survey / area

A road tunnel being built through a mountainside

A light rail system under construction

C. Study the use of 'whereas' in line 56. It is used as a joining word to contrast two ideas. Use 'whereas' t o make sentences w i t h the follo wing: (i) a skilled technican earns high wages / unskilled worker (ii) a hot engine wilt run on a weak mixture / a cold engine (iii) some garages pay their mechanics a percentage of the customers bill / other garages (iv) some engines are water-cooled / others

4 Composition
The following are jumbled fragments of a paragraph on road construction:

A. (i)
(ii)

Before a new road is constructed The samples are packed in air-tight tins

(iii) When the engineer sees the results of the analysis (iv) He may stabilise it (v) He may also compact it . (vi) As soon as stabilisation and compaction are completed (vii) Then after a base of granular material mixed with cement or tar is put down

B. He decides the best way to improve the (i) soil foundation. (ii) The asphalt surface is finally laid. (iii) which involves draining the foundation and mixing it with other materials (iv) The first job is to take soil samples. (v) which involves rolling and compressing the sub-soils (vi) and sent to laboratories for analysis (vii) A sub- base of hard long-lasting material is laid. Reassemble the paragraph b y joining each of the sentences or c/auses from B to the appropriate sentence or clause from A, forming n e w sentences. (Neither those in A nor those in B are necessarily in the correct order of events.)

44

11. SYSTEM BUILDING

precast reinforced concrete partition walls

window opening

special joints to fit into adjacent panel

precast reinforced concrete panel

Fig. 1 1 .l

A n exploded v i e w of a building, showing precast reinforced concrete panels floor in position metal formwork for walls

Precast floor slabs being used on a building site

Metal formwork for walls being used on a construction site

In the last two hundred years there have been great changes in the method of production of goods. This is now also true of the building industry; for mechanisation has been introduced. System building can save both time and money. The principle of system building is that the building is made from a set of standard units. These are either made at the building-site or at a factory. Some designers, in fact, are standardising the dimensions of rooms. They are made in multiples of a single fixed length, usually ten

centimetres. This is called a modular system, and it means that manufacturers can produce standardised fittings at a lower cost. The most important fact about system building is its speed. A ten-storey flat, for example, can be completed in four months.
There are several new methods of system building. One is the panel method. In this case, the construction company sometimes erects a factory on the site. The walls and floors of the buitding, called panels, are cast

i n a horizontal or vertical position. Conduits for electrical wires and sleeves for pipes are cast i n the panels when they are being made. The moulds for making these castings are situated all around the building. After the concrete panels are cast, they are allowed t o set and harden for a week. Next they are lifted b y a tower crane o n t o any section of the building. There the panels are cemented together at their joints and the floor covering is laid. After the panels have been cemented together, the crane lifts a case into the area. I t contains all the fittings to be installed, such as wash-basins, radiators and pipes. Finishing tradesmen, such as plumbers, plasterers, painters and electricians, f o l l o w behind t o complete the work. I n some building developments, i n some countries, whole flats w i t h internal features like their bathrooms, bedrooms and connecting stairs, and weighing as much as twenty tons, are carried t o the building-site readymade. A giant overhead crane is used t o lift them into position, tn the future, this method may become more widespread.

Pair each o f these w i t h the w o r d i n List B that i t describes: List B List A connecting fan steering engineers cooling stairs consulting wheel warning current alternating light

B. State w h i c h o f the following w o u l d not be classed as a fitting: an electric light a wash-basin a connecting stairway water pipes
C. State w h i c h of the f o l l o w i n g w o u l d n o t be classed as a finishing tradesman: a plasterer an electrician a bricklayer a plumber

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A. Study this phrase: finishing tradesmen It shows h o w the verb-form finishing can also be used as an adjective. Other verb-forms can also be used as adjectives. Some of them are listed i n List A.

D. L earn these prefixes: in, i m = in; on; into instatled = placed into position Look up the meanings o f these words i n your dictionaries: indicator immerse impeller internal inspector Complete each o f these sentences w i t h a w o r d taken from the above list: (i) The Council approved all the electrical fittings i n the n e w building. (ii) I n some buildings, the weight of the whole structure is carried b y the walls. (iii) The o n the oil gauge pointed t o l o w . (iv) I n the water-cooled engine, the blades pumped liquid round the cooling system. the bearings i n an oil(V) bath !

2 Comprehension
A. State what you understand by a modular system of building.

B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, to each of the following questions.. (i) According to the passage, which of these statements is true of system building? a. It employs more men. b. It is difficult and dangerous. c. It can save both time and money. d. It means less mechanisation. (ii) According to the passage, what is the principle of system building ? a. Construction methods are safer. b. Buildings are made from a set of standardised units. c. Similar buildings can be produced. d. All units are produced on the site. (iii) According to the passage, what is the usual fixed length in the modular system? a. twenty centimetres b. ten millimetres c. fifty centimetres d. ten centimetres (iv) According to the passage, what lifts the concrete panels onto the building? a. cranes b. man-power c. pulleys d. hydraulic jacks
C. Explain what the following refer to. (i) 'they'inline 1 1 (ii) 'it' in line 14

Change each of the following groups of words and phrases into a sentence i n the style of the sentence above: (i) another aspect / dimensions / standardised (ii) an important fact / buildings / completed / quickly (iii) an advantage / production costs / lowered (iv) an economic factor / fittings / massproduced (v) a probability / entire flats / modularised
B. Study these sentences: (i) The men allow the concrete panels to set and harden. (ii) The concrete panels are allowed to set and harden. Change the following into sentences i n the style of (ii) above: (i) Labourers cast the panels on the building site. (ii) Workmen cast sleeves for pipes into the panels. (iii) A crane lifts the panels into position. (iv) Workmen cement the panels together. (v) Electricians complete the wiring.

C. The following indicates a series of stages in the construction of a building. Complete the sentences in the style of the first
t w o sentences: (i) After the factory has been erected on the site, the panels are cast. (ii) After the panels have been cast, they are allowed to harden. lifted on to the building. (iii) (iv) secured at their joints. (V floor finishes are laid. (vi) fittings are installed.

3 Language Practice
A. Study this sentence.. The principle is that the building can be made from a set of standard units.

4 Composition
Read the following statements: (i) If concrete can be hardened more quickly, the speed of the construction of a building can be increased. (ii) When concrete is heated, it will probably harden quickly. (iii) Often, steel moulds---usually rectangular-are made. (iv) Sometimes, these moulds are placed upright in rows. (v) A mesh for reinforcement is put at the bottom, top and sides of the moulds. (vi) Concrete is then poured in. (vii) Hot water is pumped through the moulds. (viii) After the concrete is hard enough, the moulds can be removed.

(ix) Buildings can be erected by means of this system, far more quickly than by traditional methods. Now complete the paragraph below: (i) A building can be erected more quickly, (ii) If concrete is heated, (iii) Often, steel moulds are made, which

(iv) Rectangular steel moulds are lined with for (v) After the concrete has been poured in,
(vi) After the water has been pumped through the moulds, (vii) The moulds are removed, after

(viii) Using this system

12.

A CONTRACT BETWEEN A BUILDER

AND HIS CLIENT: EXCERPTS

Builder and client sign a contract

1 . The builder shall carry out and complete the work in strict accordance with the drawings and specifications attached hereto, in a good and workmanlike manner and to the reasonable satisfaction of the client, for the sum of $
2. If the builder shall fail or neglect to complete the work on or before ( d a t e ) , he shall pay to the employer (by way of damages, and not by way of penalty) the sum of $ for every week or part of a week during which the completion is delayed.

completion, shall be agreed in writing between the client and the builder before the variation is carried out, and the contract price stated in Clause One and the date of completion stated in Clause Two shall be altered accordingly.

5. The builder shall make good at his own expense any damage caused by him, his agents or his employees, or by any subcontractor.
6. The builder shall make good at his own expense any defects, shrinkages or other faults which may appear within six months from the completion of the works, arising from materials or workmanship not in accordance with the contract.
7. The client and the builder agree that should any dispute or difference arise between them out of the work, either party shall give to the other written notice of such dispute or difference and at the same time shall refer the matter to an arbitrator agreed by both parties, whose decision shall be final and binding on both parties.

3. The builder shall comply with all prevailing rules, regulations, laws and bye-laws relating to the works; he shall pay all fees legally due in connection with them and he shall be responsible for giving all necessary notices, and arranging for inspections to take place.
4. No variation to the work described in Clause One shall invalidate the contract, but any such variation, (whether by omission, addition or substitution), together with the cost and the effect of a delay on the day of
Copyright

We acknowledge the Consumers Assoclation for an extract from 'Extending Your House used by permission of the pubi~sliers Corlsumers A s s o c ~ a t i o ~ >

49

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary

(iv) Copper electricity better than any other metal. (v) They could not repair the engine for most of the were missing.

A The words in List A are used in the passage. Pair these w i t h the words from List B which could be substituted for them i n the passage. Keep the original meaning: List B List A strict disagreement damages punishment penalty current prevailing exact dispute compensation
B. Read the following statement of complaint t o a builder: 'You put in a fire-place that was not in the specifications; you left out the window in the kitchen; and you used plywood instead of hardboard for the partition walls.' Answer these questions: (i) What was the omission? (ii) What was the addition! (iii) What was the substitution?

2
A. List the advantages to a client of having a contract w i t h a builder. B. Choose the correct answer a, 6, c, or d, to each of the following questions.. (i) According to the passage, when may a builder have to pay his client damages? a. when the workmanship is unsatisfactory b. when there is a variation to the specification c. when there is a dispute between the parties to the contract d. when the work is not completed by the agreed date (ii) According to the passage, who is responsible for ensuring that all regulations, etcetera, are obeyed? a. the client b. the builder c. the arbitrator d. both parties to the contract (iii) According to the passage, what must be done before any changes are made to the drawing and /or specifications? a. The changes must be referred to an arbitrator. b. The contract must be invalidated. c. The changes must be agreed in writing by both parties to the contract. d. The builder must do them at his own expense. (iv) According to the passage, who makes

C. Learn these prefixes: con, com = with; together contract = an agreement with someone Look u p the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: conducts connected construction combustion components Complete each of these sentences w i t h a word taken from the above list: (i) Petrol is generally used as fuel in internal engines. (ii) As soon as he the battery cells, the bulb lit up. (iii) The new factory is still under

the final decision if there is a disagreement between the client and t h e builder? a. the builder b. the client c. the arbitrator d. no-one. The contract is cancelled. C. State what the builder might have to do at his own expense, according to the contract.

3 Language Practice
A. Study this sentence: The builder shall complete t h e w o r k i n accordance w i t h the specifications. Change each of the following groups of words and phrases into a sentence in the style of the sentence above: (i) employee / perform / w o r k / jobdescription (ii) mechanic / maintain / vehicle / m a n u facturer's instructions (iii) architect / submit / plans / regulations (iv) employer / make / full payment / terms of contract B. Study this sentence: The builder shall b e responsible for arranging all inspections. Change the following into sentences in the style of the sentence above: ( I ) A l l mechanics must complete their o w n job cards. (ii) All employees must obey safety regulations. (iii) Inspectors must maintain quality c o n trot. (iv) Drivers must maintain their o w n vehicles. (v) Machine oper2tors must clean their o w n machines.

Inspecting a building site

Construction vehicles

C. Each clause in the extract from the contract, given in the passage, consists of one sentence. ('Clause' is the term given to each section of a contract, It is also a term used in discussing grammar.) Some of these sentences are very long, and contain several ideas. Refer t o the passage, and rewrite each clause i n simpler English, using these guidelines:
1. The builder must complete the work according to The builder must complete the work in and to 2. If the builder doesn't complete the work on time, he The damages will be $ for every week or 3. The builder will comply with He will pay He will give He will arrange

4. No variation to the work described in Clause One will Before a variation can be made, it must be agreed to The contract price and the date of completion must be 5. A builder must pay for 6 . A builder must pay for if they appear A builder must pay for these faults if they arise from 7. If there is a dispute, the builder and the employer must They must refer the matter The arbitrator's decision will be

4 Composition
Mr H. Hijazi of West Street, Abadan, had to borrow fifteen hundred dollars, to buy some new machinery for his business. H e borrowed it from the Ever-ready Credit Unioq whose interest rate was fifteen and six-tenths per cent per annum or thirteen and three-tenths per cent per month. He agreed to pay fortyseven dollars every two weeks. The agreement was signed by a Mr Evans and witnessed by a Mr Burns on 22 April 1979. Repayments commenced on 6 May 1979. Use the details given above t o write out a complete version of the following L o a n
Agreement:

Agreement made this of on of other part.

A building site

1 the

day 9 between one part and on the

Whereas the Borrower has requested the Ever-ready Credit Union to lend him the

52

for the purpose of which the Ever-ready Credit Union is willing to do upon the signing of this agreement by the Borrower.
sum of
p

N o w it is witnessed : 1. The Ever-ready Credit Union will lend to the Borrower $ 2. The Borrower will use the said sum for the purpose of 3. The Borrower will repay to the Ever-ready Credit Union the said sum by regular instalments of $ such repayments to commence on

4. The Ever-ready Credit Union will charge per cent per interest of month. Such interest is included in the repayment instalment referred to above. 5. The Borrower certifies that he is physically able to perform the usual duties of his occupation. A s witness the hands of the parties on the day and year first written above. Signed by the said as Borrower in the presence of Signed for and on behalf of Ever-ready Credit Union by in the presence of

13. CRANES

rope

A magnetic crane

--

winch

Fig.13.1

Ajibcrane

wheels. The force arm (the length of the lever between the applied force and the fulcrum) is measured from the height of the crane to the front wheels. If the crane tries to lift too heavy a toad, it may tip forward. Many cranes ring a warning bell if the load is dangerously heavy.
A crane lifts its load by winding a wire rope round a drum called a winch. This is driven through a train of gears by an engine or an electric motor. The operator can stop it and hold it in any position by powerful brakes. Most jib cranes can swivel round in a full circle and they may be mounted on wheels so that they can move from place to place.

wheelend trolley

winch

vFig. 13.2

pulley

An overhead travelling crane

There are two main types of crane-the jib and the overhead. Thejib has a long arm-the jib-which points outwards horizontally or up at an angle. The crane works on the principle of the lever. The front wheels of the crane act as the fulcrum of the lever, which is the pivot about which movement takes place. The load arm (the length of the lever) is measured from the load to the front

In factories and engineering workshops, an overhead travelling crane is often used. It has a strong, steel, frame with wheels at each end which run along a track fixed high up along the walls of the building. It is called a wheelend trolley, as it can run from end to end. The trolley carries the electric motor, gearing and a winch that winds up the wire rope carrying the load. The load can be raised, moved and lowered at any point along the full length of the workshop. There

A jib crane

An overhead crane

are very large outdoor overhead cranes as well, called 'Goliath cranes', w h i c h run along tracks placed at ground-level. M o s t cranes have steel hooks, t o w h i c h the loads are fastened, a t t h e end o f their lifting ropes. B u t for lifting loose material, such as grain or sand, they have 'grabs' w h i c h open and close like j a w s . W h e n scrap iron and steel have t o be moved, electro-magnets may be dropped i n t o the scrap. W h e n the electricity is switched on, t h e magnets attract large amounts of iron scrap. This is carried away, and dropped b y s w i t c h i n g off t h e magnet.

Complete each of these sentences w i t h one of the compound words you have made: (i) The metal w a s very well-equipped. (ii) The action of t h e pistons turns t h e

(iii) A stone struck t h e the car a n d shattered it. (iv) The mains girders were placed i n position. ( v ) The metal has been coated w i t h substance. (vi) The w i n d o w s had t o be repaired b e c a ~ thev were n o t

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A . 'Overhead' i n line 1 is a n example of a c o m p o u n d word-two w o r d s j o i n e d t o make one. Make other compound words from the
following work water tight list: shaft screen crank

B. L earn these prefixes: ad, ac, at = to, t o w a r d s attract = t o d r a w towards

Look up the meanings of these words i n your dictionaries.. accelerated adjusted attached accumulators advance Complete each of these sentences w i t h a word taken from the above list: ( i ) They decided t o the firing time of t h e spark-plug. (ii) I n addition t o its use i n lead is also used as a base for lead paint.

UP rust right

wind proof shop

(iii) A hook is to the wire rope on the crane. (iv) The temperature of the room can be by the thermostat. (v) The driver , and passed the truck in front.

C. Explain w h a t the f o l l o w i n g refer to: (i) 'it' in line 14 (ii) 'this' in line 18

3 Language Practice
2 Comprehension
A
Explaln briefly how a jib crane lifts its load.

A. Study this sentence: A crane lifts its load by winding a wire rope
round a drum. Change the following into sentences in the style of the sentence above: ( i ) If machinery is installed, production will be increased. (ii) If panels are pre-cast on the site, costs will be reduced. (iii) If a catalyst is used, the refining process will be speeded up. (iv) If a strong spring is inserted, faster valve operation will be obtained.

B . Choose the correct answer a, 6, c, or d,

to each of the following questions: (i) According to the passage, what is the fulcrum ? a. t h e j i b b. the train of gears c. the pivot about which movement takes place d. part of the winch (ii) According to the passage, what may the crane do if it lifts too heavy a load? a, snap the wire rope b. drop the load c, damage the brakes d. tip forward (iii) According to the passage, which of the following is not found on the wheelend trolley: a, an electric motor b. a winch c. the gearing d. steel hooks (iv) According to the passage, what are the 'grabs' for ? a. to operate the winch b. to pick up loose materials c. to control the electric motor d. to move the wheelend trolley

B. Study these sentences.. (i) Cranes are mounted on wheels. (ii) This enables them t o move from place to place. (iii) Cranes are mounted on wheels so that they can move from place to place. Change each of the f o l l o w i n g pairs o f sentences into a sentence i n the style o f ( i i i )
above. (i) Computers are used in banks. They enable the clerks to get information quickly and accurately. (ii) Moulds are set up on the building site. This enables the workers t o cast the panels economically. (iii) Grabs are used on a crane. This enables the operator t o pick up loose material. (iv) Men use levers. This enables them to lift heavy weights.

C. Study the use of 2 s well' in line 38 of the passage. I t is used t o a d d more information t o a statement. As well, i n addition, also, furthermore are all used i n a similar w a y . Use one of these words or phrases t o write two sentences about each of the following. Use the words in brackets to start your second sentence. (i) Electric door bells: easy t o install inexpensive t o r u n (in addition) (ii) Cranes: can lift a heavy load can carry it t o a n e w position (also) (iii) Generators: produce a l t e r n a t ~ n g current produce direct current (as well) (iv) Large construction provide employment for corn pan ies: thousands of people pay workers g o o d wages (furthermore)

A container being loaded

4 Composition
Write a paragraph by joining the groups of sentences below. Use the following joining words and combinations of joining words. (The numbers indicate the groups of sentences where they are t o be used.) You will have to do some rearrangement of words T a k e care w i t h your grammar. (i) when (ii) w h i c h (tit) after (iv) w h i c h . . . and (v) w h i c h . . . that (vi) either . . . or (vii) w h i c h

(viii) w h e n . . . a n d . . . n o t o n l y . . . b u t also (i) Goods are sent overseas. They are loaded quickly b y cranes i n t o special c o n tainer ships. A container is a very large, rectangular (ii) box. Goods of all shapes a n d sizes c a n b e p u t into this box. (iii) The containers are packed t h r o u g h a door at o n e end. The goods have been carried there b y a conveyor belt. (iv) A conveyor consists o f a band made o f rubber or canvas. This b a n d runs along t h e t o p o f roljers. I t carries things o n its upper surface. (v) The goods are sometimes carried t o t h e far e n d o f the container b y a small f o r k lift truck. I t has t w o metal prongs. The prongs carry t h e load. ( v i ) These machines c a n be driven b y a diesel engine. They c a n be driven b y a n electric motor. (vii) The electric trucks carry their o w n p o w e r supply i n large storage batteries. These batteries are re-charged at t h e e n d o f each day. (viii) The containers arrive at their final destination. They are emptied. This saves time. This reduces t h e chance o f damage.

14. FIRE PROTECTION

water

the piston moves down in event of fire, owing to the pressure of water behind it

Fig. 14.1 A cross-section sprinkler head

of

an

automatic

pilot valve

Owners of public buildings are required, both by the law and by insurance companies, t o provide adequate fire protection. Engineers have designed a variety of fire-extinguishers suitable for use in a variety o f conditions i n industry. One of the most effective o f these is an automatic sprinkler and fire-alarm system. It is used particularly i n such places as computer rooms, record or chemical storage areas, museums and art galteries. It is d e signed t o extinguish fire i n its early stages. Each sprinkler head w h i c h is installed i n the system is fully automatic. This means that water is discharged only w h e n needed. When the heat from the fire rises, i t raises the temperature of the nearest sprinkler head t o its operating point-seventy-four degrees centigrade. The opened sprinkler head releases water on t o the fire and the fire area only. If necessary, the next sprinkler head takes care of its o w n area. This ensures that water damage is minimised. When the heat from the fire is removed by the water, the sprinkler automatically turns itself off. There is n o need for any readjustments or replacements after operation.

When a fire occurs and the temperature rises above seventy-four degrees centigrade, a bimetallic snap disc opens. ( I t works i n a way similar ( b u t not identical) t o the thermostat, described i n Unit 6.) A small amount of water passes through the pilot valve. This action releases pressure o n the piston assembly. Water forces the piston down, allowing water to discharge onto the fire. When the fire is controlled and the heat has dropped t o approximately thirty-eight degrees centi grade, the bi-metallic snap disc cools and contracts and snaps back into its original place again. This closes the pilot valve which, i n turn, causes water t o build u p i n the pressure chamber a n d forces the piston assembly upwards to shut off the water
SUPP~Y.

Another advantage of this system is that it simultaneously sounds a n alarm i n the building and automatically notifies a firebrigade. The alarm g o n g a n d the signal to the fire- brigade g o off automatically, actuated by the action of the water f l o w i n g through the pipes leading t o the sprinklers w h i c h have been operated. I n many instances, the fire is extinguished before the fire-brigade arrives.

EXERCISES

2 Comprehension
A. State w h y such places as computer rooms, record or chemical storage areas, art galleries and museums w o u l d install automatic sprinkler alarm systems.

1 Vocabulary
A . These words are used in the passage: (i) adequate (ii) suitable (iii) effective (iv) minimised (v) automatically (vi) advantage Pair them w i t h their opposites. B. The words in List A are used in the passage. Pair these w i t h the words from List B which could be substituted for them in the passage. Keep the original meaning; List A List B discharged informs snaps at the same time builds up put into action simultaneously closes quickly notifies accumulates actuated pushed out
C . L earn this prefix. en = to make ensure = to make sure Look up the meanings of these words i n your dictionaries. encrusted encased enforced enclosed endangered Complete each of these sentences w i t h a word taken from the above list., (i) Faulty wiring in the house the lives of all who lived there. (ii) The battery terminals were with sulphate salts. (iii) Nuclear wastes are in lead containers for safety purposes. (iv) Laws regarding safety precautions in public places must be (v) The building site was by a high wooden fence.

B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, t o each of the following questions. (i) According to the passage, when does the sprinkler operate automatically? a. when the alarm is sounded b. when the water flows through the pipes c. when the temperature of the sprinkler head rises to seventy-four degrees centigrade d. when water builds up in the pressure chamber (ii) According to the passage, which of the following is n o t part of the sprinkler head? a. the bi-metallic snap disc b. the pressure chamber c. the piston d. the alarm gong (iii) According to the passage, which of the following is not true of the automatic sprinklers? a. Water is discharged only when needed. b. No readjustment is necessary after operation. c. Water damage is minimised. d. All sprinklers operate simultaneously. (iv) According to the passage, what is the fire brigade notified by? a. the action of the bi-metallic snap disc b. the personnel of the building c. the water flowing through the pipes to the operating sprinklers d. an alarm gong

C. Explain what the following refer to: (i) ' t h e s e 1 i n l i n e 6 (ii) 'this action' i n lines 32-33 (iii) 'which' i n line 49

3 Language Practice
A Study this sentence. The water is discharged o n l y w h e n needed. Using the correct form of the words, change each of the following groups of words into a sentence in the style of the sentence above: (i) water / use / purify (ii) goods / pay l deliver (iii) defects / remedy / report (iv) disc / expand / heat ( v ) components / replace / check B. The following words indicating time are often used to join statements: while after before assoonas until when Study these sentences: (i) The heat f r o m t h e fire rises. Then it raises t h e temperature of t h e sprinkler head. (ii) When t h e heat f r o m t h e fire rises, i t raises the temperature of t h e sprinkler head. Change the following pairs of sentences into a sentence in the style of (ii) above. Use the joining words that give the correct meaning, from the list above. ( i ) The heat drops t o approximately thirtyeight degrees centigrade. T h e n t h e bi-metallic snap disc closes t h e pilot valve. (ii) The water f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e pipes. At that exact moment the alarm is sounded. (iii) The fittings are lifted t o t h e completed floor by cranes. Then t h e electricians install them. (iv) This sports car c a n travel at t w o hundred

kilometres per hour. B u t first i t must b e r u n i n carefully. (V) The experts set the dynamite charges. During this process, t h e area is cleared of all personnel. (vi) The machine is installed properly. If not, it cannot b e operated successfully.
C . Study these sentences: (i) Water forces t h e piston d o w n . This allows water t o discharge o n t o t h e fire. (ii) Water forces t h e piston d o w n , a l l o w i n g water t o discharge o n t o t h e fire. Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence in the style of (ii) above: (i) The water actuates a signal. This notifies t h e fire- brigade. (ii) The sprinkler releases water o n t o t h e area. This extinguishes t h e fire. (iii) The heat subsides. This causes t h e b i metallic disc to snap back again. (iv) The temperature rises t o seventy-four degrees centigrade. This automatically puts t h e sprinkler i n t o ooeration. ( v ) Standardised fittings are produced. This lowers t h e cost of construction.

4 Composition
Complete the following description of a lift pump, selecting the correct word from the choices in each of the brackets. Use the information given in the diagram of a lift Pump. The lift p u m p consists o f a containing a k i n d of p i s t o n called a w h i c h moves u p and d o w n

handle
spou 1

\
the arrows show the passage of water

valve

t
A n automatic sprinkler head in action

Fig. 14.2

A lift-pump

when the

is moved. When

trap-door. When the handle rises again, and valve the plunger moves down, the water, unable pipe to go back through the valve, forces open another in the plunger. The

UP the handle is pushed down, the plunger in hole rises, creating a vacuum in the cylinder space below it. Water rises up the pipe into the cylinder piston to fill the vacuum, passing through handle the which opens to let the

opens next time the plunger closes, this water is rises level driven up to a higher piston and out of the valve pump, while more water is drawn into the cyclinder.

water oxygen through and then closes like a air

15. SOLAR ENERGY

The first person to use the sun's energy on a large scale was the Greek, Archimedes. He used it to set fire to an attacking Roman fleet at Syracuse in 21 2 B.C. He did this by means of a burning glass composed of small square mirrors made to move in all directions on hinges. In the early twentieth century, solar energy was used to power water distillation plants in Chile and irrigation pumps in Egypt. Today over ninety-eight per cent of our energy comes from fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. But coal and oil are not only fuels. They are also important raw materials for our chemical industries. People now think we should limit their use as fuel, otherwise the world's supply will soon run out. Consequently, much research is being done into the practical use of the sun for heating (and cooling) buildings. The less fossil fuel we use now, the more we will have for the future. Solar energy is transmitted from the sunthrough space-to earth, by electromagnetic radiation. It must be converted to heat before it can be used. Various types of solar energy collectors (also called absorbers or absorber plates) are used to convert the sun's radiation to heat. In the building outlined in the diagram, solar-heated hot water provides not only the building's hot-water requirements, but space-heating as well. This solar system, based on water-heating, works like this. Each of its collectors, placed on the roof, consists of a shallow fibreglass tray that holds a number of copper tubes under a special glass cover. The tubes are, in turn, fixed to a blackened metal surface which absorbs energy from the sun. The sun's rays, passing through the glass, heat the water in the tubes.
A burning glass

Since the energy is available only during the day and only then when there is not a great deal of cloud cover, the heat must be stored. This can be done in water, or in rock or pebble beds. In the building shown in the diagram, the energy is stored in the hot water in the pipes. In Brisbane, the University of Queensland is co-operating with a major Australian construction company to set up a Solar City Estate. Over a period of twelve years, foui thousand homes are being built on five hundred and sixty hectares. These homes will be based on a prototype solar home which has been used for research and demonstration purposes. It has an independent solar hot-water heating system, a solar air-conditioning and heating system, a solar- heated swimming-pool, a built-in solar .barbecue, solar screening and insulation. There is also a limited solar electric system. This is used to power such electrical equipment as television sets and fans. People in industry and science are more aware than ever of the need to conserve natural resources. The sun is a large, relatively untapped, source of pollution-free energy.

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A. State what you following. (i) a fleet (ii) a hinge (iii) a prototype
understand
by

the

B. The words i n List A are used i n the passage. Pair these w i t h the words from List B which could be substituted for them i n the passage. Keep the original meaning: List A List B raw comparatively limit changed apparatus equipment converted natural relatively restrict
C. L earn this prefix: (i) u n = not

untapped = not tapped; n o t used (ii) u n = t o d o t h e opposite of . . Unlock the door. = Do the opposite of locking the door. Look u p the meanings of these words i n your dictionaries: unvarnished unqualified unmanned unscrew unload Complete each o f these sentences w i t h a w o r d taken from the above list: (i) H e had t o the radiator cap t o check the level of the water. (ii) Three cranes were brought in t o the huge container ship. (iii) Several spacecraft are circling the earth gathering information for research purDoses. , (iv) There was a shortage o f skilled workers so they had t o employ tradesmen. (v) Sales o f furniture i n creased after the advertising campaign.

A laundry, using solar energy for industrial water heating

2 Comprehension
A. Explain w h y and h o w solar energy has t o
be stored.

C. List the uses t o w h i c h solar energy is p u t in the prototype solar h o m e mentioned in the passage.

B. Choose the correct answer a, 6, c, or d, to each of the f o l l o w i n g questions: (i) According to the passage, which of the following is n o t a fuel? a. oil b. water c. coal d. natural gas (ii) According to the passage, what must be done to solar energy before it can be used? a, it must be stored in rock beds b. it must be distilled c. it must be converted t o heat d. it must be cooled (iii) According to the passage, why is the metal surface of an absorber blackened? a. to radiate the heat b. to absorb the heat c, to protect the metal d. to prevent rust (iv) According to the passage, why is there so much research into the use of solar energy? a. More irrigation projects are needed. b. The construction industry is expanding. c. Fossil fuels are running out. d. It transmits electromagnetic radiation.

3 Language Practice
A. The f o l l o w i n g w o r d s are used t o join
statements that may s h o w alternatives or choices: otherwise or else Study these sentences, which illustrate their
use.

(i) The use of coal and oil for fuel should be limited; otherwise the world's supply will soon run out. (ii) The use of coal and oil for fuel should be limited or etse the world's supply will soon run out. Change each of the f o l l o w i n g groups of words and phrases into two statements, one using otherwise, one using or else, i n the manner of the examples above. Pay particular attention to the punctuation in the examples. (i) heads / should / clean / regularly / sound production / be unsatisfactory

(ii) shock absorbers / have t o / f i t / vibration / cause / discomfort (iii) estimates / o u g h t t o / g i v e / contractors / overcharge (iv) tank / must / insulate / heat / lose (v) contract / should / sign / disputes / occur

B. Study these sentences: (i) W e use more fuel n o w . W e will have less for t h e future. (ii) T h e more fuel w e use n o w , t h e less w e w i l l have for t h e future. Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence in the style of (ii) above: (i) The fuel w e use is richer. T h e temperature i n the engine is higher. (ii) The steel w e use is hard. It is more difficult t o work. (iii) The force w e use is great. The w h e e l turns faster. (iv) We use more lubrication. There is less friction in the parts.
C. There are differences i n t h e w o r d s used i n speaking about technical matters a n d t h e words used in writing technical English. Often a more formal equivalent is used w h e n writing. Here are three phrasal verbs used i n the passage, w i t h their more formal equivalents: set fire t o (line 3) = ignite fixed t o (line 36) = attached (to) set up (line 49) = establish These w o r d s are also more formal: absorb performed radiate erected dismantle maintains circulates conveyed establish re-assemble retain

Use each of them to replace its equivalent in italics in the sentences below: (i) The sun's rays, w h i c h spread out t h r o u g h t h e earth's atmosphere, are a source o f energy. (ii) Experiments w e r e carried out o n t h e various types o f collectors. (iii) Collectors c a n b e put up o n t h e roofs of houses. (iv) A blackened sheet of metal takes in t h e sun's energy. (v) Glass sheets are placed over t h e absorber plate t o keep i n t h e heat. (vi) H o t water naturally goes round and round f r o m t h e absorber i n t o t h e storage tank. (vii) The water keeps up its heat if the storage tank is w e l l insulated. (viii) You c a n take these units t o pieces and put t h e m together again very easily. (ix) The water is carriedalong t o t h e kitchen a n d bathroom b y pipes. ( X ) Costs t o set up solar heating systems may be expensive b u t r u n n i n g costs are minimal.

4 Composition
Describe the solar heating and cooling i n the home shown in the diagram, using the diagram itself and the information given in the notes, the passage, and in Exercise C. Building: T w o -storey Floor area: Six hundred a n d seventy square metres Location': Colorado Springs, Colorado Latitude: Thirty-eight a n d a half degrees N o r t h Altitude: T w e l v e hundred a n d t w e n t y metres

ravs of sun

solar collector (absorber plate) A (consists of a shallow fibre-glass

solar collector (absorber plate) B the arrows show the direc$ion of water circulation, by convection in pipes
.

fixed to a blackened metal surface)

outside air

electric ho~ t water heater

--.
rage tank

cold water service

3
coils (radiators) used to heat building

city wal:er selrvice

Fig. 15.1

A diagrammatic view of a solar hot-water system

Collector:

Storage:

Type: Flat plate, double-glazed Area: Two hundred and fifty square metres Position: Roof, integrat Tilt: Fifty-five degrees Type: Water Volume: Variable; thirty-six thousand, three hundred and seventy litres maximum Location: Buried beneath driveway

System:

Performance:

Container: Three metres diameter by four and a half metres long uninsulated steel tank Temperature: Ninety-three degrees centigrade Capacity: Five days carry through Solar-assisted, liquid-to-air heat pump, used for airconditioning in summer Eighty per cent of annual heat requirement predicted

16. DRAINAGE

wire balloon

'

waste pipe

chan (cover removed)

/
Drains being laid
-c&ent rendering

(NOT TO SCALE)

Fig. 16.1 house

The drainage system of a two-storey

A drain is a pipe b e l o w g r o u n d level. Pipes above g r o u n d level are n o t termed drains. Wash- basi ns, baths, sinks, showers a n d bidets are k n o w n as waste appliances; and all pipes above g r o u n d level, conveying only water from such appliances, are waste pipes. Lavatories are k n o w n as soil appliances. Pipes above g r o u n d level conveying water f r o m a soil appliance are soil pipes. So are pipes above g r o u n d level carrying water from b o t h a soil appliance a n d a waste appliance. A ventilation pipe is another t y p e of pipe above ground-level. It is o p e n t o t h e external air at its highest p o i n t a n d is connected t o t h e drainage system.

made. Every length o f drain m u s t b e laid i n a straight line. Bends are o n l y permitted if there is an inspection chamber a t every change o f direction. Drains are always laid starting f r o m t h e l o w e r e n d o f t h e iength o f drain. The pipes slope upwards t o w a r d s t h e appliance or appliances t o b e drained. If existing drains are already near t h e surface, i t m a y n o t be possible t o make n e w connections t o t h e m w i t h sufficient slope. I n s u c h a case, a n e w set of drains w i l l have t o be laid t o t h e public sewer. Every drainage system m u s t b e ventilated t o t h e external air so t h a t any gases i n t h e drains can escape. This is d o n e t h r o u g h a vertical pipe leading f r o m t h e highest p o i n t of t h e drains. T h e p i p e runs f r o m b e l o w g r o u n d level t o above t h e t o p o f any w i n d o w . It generally terminates at a b o u t three feet above roof level. If n e w drains are being connected t o an existing drainage system at a higher p o i n t t h a n t h e existing ventilation pipe, t h e pipe w i l l have t o be moved, or a n e w o n e installed.

A n e w connection t o a n existing drain is best made at an existing inspection chamber. If there is n o t a conveniently situated i n spection chamber, a n e w o n e should b e

We acknowledge the Coosurners' A s s o c ~ a t ~ ofor n an extract from Extenri~ng\,'our House' used by permissiari of the publ~shers,Consumers' A s s o c ~ a t ~ o n . Copyr~ght

EXERCISES

(iv) The paper was so that the delivery docket could be torn off easily. (v) All drawings of the house were in

1 Vocabulary
A . Write out from the following list, the pairs of words that are opposife in meaning to one another. below terminating external downwards straight horizontal internat vertical upwards starting bent above

2 Comprehension
A. Explain briefly the difference between a
waste appliance and a soil appliance.

B. Study this definition:

A drain is a pipe below ground level for conveying waste liquids. Give definitions of the following in the style of the sentence above: (i) a waste pipe (ii) an inspection chamber (iii) a soil pipe (iv) a ventilation pipe C . Learn this prefix: per through permitted = allowed through Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: pervade permeate perspective permutation perforate Complete each of these sentences with the correct form of a word taker? from the above 1;st: (i) They had to inspect the drainage pipes because water was through the soil. (1;) The smell of smoke the entire factory floor before the fire was noticed. (iii) The mathematician worked out the numpossible before feeding ber of the information into the computer.

B. Choose the correct answer a, 6, c, or d,

to each of the following questions:

(i) According to the passage, which pipes are connected to an inspection chamber? a, drains b. waste pipes c. soil pipes d. all kinds of pipes (ii) According t o the passage, what is the usual final outlet for a drainage system? a. an inspection chamber b. a ventilation pipe c. a soil pipe d, a public sewer (iii) According to the passage, which of the following is true about all waste and soil pipes ? a. They must slope downwards from the appliances. b. They must slope upwards from the appliances. c. They must be closed t o the external air. d. They must meet a t an inspection chamber.

C. Explain what the following refer to.

(i) ' I n s u c h a c a s e ' i n l i n e 2 9 (ii) 'This' in line 36 (iii) 'It' in line 40

A filter bed

A reservoir

3 Language Practice
A. Study these sentences.. ( i ) A n inspection chamber is t h e best place t o make a n e w connection t o an existing drain. (at) (ii) A n e w connection t o a n existing drain is best made a t an inspection chamber. Change t h e f o l l o w i n g i n t o sentences i n the style of ( i i ) above. U s e the preposition suggested: (i) A j u n c t i o n b o x is t h e best place t o add an additional p o w e r line. (at) (ii) A p o w e r p l u g is the best place t o insert a fuse. ( i n ) (iii) A n outside wall is t h e best place t o install a waste appliance. (against) (iv) Roof level is t h e best place t o terminate a ventilation pipe. (at) ( v ) A n isolated shed is t h e best place t o store explosives. (in) B. Study these sentences: (i) The making of n e w connections w i t h sufficient slope m a y n o t be possible. (ii) It may n o t be possible t o make n e w t connections w i t h s u f f i c ~ e n slope. Change t h e f o l l o w i n g into sentences in t h e style of (it) above: ( i ) The replacement o f all t h e bearings may

n o t b e necessary. (ii) The installation of a n e w set o f drains may be desirable. (iii) The obtaining of spare parts m a y be difficult. ( i v ) The removal o f all s t a i n s f r o m t h e surface of the table m a y b e impossible. ( v ) Increasing the height o f t h e ventilation pipe m a y b e advisable.

C . S h o u l d a n d o u g h t t o indicate w h a t is advised or w h a t is t h o u g h t t o be required. M u s t a n d have t o indicate necessity or obligation. Can indicates ability. M a y indicates possibility.
S t u d y these sentences; w h i c h illustrate these uses: ( i ) A n e w inspection chamber s h o u l d b e

made. (ii) A n e w inspection chamber o u g h t t o be made. (iii) A n e w set of drains m u s t b e laid. (iv) A n e w set of drains has t o be laid. ( v ) System building c a n b e used o n l y w h e r e t h e space is n o t t o o confined. (vi) You m a y need t o have a n e w gear b o x p u t i n your car.

source - river, reservoir or well

draw-off towers (provide gravity feed)

filtration station (sand and gravel) primary secondary filters

I

pun;lps pumping stora~e station reservoir

pipes filters

chemical chlorination plant

service

pumping

reservoir (covered)

street main

,station

Fig. 16.2

A diagrammatic view of a water-works system

Using the correct form of the verbs suggested, change the following into sentences in the style of (;)-(v;) above: (i) Tape heads (clean) regularly. (Advice) (ii) Explosives (handle) carefully. (Necessity) (iii) Hydraulic jacks (used) t o raise buildings. (Ability) (iv) L o w grade oil (substitute) for high grade oil. (Possibility) (v) Public buildings (protected) against fire. (Necessity) (vi) The course of rivers (changed) b y dams and tunnels. (Ability)

4 Composition
Study the diagram of a water works system. Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: filtration algae bacteria reservoir pumped underground main pipes purified drains service reservoirs chemical processes layers chlorination plant pumping Complete the passage below with words

taken from the above list: Water is obtained from rivers, wells or dams. When the water is from rivers, it goes into a large, open A large amount of suspended material settles here and many disease- producing w i l l die off. Unfortunately, a very small plant, , grows i n still bodies of water like this. These plants are removed by . The water is moved from the storage reservoir t o the station b y the use of draw-off towers. These give a natural head of water by gravity-feed, so that is not always necessary. A t the filtration station, the water is allowed t o pass through of gravels and sands i n t w o different stages. Under the gravels a n d sands there are through w h i c h the water passes t o the second filtration stage. Impurities, such as iron and other minerals, are removed by . After the removal of impurities, the water passes t o a where it is treated w i t h the gas chlorine w h i c h kills bacteria. Then large pumps pass the water into From these covered service reservoirs the water passes into that supply houses and factories in the area.

17. SHIP REPAIRING

Throughout her working life, a ship-like a motor car-must be serviced regularly if she is t o remain efficient. After a period at sea she must be dry-docked for survey and any necessary repairs must be made. There are also instances w h e n a ship must be converted from being one kind of carrier t o another. Most of today's oil, for example, is carried by huge super-tankers. The smaller tankers, many of w h i c h are still i n g o o d condition, can be converted into bulk carriers for the transport of sugar, coal or ore. Conversion or repair w o r k is carried out i n a dry-dock, a huge hole cut into the ground and lined w i t h concrete. A t one end are large gates separating the dock from the river or sea. When these gates are opened, water pours into the dock and fills it. A ship can then enter the dock, where i t is carefully secured i n an upright position.
Ships in dry-dock

When the ship is positioned inside the dock the gates are closed and t h e water is pumped out. The vessel slowly settles o n t o wooden blocks. Wooden shores are put i n position between the ship and t h e sides of the dock t o prevent her f r o m rolling over. Great care is taken t o make sure that the ship rests evenly o n t h e keel blocks t o prevent damage being done. As soon as the ship is securely positioned, repair or conversion w o r k can begin o n her hull or superstructure. For smaller ships a less elaborate procedure is possible. They may be dry-docked b y winching them u p a slipway i n t o a workshed.

Small shipyards with slipways

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A . The words i n List A are used i n the passage. Pair these w i t h the words from List B which could be substituted for them in the passage. Keep the origins/ rneanir~g: List A List B remain examination survey comes t o rest converted stay shores supports settles changed
B. Explain briefly what you understand by each of the following expressions: (i) working life (ii) dry-docked (iii) bulk carrier (iv) the keel blocks (v) super-tanker

(v) I t w a s necessary t o the dry-docking of the ship, as the gate operator was n e w t o the job.

2 Comprehension
A. Describe a dry dock. B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, t o each of the following questions: (i) According t o the passage, i n w h a t w a y is a ship like a motor car? a. It needs t o b e serviced i n a dry dock. b. It requires regular maintenance. c. It can be converted. d. It has a long working life. (ii) According t o t h e passage, w h y have many smaller tankers been converted into bulk carriers? a. They need frequent servicing. b. M o s t oil is n o w carried b y supertankers. c. There is a shortage o f oil. d. They have only a short working life. (iii) From w h a t y o u have read from the passage, what d o y o u think happens t o a dry dock when the repairs t o a ship have been completed ? a. The water is pumped out. b. The gates are opened and the water pours in. c. It is floated out t o sea. d. It is converted into another k i n d of dock. (;v) According t o the passage, h o w is a ship kept upright i n a dry d o c k ? a. It is filled w i t h concrete. b. The dock is lined w i t h concrete. c. It is shored u p w i t h pieces of wood. d. The keel blocks are removed.

C. Learn this prefix: super = above superstructure = structure above the main deck Look up the meanings of these words i n your dictionaries: su percharger supersonic su percede supervise superfine Complete each of these sentences with 'a word taken from the above list: (i) On checking the , they found it was not forcing enough oxygen into the cylinders. (ii) wiring was required i n the miniaturised computer. (iii) Did electric light gas light? (iv) The Concorde flies at speeds.

C. Rewrite the following stages in the order in which they occur: The ship is securely positioned. The ship enters a dry dock. The ship is repaired or converted. The ship is surveyed. The water is pumped out of the dock.

(ii) Apply the paint thinly so that it dries quickly. (iii) Adjust the carburettor correctly so that the engine runs smoothly. (iv) Lubricate the bearings so that the drive wheel turns easily. (v) Keep the cutting edge sharp so that the tool cuts cleanly.

3 Language Practice
A. Study these sentences: (i) A ship is like a'motor car. (ii) Throughout her working life she must be serviced regularly. (iii) Throughout her working life a ship, like a motor car, must be serviced regularly. Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence in the style of (iii) above: (i) Chlorothane is like alcohol. I t is a c o m monly used cleaning fluid. (ii) Television broadcasting is like radio broadcasting. It can describe events as they take place. (iii) Air-conditioning is like refrigeration. I t is an essential part of industrial processes. (iv) Kerosene is like petrol. I t is highly inflammable. (v) Some aircraft are like birds. They have variable w i n g positions.

C. Study these sentences: (i) The smaller tankers can be converted into bulk carriers. (ii) M a n y of them are still i n g o o d condition. (iii) The smaller tankers, many of w h i c h are still i n g o o d condition, can b e converted into bulk carriers. Change each of the following pairs of sentence in the style of (iii) above: (i) The spare parts had t o be air-freighted to the customer. Some of them were specially made. (ii) The designs are being considered b y the City Council. T w o of them w o n national awards. (iii) The smaller vehicles w i l l be offered at a reduced price. M o s t of them have been assembled locally. (iv) The safety precautions are inconvenient t o machine operators. At least t w o of them w i l l be ignored.
D. Study these sentences: (i) Begin work o n the repair or conversion w h e n the ship is securely positioned. (ii) A s soon as the ship is securely positioned work can begin o n the repair or conversion. Change the following into sentences in the style of (ii) above: (i) Apply the t o p coat w h e n t h e undercoat is dry.

B. Study these sentences: (i) Service a ship regularlv so that i t remains efficient. (ii) A ship must be serviced regularly if it is t o remain efficient. Change the following into sentences in the style of (ii) above: (i) Fix the guard i n place so that the machine operates safely.

(ii) Remove the cast from the mould w h e n it is hard. (iii) Adjust the fuel mixture w h e n the engine has warmed up. (iv) Carry out the first service w h e n the vehicle has completed a thousand kilometres. (v) Install all electric points w h e n the plastering is complete.

4 Composition
Each of the following sentences describes a stage i n the building o f a ship. Decide w h a t t h e correct sequence o f events is. Then rewrite the passage i n f e w e r sentences. Use joining w o r d s s u c h as as soon as, and, where, after which, when, and others: The ship is launched and t o w e d t o the fittingout quay. Detailed drawings are made. Architects, designers, ship-builders and o w n ers agree t o the shape, size and power of the ship. The heavy machinery-such as turbines, boilers and auxiliary engines-is installed. A schedule of progress is prepared. A berth is prepared. Plates forming succeeding decks and superstructure are added. Electricians, plumbers, carpenters and joiners complete the fitting-out, ready for sea trials. Orders are placed w i t h suppliers for materials. Steel plates and bulk-heads are welded together o n the slipway. Once sea trials are completed t o the satisfaction of the owners, they then take charge of the ship. Steel plates are prefabricated i n the w o r k shops and taken t o the slipway.

Checking the work against the plans

Welding steel plates

Positioning a preformed hull section

Electricians working on a generator part

Installing an engine

A ship being led to the fitting-out quay

18. ARC-WELDING

...

on a building site,

Arc welding in use on a farm,

. . . by the roadside,

Arc-welding in a workshop is a cheap, quick, usually adequate, no-fuss process. You need a simple alternating current transformer, attached to the welding set, which you plug into your domestic power, a helmet, goggles, cables, clamps and a welding rod. All that is required in arc-welding is to strike an intensely hot electrical arc between a flux-coated electrode (rod) and your workpiece. Both rod and workpiece melt and flow together. Very quickly, you have a weld. Techniques are simple. You set your pieces up so they won't fall apart while you are welding. You use an earth clamp to secure the work. This turns the workpiece into one side of an electrical circuit. When you touch the workpiece with the rod tip, the lowvoltage, high-amperage circuit is completed.

This gives you a n arc. Helmeted and wellguarded against the brightness and the ultraviolet rays, you see white-hot liquid metal forming instantly at the rod tip and at the work point. Don't hesitate, or you will pile too much metal in one place. The trick is to hold the arc gap accurately and t o move the filler rod along evenly. A vigorous, frying, hissing sound tells you the arc is about right. The temperature in the arc is close to three hundred and thirty degrees centigrade -hot enough to melt a localised spot in ordinary metals almost as soon as you strike the arc. The energy comes from the high amperage (current) passing between the rod and the work. You cannot use ordinary domestic current for this because the high voltage would be dangerous and unsuitable

EXERCISES
in a remote location.

1 Vocabulary
The words in l i s t A are used in the passage. Pair each of these w o r d s w i t h the w o r d f r o m List B w h i c h is its opposite i n meaning (as i t is used 117 the passage).. List A List B adequate broken melt slowly completed solidify instantly increased reduced inadequate relative complete

. . .and in

a small workshop

and you would have a dead short across the line. Your welder is basically a step-down transformer. You put in one hundred and fifteen or t w o hundred and thirty volts from your domestic circuit and take out twenty t o forty volts at amperages from thirty to t w o hundred and thirty. An important aspect of this reduced voltage is the relative safety it gives from electrical shock. There are t w o ways to strike an arc. One is simply to tap the rod down on the metal and then lift it clear, just enough to develop the arc, The other way is t o drag or strike the rod across the surface much as you would strike a match. Whichever way you use, you must keep the rod feeding down as it melts off, or the arc will be lost. Although the process sounds easy, substandard work will result if you are not careful.

B. 'workpiece' in line 9 ( = a piece of metal, wood-or anything else-on which you work) is an example of a compound word. M a k e other c o m p o u n d words f r o m the f o l l o w i n g list: power down drive feed over break speaker back loud tool Complete each o f these sentences w i t h one o f the c o m p o u n d w o r d s you have made: (i) Turn down the volume: there is through the microphone. S. (ii) Most tradesmen now use (iii) It is important to match the output of S to that of the amplifier. S are usually caused by (iv> faulty components. (v) Some cars have an additional gear to provide an
C. Learn these prefixes: sub; sus; sup = under; below substandard = below standard Look up the meanings o f these w o r d s i n your dictionaries: substance sub-base substrata support suspension

Complete each of these sentences with a word taken from the above list: (i) In road-building, the type of depends on the local geological conditions. (ii) Samples were taken of the during exploratory drilling so that geologists could examine them. (iii) A catatyst is a used for speeding up the oil refining process. (iv) Every modern car has an independent front (v) Hundreds of piles were driven into the ground to the huge complex of buildings.

(iv) According to the passage what is a transformer for? a. to increase the amperages b. to reduce the voltage c. to heat the rod d. to complete the circuit

3 Language Practice
A. Study this example: l nstruction Result You form an arc. Touch the work with the rod tip. Observation: When the work is touched with the rod tip, an arc is formed. Make observations from the following pairs of instructions and results, i n the style of the example above. Begin your observations with either when or if: l nstructions Results (i) Move the filler You melt the correct rod evenly. amount of metal. (ii) Do not hold the You do not pile up filler rod in the same too much metal. place. (iii) Do not use You do not cause a dead short in the line. domestic current. (iv) Install airHumidity does not conditioning in the damage the books. library. (v) Drop an It attracts a large electro-magnet into amount of scrap for the crane to lift. the heap of scrap metal.

2 Comprehension
A. Describe briefly two ways of striking an arc. B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, to each of the follow~ng questions: (i) According to the passage, which of the following do you not need for arc welding? a. power b. rivets c. cables d. a welding rod (it) According to the passage, an arc is formed between the workpiece and what else ? a. the transformer b. the clamps c. the cables d. the flux-coated electrode (iii) According to the passage, what will happen if you do not keep moving the filler rod along evenly? a. Ultraviolet rays will damage the metal. b. The workpiece will melt. c. The line will short. d. Too much metal will pile up on one place.

B. Study this sentence: You can't use ordinary domestic current for this because the high voltage would be dangerous.
Using the information in the relevant passages earlier in the book, complete the following

statements w i t h reasons, i n the same way as in the sentence above: (i) You shouldn't have a lot of water damage with automatic sprinklers because (ii) We needn't use only coal, natural gas and oil for fuel, since (iii) You rnustn't overload a crane for (iv) You can't use chlorophane to clean pinch rollers as

C. Study these sentences: (i) The process sounds easy. Substandard work will result if you are not careful. (ii) Although the process sounds easy, substandard work will result if you are not careful. Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence i n the style of (ii) above: (i) Great care was taken on the building site. There were several serious accidents. (ii) The engine performs well. It is too expensive for us to install. (iii) Computer equipment may be complicated and difficult to repair. The homecomputer industry is expanding rapidly. (iv) The fire alarm was sounded immediately. The Fire Brigade arrived too late to save the building. (v) Wooden shores had been put into position for support. The ship began to roll in the dry-dock.

4 Composition
Look u p the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: plate prefabrication technique assembly shop

riveting unit berth manual equipment fatigue semi -automatic samples defects tensile standards X-ray Rewrite the passage below, o n the shipbuilding industry, completing it w i t h words taken from the above list: Nowadays welding has almost entirely superseded for joining together the steel plates of which a ship is built. This has enabled a new to be used, called . Previously, every individual had to be carried from the plate shop to the for the riveters to secure it in position. Today, whole sections are built up by welding in the and then taken as a complete to the berth for welding. A great deal of the welding is done by individual welders using particularly on the structure of the ship in the berth. But prefabrication in the shop lends itself to automatic welding. Modern assembly shops have a number of completely automatic and welding machines. Materials and methods used in the construction of a ship should be free of . Conventional tests are made of of the materials to be used, to check that they meet with the prescribed of strength and resistence to . During construction, the latest scientific instruments are used to examine the welds. This includes radiography by , ultrasonic testing for internal defects, and magnetic crack detection of surface defects.
I

19. THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

sparking plug
l

outlet valve -

inlet valve

exhaust

air and petrol from carburettor

combustion chamber

piston rings piston

U @-tti---

jacket for cooling water --gudgeon pin cylinder

connecting rod

crankshaft

Fig. 19.1 An internal combustion engine (simplified)

An engine that converts heat energy into mechanical work is called a heat engine. The internal combustion engine is one type of heat engine. It derives heat from the burning or combustion of a fuel and converts this heat into useful work. The fuel used in most internal combustion engines is petrol, one of the many products obtained from crude oil. Petrol, when mixed with the right amount of air, will burn when a flame or spark is put to it. In a car engine, air is mixed with petrol in the carburettor, then taken into a confined space-the cylinder-and compressed. The mixture is then ignited, and it burns. In burning, it heats the air, which expands. The force caused by this expansion is then converted into a rotary movement t o drive the wheels of the car. To use this energy effectively, we have to

control the burning process and the force of the expansion. If we study how this is done, we shall also find out what the basic requirements of an engine are in terms of components. Firstly, w e need a cylinder---a tube closed at one end-in which to compress and burn the mixture of petrol and air. Then we need a piston which can slide freely in the cylinder, and which can be driven outwards by the force of the expansion. To convert the outward movement of the piston into a rotary movement we must join it with a connecting rod to a crank or crankshaft. We need one passage for the entry of the mixture into the cylinder, and another to let out the used gases-the inlet and exhaust ports. To control the entry of the mixture and the exhaust of the gases, w e require valves-an inlet valve and an exhaust valve. Finally, we need some means of igniting the mixture in the top of

80

The gas turb~ne of a jet engine

the cylinder-the combustion chamberand for this we use a spark gap or a sparking plug. By controlling the opening and closing of the valves and by timing the arrival of the spark, we can control the whole sequence of events. We can make the piston move in and out over and over again.

in the passage. Keep the original meaning: List A List B confined circular rotary lastly requirements enclosed finally needs sequence order

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A. The words in List A are used in the passage. Pair these with the words from List B which could be substituted for them

B. Fill in the blank spaces in this table with the correct form of the word indicated: Verb Noun Adjective mechanise
conversion

produce application expansive force move

C. Learn this prefix: de = down derives = comes down from; is obtained from Look up the meanings of these words in your dictionaries: deionisation decelerated decarbonise deflected decreases Complete each of these sentences with a word taken from the above list: (i) The speeding driver when he heard the police siren. (ii) They had to the cylinders every six months. (iii) The steam was from its course by the blades. (iv) of water is far more economical than distillation. (v) When the temperature the automatic sprinkler shuts itself off.

a. the force of the expansion b. a spark c. inlet and exhaust valves d. the outward movement of the piston (iii) According t o the passage, on which component does the force of the expansion act directly? a. the piston in the cylinder b. the connecting rod c. the crank or crankshaft d. the sparking plug (iv) According to the passage, which event in the following sequence occurs first? a. The outward movement of the piston is converted into a rotary movement. b. The gases in the cylinder expand. c. A mixture of fuel and air enters the com bustion chamber. d. The crankshaft is turned.
C. State why you think it is correct to call the internal combustion engine a heat engine.

2 Comprehension
A. List all the individual components of an internal combustion engine that are mentioned in the passage and use them to label the diagram:

3 Language Practice
A. Study these sentences: (i) A heat engine is a n engine that converts heat into mechanical work. (ii) An engine that converts heat into mechanical work i s called a heat engine. Change the following into sentences in the style of (ii) above: ( i ) A video system is a piece of electronic equipment that can receive and display pictures. (ii) A bulk carrier is a ship that can transport large quantities of a particular raw material, such as iron ore. (iii) A thermostat is a device that automatically reacts to a change in temperature. (iv) A catalyst is a substance that creates

B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c, or d, to each of the following questions: (i) According to the passage, what is the basic principle of the internal combustion engine ? a. It obtains many products from crude oil. b. It converts the outward movement of a piston into a rotary movement. c. It converts heat energy into mechanical work. d. It controls the opening and closing of exhaust valves. (ii) According to the passage, what ignites the fuel in a combustion chamber?

direction of aeroplane combustion chamber

turbine with blades and rotor

air

fuel burner jet pipe and propelling nozzle the shaft rotates in this direction

rear of plane

Fig. 19.2

A jet engine

changes i n other substances without being changed itself. (v) A valve is a device that controls the inward and outward movement of gases and liquids.

B. Study this sentence: Petrol, when mixed w i t h the right amount of air, will burn. Using the correct form o f the words, change each of the following groups of words and phrases into a sentence i n the style o f the sentence above: (i) computers / install i n large factories and organisations / lower costs (ii) units of measurement / standardise / internationally / increase production (iii) solar heating systems / perfected for industrial and domestic use / conserve fuel (iv) automatic sprinklers / fitted as standard safety equipment / minimise water damage
C. Study these sentences: (i) We need some means of igniting the mixture. For this w e can use a sparking plug. (ii) The mixture can be ignited b y using a sparking plug. Change each o f the following pairs o f sentences into a sentence i n the style o f (ii) above: (i) We need a means of controlling the entry of the mixture and the exhaust of the gases. For this w e can use valves.

(ii) W e need a means of joining t h e piston t o the crankshaft. For this we can use a connecting rod. (iii) We need a means of converting the heat into mechanical work. For this w e can use an internal combustion engine.

4 Composition
The gas turbine used i n jet aircraft is also a type of heat engine. These notes give an indication of h o w it works. Compressor: kind of fan / behind air intake / connected t o turbine b y shaft / compresses air Combustion chambers: horizontal tubes / arranged in circle / one end closed / open end faces rear / take in compressed air and fuel / fuel ignited / produces hot gases under high pressure / gases escape through rear end / pressure on front closed end produces a thrust / aircraft moves forward / increased fuel intake means increased thrust Turbine: expanding gases escape through rear jet pipe / first directed o n t o turbine blades / turbine rotor revolves at terrific speed / this drives the compressor Using these notes and the diagram supplied, explain h o w the gas turbine used i n jet aircraft works.

20. HYDRAULICS

force exerted - 12 Ibs.

force exerted - 1728 Ibs. water level after force exerted

liquid

Fig. 20.1

The principle of the hydraulic jack, shown in diagrammatic form

Hydraulics is a remarkably efficient way of distributing power evenly and making the most of a limited amount of force by the use of a liquid. The word, 'hydraulic', comes from two Greek words; 'hydro' meaning water, and 'aulos' meaning pipe. This is because hydraulic power depends on water, or other liquids-especially oil-being under pressure in pipes. When a certain amount of liquid is forced in at one end of a liquid-filled pipe of constant diameter, exactly the same amount will be forced out at the other end. When a force is exerted upon a solid object, the object transmits that force in the same direction. Liquids, however, transmit the force equally in all directions. Imagine a liquid-filled pipe with an area of one square inch at one end and an area

of one hundred and forty-four square inches at the other end. A force of twelve pounds exerted at the narrow end would be transmitted equally in all directions by the liquid. This means that each square inch of liquid would be exerting a force of twelve pounds at the wide end. Since the area at the wide end is a hundred and forty-four square inches, the total force there would be twelve pounds multiplied by one hundred and forty-fourthat is, seventeen hundred and twenty-eight pounds. Hence, if the liquid were to be pushed down the narrow section of the pipe with a force of twelve pounds, a seventeen hundred and twenty-eight pound weight at the wide end would be moved. This is why hydraulics has so many useful applications. There are countless situations in which a large weight needs to be moved by a small force. The hand-operated jack, for

lube

F \ \ \\

liquid ihydrauic brake-fluid)

brake-drum

piston

fulcrum
springs brake pedal

1 pressure exerted
brake-lining
by driver's foot

brake-shoes

Fig. 20.2

The hydraulic brakes of a motor car

example, enables one person t o lift the corner of a car. Today this power is used for working many kinds of machines, especially machine tools. I n factories, there are hydraulic presses, some of which can exert a force o f twelve thousand tons. M u c h of the heavy w o r k of opening and closing dock gates at hydro-electric power stations is carried out b y hydraulic power. Cars are fitted w i t h hydraulic brakes and aeroplanes use hydraulic power for lifting the undercarriage into the aircraft.

EXERCISES
1 Vocabulary
A. Form nouns from these words: (i) efficient (ii) distribute (;;;)exert (v) move (iv) transmit

The undercarriage of this aeroplane is raised by hydraulics during take-off

B. There are several words in the English language w h i c h have been derived from 'hydro', meaning 'water'. Look up the meanings of these examples i n your dictionaries: hydrant hydro-electric hydrogen hydroponics hydroplane

Complete each of these definitions w i t h a w o r d taken from the above list: (9 A is a motor boat with a flat bottom, able to skim over the water. (ii) A is a water pipe to which a hose can be attached for putting out fires. is the art of growing (iii) plants without soil, in water to which chemical food is added. is a gas without colour, (iv) taste or smell, that combines with oxygen to form water. (V) power is electricity produced by water power.

2 Comprehension
A. Describe the origin o f the w o r d 'hydraulics '. B. Choose the correct answer a, b, c; or d, to each of the following questions: (i) According to the passage, what does hydraulic power depend on? a. liquids being solidified b. liquids being pumped through pipes c. liquids being expanded d. liquids being under pressure in pipes (ii) According to the passage, what happens to a liquid when a force is exerted on it? a. It transmits the force equally in all directions. b. It expands. c. It solidifies. d. It is compressed. (iii) According to the passage, in a hydraulic jack, what pushes the oil through the pipe? a. a ram b. a cylinder c. a piston d. a crankshaft (iv) According to t h e passage, which of the following is hydraulic power n o t used for? a. retracting the undercarriage of an aircraft b. generating electricity c. braking cars d. compressing scrap metal and other materials

C. L earn this prefix: under = below undercarriage = section under the belly of the aircraft which carries the wheels Look u p the meanings of these words i n your dictionaries: underestimated under1ying undercurrents undergrowth undersized Complete each of these sentences w i t h a word taken from the above list: (i) Bulldozers were used to clear the ready for the construction of the workers' huts. (ii) The rock was impermeable, so oil collected above it. (iii) Models are used to test the effect of on jetty pilings. (iv)The screws he bought were and had to be replaced. (v) The contractor the rise in the price of materials, so the estimate was too low to make a profit.

3 Language Practice
A. Study this sentence: Hydraulics is an efficient way of distributing power evenly. Using the correct form of the words, change each of the following groups of words and

phrases into a sentence i n the style o f the sentence above: (i) w e l d i n g / m e t h o d / j o i n / m e t a l (ii) lubrication / means / restrict / friction (iii) air-conditioning / w a y / control / temperature (iv) standardising units / means / c u t / construction costs (v) solar heating / way / conserve / oil reserves B. Study this sentence: If the liquid were t o be pushed d o w n w i t h a force of twelve pounds, a seventeen hundred and twenty-eight pound weight at the w i d e end w o u l d be moved. Change each of the following groups of words and phrases into a sentence i n the style of the sentence above: (i) welds defective / ship unseaworthy (ii) crane overloaded / unstable (iii) foundations inadequately laid / the structure unsafe (iv) sprinklers installed / less water damage (v) drains n o t ventilated / gases trapped

They needed twenty-three thousand workers for this project. (ii) The cranes were built t o carry four hundred tons. They load machinery into ships w i t h these cranes. (iii) The cable was cut. The power f l o w e d through this cable. (iv) They subjected the metal t o stress. At that stress the metal fractures. ( v ) The point is called the fulcrum. The body is free t o rotate about the point.

4 Composition
Using the correct form of the verbs indicated, rewrite these paragraphs about one method of system building: The Hydraulic Jackblock M e t h o d Once the foundations of the building (lay), hydraulic jacks (set u p ) at the t o p of the (be) the columns w h i c h structural supports of t h e building. Moulds for the floor stabs (build) from ground level. Concrete (pour) into these moulds. When the concrete (set), jacking (begin). The floor slabs (raise) by the jacks, one b y one. After the slabs (place) i n position, they (secure) there. Then external walls and partitions (fixed) . After this, bathrooms, kitchens a n d doors (fit).

C. Study these sentences: (i) There are countless situations. I n these situations, a large weight needs t o be moved by a small force. (iii) There are countless situations i n w h i c h a large weight needs to be moved b y a small force. Change each of the following pairs of sentences into a sentence i n the style of (ii) above: ( i ) The project took five years t o complete.

Conversion Tables

DEGREES CELSIUS ( C E N T I G R A D E ) T O DEGREES FAHRENHEIT [ C to F]

[ m to ft]
(a)

METRES T O FEET 1 m = 3.280 839 895 ft

metres

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

0 10000 20000

3280.840 6561.680 9842.520 131 23.360 16404.199 19685.039 22965.879 26246.719 29527.559 32808.399 36089.239 39370.079 42650.91 9 45931.759 4921 2.598 52493.438 55774 278 59055.1 18 62335.958 6561 6.798 68897.638 721 78.478 75459.318 78740.157 82020.997 85301.837 88582 677 91 863.51 7 951 44.357 --

p -

(b)
metres

KILOMETRES T O MILES 1 km = 0.621 371 192 mile (a)

kilometres

kilometres

10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

LITRES TO UK GALLONS [I to UKgal] 11 = 0.219 969 157 UKgal (a)

litres

(b)
litres

Note: I I = 1%pints (approx.)