,

Chap. I. IlIIroduClioll1U RF allii Wireless Technology

151 M. Soyucr c( aI., "A 3 V 4-GH', nMOS Vohagc-Conl,ollc<.J Oscill"", with InlcgMc<.l
Resonator," fEEE J. So/idSuue Cin:uiIS, \'01. 3 L 1'1'. 2042-2045. Dec, 1996.
161 B. Klc\'e1and cl al.. "MolI()lilhic CMOS Distributed Amplifier and Oscillul()f." ISSCC Dig
Ted,_ P<l[las. pp. 70-71. Feb, 199').
171 H. Wang. "A 5O0Hz veo in 0.25' l'm CMOS," ISSCC Oig. Tech. Pa""", "". 372- 373,
Feb. 2001 .
181 L Fran,a-"'I(), R. Bi_'hop, and B. Bloe<:heL "64 GHz and IOJ GHz veo, in 90 nm C)'lOS
Using Oplimum Pumping Mclhod," ISSCC I)ig. Tech. Papers, PI'. 444-445, Feb. 2()()4,
191 E. Scok c( al.. "A 4 10GHz CMOS Push-Push Oscillator wilh an OnChip Patch Antenna"
ISSCC Dig. Tech. P"I,as. PI'. 472-473. Feb. 200s.
1101 R. Rw.avi, "A 300-GHz Fundamcnlal Oscillator in 65nm CMOS Technology," Sym/!()$ilm,
011 VLSI Ci"Cuils Dig. O/Ted,. Pu",m, "". 113- 114. June 2010.
CHAPTER
BASIC CONCEPTS IN
RF DESIGN
2
RF design draws upon many concepts from a varidy of fIelds, induding signals and
systems, electromagnetics and microwave thoory, and communications. Nonctheless. RF
design has developed its own analyt ical mctilods and its own language. For example. while
tm: nonlinear behavior of analog ci rcuits may be characteri zed hy "harmonic distonion:'
that of RF ci rcuits is quantified by very different measures.
Thi s chapter deals wilh gene..-"I concepts lhal pruve essenlial 10 Ihe analysis and
design of RF circuilS, closing Ihe gaps wilh respccllo other fields such as analog design,
microwave theory, and communication systems. The outline is shown below.
Nonli nearIty NoIse Impedance Translormallon
Hannonlc DI.l orIlon Noise Spe<:Irum Series-Paral lel Conversion
Compresalon Device Noise Mal e" ln!! Nel worka
. Inl ermodulation Noise In Circuils S-Parameiers
Dynami c Nonli near Syatems
2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.1.1 Units in RF Design
RF design has iradilionally employed cenain unilS 10 express gai ns and signal levels. It
is hcl pful to review these units at the outset so that we can eomfonably use them in our
subsequent studies.
The voltage gain, V",,';Vj and power gain. po.,jPjn, are expressed in decibels (dB):
(2. 1 )
(2.2)
7
8 Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
These two quantities are equal (in dB) only if Ihe input and output volillges appear across
equal impedances. For example. an amplifier having an input le5iSlanCe of Ro (e.g .. 50 \1)
and driving a load resistance of Ro satisfies lhe following equation:
v1,
1010g
V'
'"
Ro
Vw '
= 20 10g -
Vi.
(2.3)
(2.4)
(2.5)
where V""' and V;., are rms va lues. In many RF systems. however. this relationship does
not hold because the input and output impedanccs are not equal.
Thc absolute signal levels arc often cxpressed in d Bm rather than in watts or volts.
Used for powcr quantities. the unit dBm refers to "dB's above I mW." To the
signal powcr. P,;, . in d Bm. we write
(
P'" )
= 1010g -- .
'mW
(2.6)
An amplifier senses a sinusoidal signal and del ivers a powcr of 0 dBm to a load resistance
of 50 Q. Determine the peak-to-peak voltage swi ng across the load.
Solution:
Since OdBm is equivalcnl to I mW. for a sinusoidal having a peak-to peak amplitudc of
V,.p and hence an Tms val ue of V''P/(2.J2). wc write
I mW. .|k|efk|ok (2.7)
wllere lh = 50 Q. Thus.
V,.p = 632 mV. (2.8)
This is an cxtremely useful rcsult. as demonstrated in thc ncxt examplc.
Example 2.2
A GSM receiver senses a narrowband (modulated) signal having a level of -lOOdBm. If
the front -end amplifier provides a voltage gain of 15 dB. calculate tile voltage
swing at the out put of tile amplifier.
Sec. 2.1. General Considerations 9
Exalllple 2.2 (CulllfIll/ni)
Sulution:
Since lhe amplifier oulpul milage swing is of inlereSt. we firSl conyen lhe rc\:eived signal
level to voltage. From the previous example. we nOle that -IOOdBm is 100dB below
632rnVpp. Also. 100dB for voltage quanti ties is equivalcm to 10.5. Thus. -IOOdBm is
equivalent \0 6.32/l-Vpp. Tllis input level is amplified by 15dB ("" 5.62). resulti ng in an
output swi ng of 35.5 /LVPI'"
The reader may wonder why the out put roilage of the ampl ificr is of inlerest in thc
abovc This may occur if the circuit following the ampl ifier does not present a
50-n input impedance. and hence tile power gain and voltage gain are not equal in dB. In
fac\. the next stage may exhibit a purely ("OpOcilil'e input impedance. thereby requiri ng no
signal "power."' This situation is more famil iar in analog ci rcuits wherein one stage drives
the gate of the transistor in thc stage. As in Chapter 5, in most intcgr.tted
RF systems. wc prefer voltagc quantities to power quantities so as to avoid confusion if thc
input and output impedances of cascade stages arc unequal or contain negligible real I"'rts.
The reader may also wondcr why we wcre able to assumc OdHm is equivalcnl to
632 mVpp in the abovc evcn though thc signal is nut a pure sinusoid. Arter all. only
for a sinusoid can we assume that the rms value is equal to the peak-to-peak va lue d ivided
by 2.J2. Fortunately. for a narrowband O dHm signal. it is still possible to approximate thc
(average) peak-to-peak swing as 632 mY.
Although d6m is a unit of powcr. we sometimes use it at interfaccs that do not ncces-
sari ly entail power transfer. For consider the case shown in Fig. 2.1 (a). where thc
LNA drives a purely-capacitive load with a 632-mVpp swing. delivering no average power.
We mCnlally attach an ideal voltage buffer to node X and d ri ve a 50 n load 1 Fig. 2. I(b)l.
We thcn say that the signal at node X has a level of 0 d6m. tacitly mcaning that if this
signal were applied toa 50-n load. ,hen it would deliver 1 mW.
,. )
'"'
Figure 2. 1 (111ft'" dril'iug " c(I,,,,dri" e im{>e,/t",u. (b) use <If jicli,i()j/S b"jJa {<I I'isu<,/iu ,he si8,,,, 1
leo-ei 'I! ,IBm.
2.1.2 Time Variance
A system is li near if its output can be expressed as a linear combi nation (superposition) of
responses to individual input.s. More specifically. if the outputs in response to inputs .1"1(1)
10 Chap. 1. Basic Cmcepls in RF Design
,.,
'"'
2.2 ( .. ) Sinif'le SI<'ilci,;nll cin:uil. (b) system "-ill, Vi" I "s the ill/lUi. (e) system K'ilh Viol "s the
"'/lUl.
and X2(t) can be respedively as
then.
y,(I) = Ilx,(I)1
n(t) = /lx,(I)I.
(2.9)
(2.10)
(2. 11 )
for arbitrary values of a and h. Any system thm docs not sa1isfy this condition is nonl inear.
Nole (hat accordi ng 10 this defi nition. nonl.cro initia l condilions or d\: oITsets a bo make a
system nonl inear. hut we often relax (he rule to accornrnoduc these two effects.
Another anribule of systems thai may be confused wilh nonl inearity is time variance.
A system is t;me-i nvariam if a lime shift in i1s input results in the same: lime shift in i1s
outpul. Thal is, if y{t) = Ilx(l)l. lhen y(t - r) = l[x(1 - r ) 1 for arbitrary r.
As an of an RF ci rcuit in which time variance plays a critical role and must
not be confused with nonl int arity, let us consider the simplc switching circuit shown in
Fig. 2.2Ia). Thc cootroltcrminal of the switch is driveo by \"io 1 (I) = A I cos Wit and the input
terminal by = cos Wlt. We assume the switch is on if "in I > 0 and off otherwise.
Is this system nonlinear or time-vari ant? If. as depicted in Fi g. 2.2(b). the input of inlCrest
is "in 1 (while is part of the system and still equal to A2COSW2t). tilen the SySlem is
nonlinear becausc the control is only sensit ive to thc polarity of 'i. 1 and independent of
its amplitude. This system is also lime-variant because the output depends on For
if ";nl is constant and posilive. then """,(t) = and if "in I is constam and
negative. then """,(t) = O(why?).
Now consider the case shown in Fig. 2.2(c). where the input of intere,t is "i.2
(while \"i.1 remains part of the system and still equal to A I cos WIt). Thi s system is lin-
ear with respecl to For doubl ing the ampl itude of l'i.2 directly doubles that
of """,. The syslem is also time-variam due to tile effect of ';n l .
Exampll' 2.3
Plot Ihe output waveform of tile circuil In Fig. 2.2(a) if \"i.1 =A ICOSWII and
cos(1.25wll).
Sec. 2.1. General COllsiderations 11
As shown in Fig. 2.3. "llO' Iracks ,';n2 ir.'inl > 0 and is pulled down to zero by RI if ";n l < O.
That is. "00' is equallo the product of ";02 and a square wave toggling Ixtween 0 and I.
-..

. 1\ A
\d'tJV.,
.. .
\' rv L .
l ' \J ;tj,
.'igurc 2.3 '''IJU' "'''/ oUlpul wlI<e!"rms.
Tbe c ireuit of Fig. 2.2(a) is an exam pic of RF mixers. Wc will study such circuits in
Chapler 6 extensively. but it is important 10 draw several concl usions from the above study.
Fi rst. statements such as "swilches are nonlinear" an: ambiguous. Second. a li near system
can generate frequency components that do not exist in tile input signal - tile system only
need Ix time-variant. From Example 2.3.
"0",(1) = I'",z{l)' 5(1). (2.12)
where SO) denotes a square wave toggling belween 0 and I with a frequency of
II = wl/(21!"). The output spectrum is therefore given by the convolution of the speClra
of "",2(1) and S(I). Since the spectrum of a square wave is equal to a train of impulscs
whose amplitudes follow a sinc envelope. we have
'" "" ."/2) ( )
V "",(j) = VidJ), L.. 8 1 - T
n- - oo III!" 1
(2.13)
s in(mr 12) _ ( " )
L.. V",z I- -
T
.
III!" I
(2.14)
where TI = 2rrlwl. Thi s operation is illustrated in Fig. 2.4 for a Vi.2 speclrum located
around zero freq uency.'
I. II is h<lpful 10 Ih",. for n - I ach impulst in lhe abo .... summa<ion ha. an area "f t/". and (he
correspoooing ,inusoKla IJeok tI>"I'/ilude of 2/"..
11
,
V
,n2
(f) m
,
. * ,
Chap. 2. Hasie Concepts in RF Design
x
'0 0

,
-"0+" ,
-3f, ffi I rn +31,
W - It 0 +', VI f
Figure 2.4 Multil,/iell/loll iii rh" do",aill (11,,1 correspm"Jill8 colII'o/wi<m ill /req'U''IIcy
do",,,in.
2. 1.3 Nonlinearity
A syStem is \.Called "rncmoryless" or "sialic" if its oUlput docs nol depend on tile past values
of input (or the pa,[ values of the output itsel f). For a memorylcss linear system. Ihe
input/output characteristic is given by
y(l) = ((x(l). (2. 15)
wllere u is a function of lime if the system is time-variant le.g .. Fig. 2.2(c)l. For a
mcmoryless nonlinear system, the inpuUOUl put characteristic can be approximated with
a polynomial,
(2.16)
wllere " j may be functions of lime if Ihe syStem is lime-variant. Figure 2.5 sl>ows a
common-source slage as an example of a mcmorylcss nonli near ci rcuit (at low freq uen-
cies). If M I operates in the saturation region and can be approximated as a square-law
device. then
v"'" = V/JI) -J/JRI)
,W ,
= V/JD - - /tnc,,, - (V
in
- VTH )- R/J_
2 L
In this idea lized case. the cireuit displays only second-order nonlinearity.
(2.17)
(2. 18)
The system described by Eq. (2.16) has "odd symmet ry" if y(1) is an odd funClion of
x(t). i.e., if lhe response 10 - xV) is the negalive of thai 10 + x(t). Thi s occur> if 1".1) = 0
for even). Sueh a system is sometimes called halanced. as exempl ified by the differential
R,
Figu"" 2.S Comn!<",-so!<rce sUlge.
Sec. 1.1. General Consideratiolls IJ

'.
'" '"
Figure 2.6 ("I V;fferemi"I/",i, "",I (b I it. ;"I",t/outl'ut d",mcter;J/ic.
pair shown ;n Fig. 2.6Ia). from basic analog design thai by virlue of symmelry, lhe
c ircuit exhibits the characterist ic depicted in Fig. 2.6(b) if the differential input varies from
very negative values to very positive va lues.
For square-law MOS transistors operat ing in saturati on_ the c haracteri st ic of Fig. 2.6(b) can
be expressed as I I I
V""' =
(2. 19)
If the differential input is small . tile characteristic by a polynomial.
Solution:
Factoring W I L) out of the square root and assuming
(2.20)
we use thc "" I - "/2 to write
(2.21 )
(2.22)
The first term on the right -hand side represents linear operation. revealing the sma ll-
signal voltage gain of lhe cireuil ( - g .. Rv). Due to symmelry. even-order nonlinear
terms arc absent. Intcrestingly. square-law devices yield a third-order chamctcri,tic in this
case. We return to this point in Chapter 5.
14 Chap. 2. Hasic Concepts in RF Design
A system is called "dynamic" if its output depends on the past values of its input(s) or
outPUI(S). FOf a linear. timeinvariant. dynamic system.
y(l) = h(t) * .<(1). (2.23)
when: h(t) denotes the impulse response. If a dynamic system is linear but time variant.
its impulse response depends on the time origin: if yields !t(I), then 8(1 - r) produces
h(l. r). H IllS.
y(t) = h(I, r) * x(t), (2.24)
Fi nally, if a system is bolh nonlinear and dynamic. tllen its impulse response can be
approximated by a Vol1erra series. Thi s is described in Section 2.8.
2.2 EFFECTS OF NONLINEARITV
While analog and RF circuits can be approximaled by a linear model for small-signal ojJCra-
lion, non li neari lies of len lead to inlerest; ng and imponanl phenomena lha\ are not predicted
by small signal models. In thi s sect ion. we study these phenomena for memorylcss systems
whose input/output characteristic can be approximated by'
(2.25)
The reader is cautioned. however. that the effect of storage clements (dynamic nonl inearity)
and higher-order nonli near terms must be carefully eumined to ensure (2.25) is a plausible
representation. Sedion 2.7 .leah with the case of dynamic nonl inearity. We may considcr
"I as the small-signal gain of the syStem oc-cause tl>c other twO tenns are negligible for
small input swings. For example. " I = - JJ1.
n
C"x(W/L)lssRv in Eq. (2.22).
The nonlineari ty effects described in this section primarily arise from the third-order
term in Eq. (2.25). The second-orUer term too manifests itself in cenain types of receivers
and is studied in Chapter 4.
2. 2.1 Harmonic Distortion
If a sinusoid is applied to a nonlinear system. the output generally exhibits frequency com-
ponents that arc integer multi ples ("' harmonics"') of the input frequency. In Eq. (2.25). if
.>(1) = A cos WI. then
(2.26)
a;A'
+ cos 2wt) + - , - (3 cos WI + cos 3wl) (2.27)
(2.28)
2. NOI. Iha l Ihi, .'pre"ion shoutd be con,>dered os a fit aero," lhe , ig.n,t ' '''in8S of inlerest <>Ihe, than as a
n)'to. expansion in tilt: ,-icinil)" of x - O. Thc:<c 1"'0 yiew< may ),,,,td slighlt)" di fferenl vatuc' for " j .
Sec. 2.2. Effecl5 of NonlinearilY 15
In Eq. (2.28). the fi rst tenn on the right-hand side is a de quant ity arising from second-order
nonlinearity. the second is ca lled the "fundamenta l." the third is the second harmonic. and
tl>c founh is tl>c third harmonic. We sometimes say that even-order nonl inearity introdu<:es
de offsets.
From the above expansion. we make two observations. First. even-order barmonics
result from "j wit h even j . and vanish if tile system has odd symmetry. i.e" if it is fully
differential. In reality. however. random mismatches corrupt the symmet ry. yielding finite
even-order harmoni\:S. Se<:ond. in (2.28) the amplitudes of the second and thi rd harmon-
ics arc proponional to A2 and Al. respectively. i.e" we say the nth hannonic grows in
propon ion to Ano
In many R F ci rcuits. harmonic diston ion is unimportant or an irrelevant indicator of the
effed of nonlinearity. For e xample. an amplifi er opending at 2.4 GHz produces a second
harmonic at 4.8 GHz. which is greatly suppressed if the circui t has a narrow bandwidth.
Nonetheless. hannonics must always be considered carefully before thcy are dismissed.
The following ill ustrate this point.
Fxample 2.5
An analog mult iplier its two inputs as shown in Fig. 2.7. ideally producing yO) =
h i (t)(2{t). where Ie is a constant.' Assume XI (I) = A I COS WI I and Xt{t) = Az COS",!I.

!
2.7 Analag multi/,Iia
(a) If the mixer is ideal, determine the output frequency components.
(b) If the input port sensing Xl(t) suffers from thirdorder nonlinearity. determine the output
frequency components.
Solution:
(a) We have
y(l) = k{AI coswl/)(A2cosw21)
kA lA! kA lA!
= 2 COS(WI + W2)1 + 2 COS(WI - W2)1.
(2.29)
(2.30)
The output thus contains the sum and difference frequencies. These may be <:onsidered
"desired" components.
(C"""nues)
3. 'Th< faciO, k is '0 ,ns"re for J(ll.
16 Chap. 1. Hasic Cmcepls in RF Design
EX3mplc 2.5 (ComiulI<'ll)
(2.31 )
- 3unjl. (2.32)
The mixer now produces two "spurious" components at WI + 3wz and WI - 3"". one
or both of which often prove problemat ic. For example. if WI = 2ll" x ( 850 MHz) and
wz = 2ll" X (900 MHz) . then IWI - 3w21 = 2ll" X (1850 MHz). an "undesired" component
that is difficult 10 filter becausc it lies close to tbe desired component at WI + Wl = ZIT X
( I75()MHz).
J<.xampll' 2.6
The transmitter in a 9OOMHl GSM cell phone delivers I W of power 10 the amenna.
b plain ti>c effect of the harmonics of tbis signal.
Solution;
The second harmonic falls wilhin another GSM cell phone band around 1800MHl and
must be sufficiently small 10 negligibly irnpacllbeolber users in Ihat band. The Ibird. fourtb.
and fiftb bannonics do nOi coincide with any popular bands but must still remain below
a cenain level imposed by regulatory organizations in each coulltry. The sixth harmonic
falls in the 5GHz band used in wirel ess local area networks (WLANs). e.g .. in laptops.
Figure 2.8 summarizes ti>cse resul ts.
GSMt SOO "'-',

.. ""
I II I


0. ' U
,., ,..
. 5 5.4 f (GHz)
Figul"l' 2.11 Su",,,,ary af h"''''OI,ic c()"'I",,,elll"
2. 2.2 Gain Compression
The smallsignal gain of circuits is usually obtained with the a,;sumption that hannonics arc
negligible. However. our fonnulation of hannonics. as expressed by Eq. (2.28). indicates
Sec. 2.2. Effects of Nonlinearity 17
tiM the gain experienced by A COSWI is equal to " I + }ayt2 /4 and hence varies appreciably
as A becomes larger,' We must then ask. do " I and UJ have tile same sign or opposite
signs? Returninl\ to the third-order polynomial in Eq. (2.25), we nOle that jf 0' 1" 3 > O.
lllen O'tX + 0'3.r' overwhelms 0'2X' for large of regardless of tile sign of 0'2. yielding an
"cxp:msivC characteri stic Wig. 2.9{a)1. For example. an ideal bipolar trans istor operati ng
in tile forward aelive region produces a collector currem in proponion \0 exp(VBElVr).
exhibiting expansive behavior. On Ihe olher hand. if u I "3 < 0, the term (tJ-(1 "bends"
the characteristic for sufficiently large x I Fig. 2. 9(b) 1. leading 10 "compressive" behavior.
i.e .. a decreasing gain as Ihe inpUI ampl ilude in\:reascs. For example. Ihe dilTerenlial pair
of Fig. 2.6(a) sulTers from compression the second tenn in (2.22) becomes comparable
with the lim. Since most RF circui ts of interest are oompress ive. we bereafter foo::us on
thi s type.
, ,
u, .
Comlnant
u, .
Comlnant
(.j (>j
."i)l:u,"" 2.9 (,,! Expm,s;,'" ""d (bl ''''''[>fessh,/, ch"mcreri . ric .
With (X1(X3 < O. the gain experienced by A COSWI in Eq. (2.28) falls lIS A ri ses. We quan
tify this elTect by the "J dB compression point:' defined as Ihe input signal level that causes
the gain to drop by I dB. If ploned on a log log seal e as a funct ion of thc input level. tbc
output level. A"",. falls bel ow it s ideal value by I dB at the l dB compression point. Ai". 1,/11
(Fig. 2.10). Note that (3) Ai. and A"., are voltage quamiti es here. but compression can also
be exprcsscd in terms of power quantiti cs; (b) J dR compression may also be sp(:cified in
terms of the output level at whieh it occurs. A".,.ldB. The input and output compression
points typically prove relevant in the receive path and the transmit path. respectively.
20logA out
A
.' 1 dB
t
Figure 2. 10 Deli"iri"" ,if/-dB comjJfusiOl' I>oilll.
4. This i. ""in ", ,he f"", ' ha! n""lineMi,y can al>o b< viowed as varia,i"" of ,he .Iop of ,he inp"!i"U!pU!
characteristic "'i{h {he inro' level.
18 Chap. 2. Hasie Concepts in RF Desigll
To calculate the input ldB compression poim. we cqUalC the compressed gain. (1 1 +
CXl'] / 4)A;n, (,IB' 10 1 dB less lhan Ihe ideal gain." I:
(2.33)
It follows Ihal
Aj".I IiB = 0.1451::1.
<2,34)
Note that Eq. (2.34) gives the JUok value (rather than the pea);: -to-peak val lie) of the input.
Also denoted by P I(/R. the ldB compression poim is typically in lhe range of - 20 to
- 25dBm (63.2 10 35.6mVf'I' in 50-Q system) at lhe input of RF receivers. We usc the
notations AIJB and P I,IE inlerd.angeably in this bo<Jk. Whether they refer 10 tile input or
the output will be clear from Ihe context or specified cxplicitly. Whilc gain compression by
I dB seems arbitrary. the I-dB compression point represents a 10% reductioo in the gain
and is widely used to characterilC RF ci rcuits and syslcms.
Why doe, comprcs,ion maller? Aftcr all. it appears that if a signal is so largc as to
reduce the gain of a receivcr. then it mu,t lie well above the re(;eivcr noise and be casily
detcctable. In fact. for some modulation schcmes. this statemcnt holds and compression of
the receiver would seem benign. For exa mple. as illustratcd in Fig. 2. 11 (a). a frequency-
modulated signal carries no information in it.> amplimde and hence 10Ierales comprcssion
(i.e" amplitude limiting). On the other hand. modulation sehemes that contain infonnation
in the ampl itude are distorted by compression IFig. 2.11 (b)l. This issue manifests itself in
both receiveN and transmincN.
Anotller adverse effect arising from compression occurs if a large interferer accom-
panics the reccived signall Fig. 2.12(a) l. In the limc domain. thc small desired signal is
,uperimposed on tile large interferer. Consequently, the recciver gain is by the
largc cxcuNions produced by the intcrferer evcn though the desired signal ilsel f is small
Frequency Modulation
'"
Amplitude Modulallon
'"'
Fi gure 2.11 Effect of COnll'",ssi" c "o"/i"c,,,;ry "" ("I FM ,,,,d (bl AM ,.."u/om,..
Sec. 2.2. Effecl5 of Nonlinearity 19
Desi red Signal + Interie ......
,.., ...
Signal
,'- _ Gain Reduction
,
,.,
Figure 2. 12 (,, ) Imer/a", ,u'<'l)ml"",yi"IJ si8,,,,I, (b J effect in lime "(J",ain.
I Fig. 2.12(b)l. Called "desensit izalion." this phenomenon lowers the signal-lO noise ral io
(SNR) at the receiver output and proves critical cven if the signal (;ontains no amplitude
infonnation.
To quantify desensitization. let us assume .r{l) = A I cos w l l + A7 cos "-')1. where the
fi rsl and second tenns represent the desired component and the intcrferer. respeclively. With
tile third-order chanlderistic of Eq. (2.25). the output appears as
(
3 , 3,)
y(t) = UI + 4a1Aj + -ZU3Ai A I COSWII + (2.35)
Note thal U2 is absent in compre;;sion. For A I A2. this rcduccs to
(
3 , )
J{I) = a l + -Z<1y1 i AI coswl' + ... (2.36)
Thus. the gain experienced by the desired signal is equal to (.I I + a decreasing
function of A2 if UI<13 < O. In fact. for sufficiently large A2. the gain drops to zero. and we
say the signal is "blocked." In RF design. the tenn "blocking signal" or "blocker" refers to
interfcrers that desens itize a circuit even if they do not reduce the gain to zero. Some RF
receivers mUSl be able to withsland blockers that are 60 to 70dB greater than the desired
signal.
Fxample 2.7
A 9(j() MHz GSM transmitter deli vers a power of I W to the antenna. By how much must
tile second harmonic of the signal be suppressed (fihered) so that il does not desensitize a
L8-GHz receiver having P I,llJ = - 25dBm? Assume the receiver is I m away (Fig. 2. 13)
and the 1. 8-GHz signal is attenuated by IOdB a, it propagates across thi s distance.
(C",,';nll")
20 Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
E\ample 2.7 (Col!/IIlIInl)
900-MHz
GSMTX

1.8-GHz
))l 'Y5-
(GHz)

'm
2.13 TX ,,,,d RX ill" cellulm system.
Solution:
The output power at 900MHz is equal 10 + 30dBm. With an attenuation of IOdB. Ihe
second harmoni c must not exceed -15 clBm at the transmiucr antenna so thm it is below
P1,1R of tile receiver. Thus. the second hannonic must remain at least ..\5dB below the
fundamcmal at the TX output. In practice. this interference must be another several dB
lower to ensure tl>e RX docs nol compress.
2. 2.3 Cross Modulation
Another phenomenon that occurs when a weak signal and a strong inlerferer pass through
a nonlinear system is the trallsfer of modulation from Ihe interferer to the signal. Called
"cross modulation, " this effect is exempl ified by Eq. (2.36). where variations in affect
the ampl itude of tile signal al WI. For suppose thai Ihe interferer is an amplilude-
modulaled signal. A2(1 + IIlcosw",t)COSW21. where III is a constant illld w'" denOles the
modulati ng frequency. Equation (2.36) Ihus assumes IIIe following fonn:
[
3 ' ( m' m' )]
y(r) = a l + "2uyl.:! 1+ T + 2 cos2w",1 + 211lCOSwm i AI cOswl l+ . (2.37)
In other words. the desi red signal al thc OUlput suffers from amplilude modulation al W'"
and 2w",. Figure 2.1 4 illuslrates this effec!.
.'i)l:urc 2.14 e mu m",ju/lIIi",,-
Sec. 2.2. Effecls of NonlinearilY 21
Example 2.8
Suppose an interferer contains phase modulation bUI nOI amplitude modulation. Does cross
modulat ion occur in this case?
Solution:
the input as x(1) = A I cos WII + A2 OOS(W21 + 4. where the sc\:ond lerm rep-
resents the interferer (A2 is constant but tP varies with time). we usc thc thi rdorder
polynomial in Eq. (2.25) to write
,
y(l) = u IIA I Coswll + Az COS(wZI + 4 1 + u,IA I Coswll + A, COS(wZI + tP) 1-
(2.38)
We now nOle lhat (1) the second-order term yields \:omponenlS at WI W2 but not at WI;
(2) the thi rdorder tenn expansion gives 3ay!. I cos COS
2
(W21 + tP). which. according
to COS
1
.T = ( I + cos 2r)/2. results in a component at WI. Thus.
)'(1) = (al + A I COSWlt + ...
2 -
(2.39)
Interestingly. tile desired signal at WI does not experience cross modulation. That is.
phase-modulatcd interferers do not cause cross modulat ion in memory/ess (static) nonlinear
systems. Dynamic nonlinear systems. on the otiler hand. may not follow this rule.
Cross modulati on commonly arises in amplifiers that must simultaneously process
many independent signal channels. Examples include cable television transmitters and
syStems cmploying onhogonal frequency division (OF1)M). We
OFDM in Chapter 3.
2.2.4 Intermodulation
Our study of nonlinearity has thus far considered the case of a si ngle signal (for harmonic
distort ion) or a signal accompanied by one large interferer (for desensitization). Anotller
scenario of interest in RF design occurs if /wo interferers <IC\:ompany the desired signa l.
Such a scenario represents reali stic situations and reveals nonlinear effects that may not
milll ifest themselves in a harmoni c distort ion or desensitizat ion test.
If two interferers at WI and '-":1 are applied to a nonlinear system. the output generally
components that are nOI hannonics of these frequencies. Called intennodulation"
(1M). this phenomenon ari ses from 'mixing" (mult iplicat ion) of the two components as
their sum is raised to a power greater than unity. To understand IIow Eq. (2.25) leads to
imermodulation. assume x(l) = A I cos Wit + A, cos w,t. Thus.
,
yO) = <I I (A I coswl l + A, cos '-":11) + U2 (A I cos Wit + A, cos '-":1 0-
+ a l(A I coswl t + A2COSWZ1)1. (2.40)
12 Chap. 2. Basic Cuncepl$;/1 RF De.lign
Expanding the right-hand side and discarding tile de (cnns. harmonics, and component.> at
"' I "-'! . we obtain the following "intcrmodlilalion products":
+ "'1)1 + - w!)1 (2.41)
W = 2w2W( : -wl )1 (2.42)
and these fundamcmal components:
(alAI +
(2.43)
Figure 2.15 illustrates Ihe results. Among these. Ihe third-onlcr 1M products at 2"-' 1 - "'2
and 2m2 - "' I are of panicular interest This is lJe(:ausc. if WI and "'2 are close 10 each
oiller. then 2w1 - "'2 and 2w:l - "' I appear in the vicinity of WI and '-"2. We now explain
lhe significan\:c of this statemenl.
lL

9",
t t
t%
i

i i ,
w
1
w2 OJ)
"
"
-,
ffi,
"
"
w
,
, ,
9
,
9


,


,
" " , 9 9
, 9 9
" " " "
Suppose an amenna receives a small desired signal at wo along wilh two large interfer-
ers al WI and "'2, providing this combinat ion 10 a low-noise ampl ifier (Fig. 2.16). Lei liS
assume tlmt the interferer freqllencies happen to satisfy 2m1 - W2 = wo. Conseqllcntly. the
i ntermodlilation product at 2w1 - >:! falls onto thc desi red channel. corrupting the signal.
Figu,"" 2. 16 Corn",tioll due to thirdorder imermodulatiOiI.
Example 2.9
Suppose fOllr Bluetooth liseN operate in a room as shown in Fig. 2.17. User -l- is in the
receivc mode and attempts to sense a signal tmnsmittcd by User I at 2A IOGHz.
Sec. 2.2. Effect. of Nonlinearity 23
At It.c same time, Users 2 and 3 transmit at 2.420GHz and 2.430 GH7. respedively.
what happens.
U ... 2
."i)!:u,"" 2. 17 Bluer"oth RX in tile l!reUllce of se,u"/lr",,-,,,,iIlU'.
Solution :
Sincc thc freq uencies transmitted by Users I . 2. and 3 happen to be equally spaced. thc
intermodulation in the LNA uf corruplS the desi red signal at 2A 10GH7..
The readcr may raise seveml quest ions at this point: (I) In our analysis of intcrmod
ulation. we represented the interferers with pure (unmodulatcd) sinusoids (callcd tones)
whereas in Figs. 2. 16 and 2. 17. the interferers are modulated. Are these consistent? (2) Can
gain comprcssion and desensitization (P l d8) also model intermodulation. or do we need
other measures of nonlinearity? (3) Why can we not simply remove thc interferers by fil
tcrs so that the receiver doe;; not experience intermodulation? We answer the first two hcre
and addrcss the thi rd in Chapter 4.
For narrowhand signals. it is somct imes helpfll l to condensc" their energy into an
impulse. i.e .. represent them wit h a tonc of equal power IFig. 2.18( a)l. Thi s approxi ma
tion must be madc judiciollsly: if applied to study gain compression. it yields reasonably
accurate results: on the other hand. if applied 10 thc case of cross modulation. it fails. In
intermodulatiun analyses, we proceed as fullows: (a) It.c interferers with tones,
(b) catclilatc the tcvcl of intermodulation products at the out pui. and (e) mentally convert
the intermodulation tones bac]': to modli lated components so as to see thc corruption.' This
thought process is illustmted in Fig. 2. I 8(b).
Wc now deal wit h the second question: iftt.c gain is not compressed. then can we say
that intermodli lation is negl igiblc? The answer is nu: the folluwing illustrates Ihis
point.
5. Since a lne """lain, no randomness. il generally d"", noI COfT1.IpI a . ig.nat RUI. lone appearing in ,he
'pcc'rum of a ,ign,t may m""c ,hi; dct<ction dillic"lt.
24 Chap. 2. Hasie Concepts in RF Design
P,
P,
",
<",
Al'pftlx;mwio" of ",,,,I,,/are,1 ,ig""1s by impulse., (b) "/'plicalio,, /()
illle rm<Xl ,,/ario/!,
Example 2.10
A Bluctooth receiver employs a low- noise ampl ifier having a gain of 10 and an input
impedance of 50 Q. The LNA senses a desin:d signal level of - 80dBm at 2.410GHl
and two interferers of equal levels at 2.420 GH7 and 2,430GH1 .. For simplicity, assume lhe
LNA drives a SO Q load.
(a) Dctcnninc tile value of Cl l lilal yields a P IJ8 of - 30<lBm.
(b) If each interferer is IOdB below PI,I/!. detenni"e the corruption experienced by the
desired signal a1 the LNA output.
Solution:
(a) Noting thaI - 30dRm = 20mVpp= IOmVp. from Eq. (2.34). we have
JO.1451ul lUl l 10 mV p. Si nce UI = 10. we obtain U) = 14.500 V- 2.
(b) Each interferer has a level of - 40dRm (= 6.32 mV
Nl
). Setting AI = A2 =
6.32mV
pp
/2 in Eq. (2.41). we determine the ampl itude of the 1M product at
2.410GHz as
(2,44)
The desired signal is amplified by a factor of <XI = 10= 20dB. emerging at the oot-
put at a level of - 60dBm. Unfortunately. the 1M product is as large as tl>e signal
it.'\Clf evcn though the LNA docs not experience significant compression.
The two-tone test is versatile and powerful because it can be applied to systems with
arbitrarily narrow bandwidths. A suffi ciently small difference between the two tone fre-
quencies ensures tllat the 1M products also fall within the billld. thcrcby providing a
Sec. 1.2. Effecl5 of NonlinearilY 25
System
Frequency __
,.,
m,
, ..
meaningful view of lhe nonlinear behavior of lhe syStem. I)epicted in Fig. 2. 19(a), (his
attribute stilllds in contrast to harmonic distortion tests. where Iligher Ilarrnonics lic so fW'
away in frequency tllm tlley are Ileavily filtered. making tile system appear quite linear
I Fig.
Third Inter cept Point Our tlloughts Ihus far indicate the need for a measun: of inter-
modulation. A common method of 1M d'araderi'l.ation is Ihe "two-tone" teSI. whereby two
pure sinusoids of equal ampl iludes are applied to the input. The amplilude of the output 1M
products is then norrnalized to tllm of tile fundamcntals at tile output. Denoting the peak
amplitude of each tone by A. we can write the result as
(
3., ')
Rd ati ve lM = 20 log --A- dBr.
4 U I
(2A5)
where the unit dBc denotcs decibels with respect to the "cWTier" to empllas ize the nonnal-
ization. Note that. if the amplitude of each input tone increases by 6dB (a factor of two). the
amplitude of the 1M products (0: Al) rises by 18 dB and hence the relativ/, 1M by 12dB.
Tile principal difficulty in specifying the relative I M for a circui t is that it is mean ingfol
only if Ihe val ue of A is given. From a practical point of view. we prefer a sillgie measure
that captures the intcnnodulation behavior of the circuit with no need to know the input
level at which the tWO-lOne test is carried out. Fortunmely. such a measure exists and is
called the "third intercept point" ( IP) .
The concept of IP) origi nates from our earl ier observation Ihat. if Ihe amplitude of
each tone rises. tllm of thc output 1M products increases more sharpl y (0: A
3
). Tilus. if
we continue to raise A. the amplitude of tile 1M products eventually becomes equal to thm
6. I. i, a,sumed (ha( 1M) <"mprts>i'm QC<;Ur$;':, (ha( (he ""(PU( fundamen(a1 ("n.:< a\s-u ri><; by 6 dB.
26
Output
Amplitude

Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
A"P3
"" (log s cale)
2.20 lkfill'li",! of IPJ (jar w/I"ge quomilies/.
or II>e fundamental tones at the output. As ill ustrated in Fig. 2.20 on a log-log scalc. the
inpullcvcl at which [his occurs is called the "input third intercept point"' (l IP)). Similarly.
thc corresponding output is represented by OIP) _ In subsequent derivations. we denote the
inpu1 amplitude as AIlf'J.
To ,lelennine ll>c liP). we simply equate the fundamental and 1M atnplilUdcs:
IU IAII(']I =
obtai ning
AuP) = 1::1-
Interestingly.
AIIPJ [i;,
-- = --
A 1,111 0.435
"" 9.6dB.
(2.46)
(2.47)
(2.48)
(2.49)
This ratio proves hel pful as a sanity check in simulat ions and measurements.' We some-
times write IP] rather than IIPJ if it is dear from the that the input is of
interest.
Upon funller consideration. the reader may question the consistency of tile above
derivations. If the IP) is 9.6dB higher than Plde. is the gai n not Ileavily compressed at
Ai. = AUP3?! If the gain is compressed. why do we still express the amplitude of the fun-
damentals at the output as O' I A? It appears that we must instead write thi s amplitude as
[a t + IA to account for the oompression.
In reality. the situation is even more compl icated. Tile val ue of IP) given by Eq. (2.47)
may exceed the supply voltage, indicating that higher-order nonl inearities manifest them-
selves as A,n approaches AIIPJ [Fig. 2.2 1(a)1. In other words, the IP) is not a directly
measureable quantity.
In order to avoid these quandaries. we measure the 1P3 as follows. We begin with a very
low input level so that a t + {9/ 4)ayl fn "" 0' 1 (and. of course. higher order nonlinearities
7. NO!e that Ihis relationship holds for , third-<tffier .ystem aOO 001 ne<ess.arily if higher-der terms manife"
themsetves.
Sec. 2.2. Effects of Nonlinearity
"" (log flCale)
A OIP3 .......................... /".
:
6 '1>1""'j.
. ""
17
"" (log flCale)
Figure 1.11 Ill) AClW'/ bel""'ior of ",,,,/i,,,,,,, circuits, (b) defi"i/i"" of 11') {J"sed ,," alr<!f",/"Iilm.
are also negligible). We increase A",. plot the amplitudes of the fundamentals and the 1M
products on a log-log scale. and eXlmpolate these plo!.> according to their slopes (one and
three. respect ively) to obtain the IP] I Fig. 2.2 1(b)l. To ensure that tile signal levels remain
well below compression and higher-order tenns are negligible. we must observe a 3-.dB ri se
in the 1M products for every I-dB increase in Ai . On the other hand. if A,. is excessively
small. then the output 1M components become comparable with the noise fl oor of the circuit
(or the noise floor of tile simulated spectrum). thus leading to inaccurate result s.
Exampk 2.11
A low-noise amplifier senses a - 80-dBm signal at 2A IOGHz and two - 20-dBm inter-
ferer> at 2A20 GHl and 2.430GHz. What liP) is required if tile 1M products must remain
20dB below the signal ? For simplici ty, assume 50-0 interfaces at the input and output.
Sol ution:
Denoting the peak amplitudes of the signal and the interferer> by and A,",. respectively,
we can wri te at the LNA output:
(2.50)
It follows that
(2. 51 )
In a 50-{} syStem. the - 80-dEm and - 20-dBm levels rCSpl."Ctively yield A"g = 3 1.6 IJ, Vp
and A,., = 31.6 mVp. Thus.

= 3.65 Vp
= + 15.2dBm.
(2.52)
(2.53)
(2.54)
Such an IP) is extremely difficult to achieve. especially for a complete receiver chain.
18 Ch"p.2. 8"5;'" Cuncepls in RF De.lign
Fundamental
3( 20logA IIP3 - 20logA Inl)
'., . WI w2:
2W,- ffi2 2%- ID
1
A I"! A UP3 A I"
(1011 scale)
(.j (OJ
Figure 2.21 (lI! Relariol!shil',' amo.,!? wlriol<s i'<, ...u lel-.ds ill " nw-/""e tesl. (1)) lII"s/ml"", of
sh()r/CUIlec/miq"e.
Since extrapolat ion proves quite tedious in simulations or measurements. we often
employ a shortcut that provides a reasonable initial estimate. As ill ustrated in Fig. 2.22(a),
suppose hypo/helically thai [he input is equal to AI/p}. and hence Ihe (cxlrapolalcd) output
1M products are as large as Ihe (extrapolated) fundamental tones. Now. the input is reduced
to a level Ainl. Thai is. the change in lhe input is equal 10 201ogt\1I1'1 - 201ogA,nl. On a
log-log scale. lhe 1M products fall wilh a slope of 3 and the fundamentals wilh a slupe uf
unity. Thus. the diJJeretlL'e octween thc two plots increases with a slope of 2. We denote
20 log A, - 20 log AIM hy 6.P and write
6.P = 201ogA, - 201ogA/M = 2(20IogAIII'J - 20IogA,.tl. (2.55)
ohtaining
20log AI/P3 =
M
2 + 20IogA"".
(2.56)
In uther wurds. fur a given input level (well beluw P'i/H). the liP) can be calculated by
halving the di fference belween lhe output fundamental and 1M levels and addi ng ti>e result
to thc input lcveL where all val ues are expressed as logarithmic quant ities. Figure 2.22(h)
depicts an abbreviated notation for this rule. The key point here is that the IP) is measured
w;l hout extrapolalion.
Why do we cunsider the above result an estimale? Afler all. the derivaliun assumes
thirdorder nonlinearity. A difficulty arises if thc circuit contains dYllamic nonlinearities.
in which case this rcsult may deviate from that ohtained by extrapolation. The laner is thc
standard and accepted metllod for measuring and reponing the ]1. bUl the shoncut metllod
proves useful in understandi ng the behavior of the device under lest.
Sec. 2.2. EJJect . of N')IIlille"rity 29
We sl>ould remark that sewlld-order nonlinearity also leads tu a cenai n type of inter-
modulation and is characterized by a "second intercept point." ( 1P! ).1 We elaborate on this
effect in Chapter 4.
2.2.5 Cascaded Nonlinear Stages
Since in RF systems, signals are processed by cascaded slages. it is imponant to know how
ti>e nunlinearity uf each stage is rcrerred tu lhe inpUI ufthe cascade. The calculaliun of P'i/H
fur a ca8\.Cade is OUllined in Prublem 2.1. Here. we detennine lhe IP] of a \.Cascade. For the
sate of hrevity. we hereaflcr denote the input IP3 by AI1'3 unless otherwise noted.
Consider two non Ii near stages in cascade (Fig. 2.23). If the input/output characteristics
orthe two stages are expressed, respectively. as
,"""
YI{t) = O',x{t) + 0'!X
2
{t) + O')Xl(l)
_n(t) = tI,YI(/) + Jl2Y;(!) + Jl3Y;(!).
_n(l) = tldO'lx(1) + 0'2X!(1) + O')XJ(I)] + tl210'1x(1) + 0'2X!(t) + O')X'(t)f
+ tlJltf,_((t) + tf,_(2(t) + tf3x3(1)13 .
Considering only the fi rst- and thinl-onler tenns. we have
)'2(1) = O'I.8IX(/) + (0'3.8 , + 20,0'2.82 + uj.8])x
3
(1) + -
Thus. from Eq. (2.47),
4 <11.8,
3 0'3.81 + 2<t,u2.81 +ur.8]
.. (I )
(2.57)
(2. 58)
(2.59)
(2.60)
(2.6 1)
Two differential pairs are cascaded. Is it possible to select the denominator of Eq. (2.61 )
such that IP) goes to infinity?
8. A. seen in.he lie>! section. second-{)(<ier ""nlinearity at", affect' 'he rp] in ca",aded 'ystem"
30 Chap. 2. Hasie Concepts in RF Design
Example 2.12 (CO/wltH,d)
Solution:
Wi,h no asymmetries in the cas<:ade. "2 = fh = O. Thus, we seck the condition r:n{J, +
ut/lJ = 0, or
p, ,
- - uj.
p,
(2.62)
u,
Since bolh slages are compressive. (l3Ia ,
achieve an arbitrarily high [Pl,
< Oandfh/fh < O. It is tllerefore impossible 10
Equation (2.61) leads 10 more intuitive resull..> i f ilS two sides arc squared and inverted:
3 u3fJ , + 2a IClzfJ2 + utlll
-- -
Ai,,) 4 ul/h
,
3 ") 2aZfJ 2 (l'j fh
= - + -- + --
4 U' I P, fJ l
I
- , - +
Ai/'J,I
<2.63)
(2.64)
(2.65)
where AWJ. I and A If'J, 2 represent the input I PJ 's of the fi rst and second stages. resp<X:tively.
Note that AWl, A'Pl.l . and AIf'l.Z are voltage quantities.
The key observation in Eq. (2.65) is that to "refer" lhe IPl of the second stage to the
input of thc cascadc. wc must divide it by (L I. Thus. the higber tbe gain of the first stagc.
the more nonlinearity is contributed by the second stage.
Spectra in a Cascade To gai n more insight imo the above results, let us assume
x(1) =A eOSWl1 + A COS"'21 and identi fy the 1M products in a cascade. With the aid of
Fig. 2.24. wc make the followi ng observations;?
I. The input tones are amplified by a faelor of (L I in the first stage and
fJ l in the second. Thus. thc output fundamcntals >U"C given by u lfJ lA(coSWII +
coswz1)
2. The 1M products gencraled by lhe fi rst slage, namely. (3uJ/4)A
3
Ieos(2>1 - "'2)1 +
cos(2"'2 - wdll. arc ampl ified by a factor of (J I when they appear at the outpul of
the second stagc .
.>. Scnsing U IA(\:OSWII + cos wz1) al ils input. the se\:ond stage produces its own 1M
componcnts: (3fJ)/4)(LI A)3cos(2>1 - W2)1 + - WI)I.
9. The: 'pcctrum of A COSWI <'In;i, .. of two impul<.c . <ad with. ",'eight of ,1 / 2 W< drop the: foct", of 1/ 2 in
the: figul'c' for simpl"'ity.
Sec. 2.2. Effecl5 of Nonlinearity JI
11P3.1

Y, (I) Yo( 1) .. ( tj


t
a", . t
t
00
,
00
w I wi 00, 00,
. ' . , '
4 (l 3
A


... , ... , ..
4 (1.
31A
9

00

2W,-(),)2 21:2- (1)1 200,- (02 200
2
- w,
.. ,..
i P3 (U1
A



n, ' t t
2m,-w
z
2w
2
-w,
------ -,.-

u':L,
00

to;. w, W, 0)2 2w, - 0)2 2W:2- Ol ,
-=u
j
.let A 2
'i(l1(l
2P2A
i
i2 2 nm .. " ,
i
, Ol

0)1/jJ2 : 200, 00, 200, 00 ,
200, 2ill,
Figu,"" 2.24 Sf'/' ClrtI ill n cncnde of ,wlllillear u'ges,
4. The sc\:ond-order nonlinearity in YI (t) generates components at WI - "'2. 2> 1. and
Upon a similar nonlinearity in tile second stagc. these compo-
nents >U"C mixed wit h thosc at WI illld W2 and translatcd to 2wI - W2 and 2wz - WI.
Specifically. as shown in Fig. 2.24. YZ{I) contains tenus such as 2t1zlu IA cos wll X
(L2A
z
cos(wl - W1)11 and 2{h(u IAcoswll X O.5uzA
2
cos2>11) . The rc.>ull ing 1M
products \:an be expressed as (3ul(J2{hAJ /2)l cos(2>1 - "'2)1 + cos(2w] - WI )/1.
Intcrest ingly. the cascade of two .econd-urder nonli ncaritics can produce Ihird-
order 1M products.
Adding the amplitudes of the 1M products. we have
.V2 (1) = u lfJ lA(eoswll + COSW21)
(
'>(L3Jl I Jut{J3
+ 4 + 4 +. 2 Alleos(wl
+ cos(2wz - wl)11 + . (2.66)
obtaining Ihe same IP3 as abovc. This result assumcs lero phase shift for all components.
Why did we add the amplitudes of the IMJ products in Eq. (2.66) without regard for
their phases? Is it possible tlmt phase shifts in the fi rst and second stages allow partial
ID
00
00
00
J1 Chap. 1. Basic Cmcepls in RF Design
conullllli(m of these icnns and hence a hi gher IPJ'I Yes. it is possible but uncommon in
practice. Since the frequencies "'I . "'2. 2w( - "'2. and - WI are close \0 one another.
these components experi ence approximately equal phase shifts.
But how about the lerms descri bed in the fourth observalion? Components such as
"'I - "'2 and 2wI may ran well out of the signal band and experience phase shifts diITerenl
from those in [he first three obser vati ons. For this reason. we may consi der Eqs. (2.65) and
(2.66) as Ihe worst-case scenari o. Since most RF systems incorpomle narrowband ci rcuit s.
the ter lTIs at WI all. 2w1 and 2m2 are heavily attenuated at the out put of the first stage.
Consequently, lhe sc\:ond lenn on the right-hand side of (2.65) becomes negl igible. and
I I ",2
- , - - - ,-- + - , -' - .
Air} Air}. 1 Air}.l
Extending this result to three or more stages. we have
(2.67)
(2. 68)
Thus. if each stage in a cascade lias a gain greater than unity. tile nonlinearity of tile lalter
stages becomes increasingly more critical because the IP} of each stage is equivalently
scaled dOlrtl by tile total gai n precedi ng tllat stage.
A low-noise amplifier havi ng an input IP3 of - lOdSm and a gain of 20dS is followed
by a mixer witll an input IPJ of + 4dRm. Which stagc limits the IPJ of the cascade more?
Assume the conceptual picture shown in Fig. 2. I(b) to go between volts and dBms.
Solution:
With "'I = 20dR. we note that
AlPl.t
AlrJ.Z
0 ,
- IOdBm (2.69)
- 16dSm. (2.70)
Since the scaled IPl oftl>e second stage is lower than tl>e IPJ of \he first stage. we say the
second stagc thc overall lPJ more.
In the simulat ion of a cascade. it is possible to determine whi<;h stage limits the lineari ty
more. As depided in Fi g. 2.25, we the relat ive 1M magnitudes at the output of each
stage (fl. 1 and fl.l. in dB.) If fl. z "" fl. 1. the second stage contrihutes negligible
nonlinearity. On the OI lier hand. if fl., is substantially less tlmn li l . then the second stage
limits the IPj .
Sec. 1.1. Effects of NOll/illearit)'
. .. .... . . .. ] .....
0,
r
-.to,
WI W2 W
2wCw2 2 W
2
-W
I
3J
Figure 2.25 Growth of 1M CQltll'ollems ,,/'mg the c"scm/e.
2.2.6 AM/PM Conversion
In some RF ci rcuits. e.g .. power amplifleN. ampl itude modul ation (AM) may be converted
to phase modulation (PM). thus producing undesirable effects. In this section. we study this
phenomenon.
conversion (APC) can be viewed as tl>e dependence of the ph<ISC shift upon
the signal ampl itude. That is, for an input Vin(t) = VI COSWII. tl>e fundamental output
component is given hy
(2.71)
where I/!( VI) denotes the ampl itudedependent pllase shift. Tlli s. of course. docs not occur
in a linear time-i nvariant system. For example, the phase shift experienced by a sinusoid
of frequen\:y WI through a first-o rder low-pass RC section is given by - lan-
I
(RCwd
regardless of thc ampl itude. Moreover. APC docs not appear in a mcmorylcss nonlinear
systent because tile phase shift is zero in thi s case.
We may therefore surmise that AM/PM conversion ari ses if a system is ooth dynamic
and nonlinear. For example. if the capacitor in a first-order low-pass RC section is nonlin-
ear. then its "average" value may depend on VI. result ing in a phase shift . - tan - I (RCwl).
tbat it"Clf varies with VI. To explore this point. let us consider tbe arrangement shown in
Fig. 2.26 and assume
(2.72)
R,
Thi s capacitor is considered nonlinear because its value depends on its voltage. An
exact calculation of tile phase shift is difficult here as it requi res tllat we write
Vin = NI C IdV"",/dt + V""' and hence solve
(2.73)
We therefore mat e an approxi mation. Since the value of CI varies periudically wit b
time, we can express the out put as that of a fi rst-order network but wit h a timevarying
34 Chap. 2. Basic Cuncepl$;/1 RF De.lign
capaci lance, C I (t);
(2.74)
(2.75)
We al so assume Ihat ( 1 + aV"",lCo "" ( I + U VI cos wlljC
O
. obtaining
(2.76)
Does lhe OUlpul [imdamel1/o/ conlain an inpUl-dependent phase sllift here? No, il docs
nOI' The reader can show Ihal Ihe thi rd tenn inside Ihe parentheses produces only hi gher
hamwnic.!. Thus. Ihe phase shift of the fundamental is equal \0 -R1COwl and hence
conSlam.
The above exampl e entails no AM/ PM conversion because of It.e jirs/-order depen-
dence of C
1
upon V"",. As illust raled in Fig. 2.27, Ihe average val ue of C
1
is equal (0
Co regardless of Ihe output amplitude. In general. since CI varies periodically. it can be
expressed as a Fourier series wilh a "de" term representing its average value:
00 00
C1 (I) = Cd"8 + Lan COS(IIWI t) + L bn sin(II"-' 1 I) . <2.77)
.. , .. ,
ThklS. if is a function of the amplitude. then the phase shift of the fundamental com-
ponent in the output voltage becomes input-dependent. The followi ng example illust rates
thi s poin\.
c, ' /"
/; c,
/
/ 1 """"""'"
, '

,
,
Figure 2.27 I'arimi<m of cal,,/cIIO, firs/ordu I'olrag" del'e"dellce for small I",d larg"
swing_' _
Sec. 2.J. No;se 35
Suppose: CI in Fig. 2.26 is cxpressed as CI = Co(1 + <l'1 V""' + <l'2V;.,). Study thc AMIPM
convc.-sion in this case if Vi. (I) = VI cos "-' I I.
Sulution:
Figure 2.28 plots CI (f) for small and large input swings. revealing that indeed dcpends
on the amplitUde. Wc rcwrite Eq. (2.75) as
c,
c,ft ______ _______ c .vg2
....... .. .... C
O
"'ll1
,
Figure 2.2S Time "<I';lIIioll <1 ('''I,,,.-ilO' will, strom/'o,der ,"OllIIge fo' s",,,1/ "",/ '<I'ge
'I<-mg' .

V"",O) '" VI coslwll - Rt COWl ( I + a l VI cos wll + a! Vi cos- wll) I

"" VI cos(Wtl - RICOWt - 2 - -. ) .
(2.78)
<2.79)
Thc phase shift of the fundamental now contains an input -dependent tenn.
- {a2RICOWt V? )/2. Figure 2.28 al so suggests that AMIPM conversion docs nOi occur if
the capacitor voltage dependence is odd-symmetric.
What is the effect of Ape? In the presencc of APC. ampli tude modulation (or amplitude
noise) corrupts the phase of the signal. For example. if Vbr(t ) = VI ( I + '" coswml) coswll.
tllen Eq. (2.79) yields a phase corrupti on equal to -a! RICowl (2", Vl cOSw .. 1 +
m!Vf cos! w",r) / 2. We will encounter examples of APC in Chaptcrs 8 and 12.
2.3 NOISE
Thc performance of RF systems is limited by noise. Wi tllout noise. an RF receiver would
be able to deted arbi tr-dfily small inputs. allowi ng communication across arbitnlrily long
J6 Chap. 2. Hasie Concepts in RF Desigll
distances. In this sect ion. we review basic propenics of noise and methods of calculat-
ing noise in circuits. For a morc complete sludy of noise in anal og circuits, the reader is
referred (0 I I ].
2.3.1 Noise as a Random Process
The trouble wit l> noise is lhal it is random. Engi neers who arc used to deal ing with well -
defined. delenn;n;,!;c. "hard" often Ii nd Ihe concept of randomness difficult 10 grasp.
especially if it must be incorporated mathematically. To overcome thi s fear of randomness.
we approach tile problem from an imuil;ve angle.
By "noise is "'"ndorn:' we mean the instantaneous val ue of noise cannot be predided.
For example. consider a resistor tied to a banery and carrying a current lFig. 2.29(a)1.
Due to thc ambicnt temperature, each electron carrying the current experiences thermal
agitation. thus following a somewhat random path while. on the average. moving toward
Ihe posiTive termi nal of the battery. As a result. The alwoge current remains equal to VII /R
but Ihe inSlanlaneous current displays random val ues.
w
'. '.
" "
, ." , ."
R R

'.
M . ,
"" .... '. AVA.
R
-.
"

R
r-n-'-Y"

, ,
", 00'
Since noi se cannot be characterized in terms of instantaneous voltages or currents. we
seck ot her att ributes of noise that arc predictable. For example. we know that a higher ambi-
enl lempenlture leads to greater thermal agitalion of eledrons and hence larger lluctuations
in the current (Fig. 2.29(b)). How do we express the concept of larger random swings for
a current or voltage quant ity? Thi s property is revealed by the O\'erage power of the noise,
defined. in analogy with periodic signal s. as
,
P
n
= 11 m - ,," (t)dl.
. 'f '
T_ oo T
(2.80)
o
where ,,(I) represents tile noise waveform. Illustrated in Fig. 2.30. Ihis definiTion simply
means thai we compute Ihe area under for a long lime, T. and the result
to T. thus obtai ning the average power. For example. the two scenarios depicted in Fig. 2.29
yield differem average powers.
10. As .xplained I",cr. Ihis i, true even wi,h a zero aYcrage
Sec. 2.3. Noise 31
n (t)
N'A}Jy\A;
,
,
,
Figure 2.30 Comrll""I;"" "t ,wise IWk'U
If 11(1) is random. how do we know that P
n
is not'll We are fortunate that noise compo-
nents in circuits have a constant average power. For example. Po is known and constant for
a resiSTOr at a constant ambient temperature.
How long should T in Eq. (2.80) be? Due to its r,mdomness, noise consiSIS of di fferenl
frequencies. Thus, T must be long enough to accommodate several cycles of tile lu>t'e.11
frequency. For example. the noi se in a crowded restaurant ari ses from human voice and
covers the range of 20 Hz to 20kHz. requi ring that T be on the order of O.S s to capture
aboUT 10 cycles of The 20- Hz component.>. "
2,3,2 Noise Spectrum
Our foregoing study suggests that the time-domai n view of noise provides informa-
tion. e.g .. tile average power. Tile freq uency-domain view. on tile other hand. yields much
greater insight and proves more useful in RF design.
TI>e reader may al ready have some intuitive understandi ng of the concept of "spec-
trum." We s.ay the spectrum of human voice spans thc range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This
means that if we somehow measure the frequency content of the voice. we oh,erve all
components from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. How. then. do we measure a signal's freq uency content .
e.g .. the strengTh of a component aT 10kHz? We would nced to filter out the remainder
of Ihe speClrum and measure the O"erage J'O"'er of the 100kHz component. Figure 2.31(a)
conceptually ill ustrates such an experiment. where the microphone signal is applied to a
band pass filter having a I-Hz bandwidth centered around 10kHz. If a person speaks into
tile microphone at a steady volume. the power meter reads a constant value.
Tile scheme shown in Fig. 2.31 (a) can be readily extended so as TO measure the st rength
of all frequen\:y components. As depk ted in Fig. 2.3 1 (b), a bank of l -Hl band-pass filters
centcred at!, .. In measures the average power at each frequency." Called the speCTrum or
the "power spectral densiTY" (pSI of x(t) and denoted by S,(f). the resulting plot displays
tl>e average power Ihat the voice (or the noise) cames in a I-Hz bandwidlh at differenl
frequencies.
,J
11 is interest ing to note that thc total area under SA!) represents the average power
carried by _( I):
(2.81)
I L In we ma!;c. guc>< f.,.- T. p". incrc.'" T. rc<.lcula p . and repe"' unlil con<ecutiYC
" f p. b<wrne ""arly equal.
12. Thi, is atso tl>< conceptuat operati,.., of spectrum analyzers.
13. tn tl>< lheory " f sign,t , a"d s} .. ,.m,. lhe PSD is defined a, the Fourier U,",forrn of tl>< "u'OCOfret,t ion " f
Signal . These 'wo YicW' are CGuiv.lcnL
J8 Chap. 2. Hasic C,-,ncepts ill RF Design
Band_Pan
Filler
Microphone
,",
E .. (t)
,
10 kHz
Band_Pau
Filters
( "'
Power
Met er
Power
Meters
(.,
ICH
" ,

( "'
IC
'. ,
. ,
Average
Power

10 kHz
,
. ..
..
. , . ,
: : : : , .
: , : :: .
. . .
. . .
. . .

'. ,
Figure 2.31 Mrosuremmt uf (uil'()wU in 111<.. "IU/ (bl Ihe 'Peelrum.
The spectrum shown in Fig. 2.J I(b) is called "one-sided" beCaliSe it is con,tructcd for
positive frequencies. In some cases. tile analysis is simpler if a "two-sided" spectrum is
util ized. Tile laner is an even-symmetric of the fortner scaled down vertically by a factor
of lwo (Fig. 2.32). so lhat ll>e lwo carry equal energies.
"
" f,
,
"
" '2
,
Figure 2.32 T ",'v-sided "",/ "lie-sided s"eelT"{! .
bampll' 2.15
A resistor of value RI generales a noise voltage whose one-sided PSI> is given by
s.(/) = -tkTRI. (2.R2)
Sec. 2.J. Nuise 39
wherc k = 1.38 X 10-
21
J/ K denotes the Boltzmann constant and T tile absolute tempera-
ture. Such a flat I'SD is called "white" because. like white lighL it contains all frequencies
with equal power levels.
(a) What is the total average power carried by the noise voltage?
(b) What is the dimension of S,(j)?
(c) Calculale lile noise vollage for a 50-0 resiSlor in I H"t al room lemper-"lure.
Sulution:
(a) Tile arca under S,(f) appears to be infinite. an implausible result oceause the resistor
noise arises from the fin ite ambient heat. In reality. S,{j) ocgins to fall atj > I THz.
a fin ite total energy. i.e . thermal noise is not quite white.
(b) The dimension of S. (j) is voltage squared per uni l bandwidlh ( V
7
/Hz) ralher lhan
power per unit bandwidth (W/Hz). In facL we may write the PSD as
v
2
= 4kTR

(2.83)
wllere V; denotes the average power of Vn in I Hz." While some the
right-hand side as 4kTRtJ.j to indicate tile total noise in a bandwidth of tJ.j. we omit
tJ.j with the understanding that our PSOS always represent power in I Hz. We shall
usc S,(f) and VJ interchangeably .
(e) For a 50n resistor at T = 300 K.
v.; = 8.28 X 10-
19
V
2
/ Hz. (2.84)
Thi s meanS that if the noise voltage of the resistor is applied to a I -Hz band-pass til-
ter centered at any frequency I THz). then the average measured output is given
by the above value. To express the result m; a root-mean-squared (rms) quantity and
in more familiar units. we may take the square root of both sides:
/Vj = 0.91 nV/JHz. (2.85)
Tile familiar unil is nV bUllhe Slrange unil is .JHz. The laller bears no profound
meaning: it simply says that the average power in I Hz is (0.91 nV)2.
2.3.3 Effect of Transfer Function on Noise
The principal reason for defi ning the PSD is that it allows many of tile frequency-domain
operations used with determi ni stic signals to be applied to random signal s as well. For
14. AI..., <an<"tl '"'''''' ooi",:'
40 Ch"p.2. 8",;," Cuncepls in RF De.lign
i f while noise is applied 10 a luw-pass filter. how do we uelennine lhe PSD at
the output? As , hown in Fig. 2.33. we inlllitively expect that Ihe output PSD assumes Ihe
shape oflhe filter's frequency response. In fact. if X{I ) is applied to a linear. time-invariam
system with a transfer function ff(s), then the output spectrum is
(2.86)
wllcre H{f) = H(s = jbrf) 121. We nOle that IH(nl is squared be(:ause SAn is a (voltage
Of current) squared quantity.
'"
2.33 Effect of /ow"I'''s, filter 0/, ... hile ,wise.
2.3.4 Device Noise
In order to analyze the noise performance of circuits. we wish to model the noise of thei r
consl ituem elements by famil iar componems such as voltage and current sources. Such a
represenlation allows the usc of standard ci r\:uit analysis techniques.
Thermal Noise or Resistors As mentioned previously. the ambient thermal energy leads
to random agitation of charge carriers in resislOrs and hence noise. The noise can be
modeled by a series voltage source with a PSD of V; = 4kTR I IThevenin equivalent.
- -
Fig. 2.34(3)] or a parallel corrent soorce with a PSI) = V? / R I =4kTI R I INorlOn
equivalen\. Fig. 2.34(b)l. The choi\:e of the model sometimes simplifies the analysis.
The polW'ity of the sources is unimportant (but must be kept the SlImc througllout the
calculations of a given ci rcuit).
R,
(
4kTR,
("
", ,rr:-
R,LL
,.,
Fi gure 2.34 (u) Thel'enin mId (b) No,tvn /tI<x/ds vf ",sistor tliemlUl "oise.
EXlImplr 2.16
Sketch the PSI) of tile noise voltage measored across the parallel RLC lank depicled in
Fig. 2.35(a).
Sec. 1.J. Nuise
R, c,
,.,
,.,
OTR,
'.
,,'
41
,
Figun' 2.35 (aJ RLC tw!k. (bl il/elusio" of resis/ur I/o;.e. (c J allll'UI "ui.e sl'eclrum due /0 R I.
Solution:
Model ing Ihe noise of RI hy aClIrrcnt source, l; 1 = 4kTj RI_ lFig. 2.35(b)1 and nOl ing that
tile transfer function V.I'. I is. in fact. equal to the impedance of the tank. Zr. we write
from Eq. (2.86)
(2.87)
Atlo = (2/T..J[ICI) - 1. LI and C
1
resonate. reduci ng the ci rcuillOonly N
1
. Thus. lhe oUlput
noise allo is simply equal 10 ';I R; = 4kTR
I
. At loweror higher frequencies. the impedance
of the tank falls and so docs the output noise lFig. 2.35(c)l.
If a resistor converts the ambient heat to a noise voltage or cUlTent. can we extracl
energy from the resistor? In panicular. docs the alTangement shown in Fig. 2.36 deliver
energy to R2? Interestingly. if RI and R2 reside at the same tempe"'dture. no net energy is
transferred belween them because R2 also produces a noise PSD of 4kTR2 (Problem 2.8).
However. suppose R2 is lleld at T = 0 K. Then. RI continues 10 draw thermal energy from
its environment. conveni ng it to noise and delivering the energy 10 R!. The average power
transferred to R2 is equal to
(2.88)
(2.89)
(2.90)

(
................. :: ....... J
,
Figure 2.36 T",usfa vf nviu from vile ",sisto, Iv ,,"oll,er.
41 Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
This quant ity reacllcs a maximum if R, = RI:
(2.91 )
Called the "available nOise power," icT is independent of the resistor value and has the
dimension of power per unit bandwidt h. The reader can prove lhal kT = - 173.8dBm/Hl
alT = 300 K.
For a circuil \0 exhibit a [Ilennal noise dens ity of = 4kTR t. it need not contain an
explicit resistor of value RI. After all. Eq. (2.86) suggests tlml the noise density of a resistor
may be transformed to a higher or lower value by the surrounding ci rcuit. We also note lhal
ir a passive ci rcuit dissipates energy, lhcn it mUS1 conlain a physical resistance 'S and must
therefore fH"duce thermal noise. We loosely say "Iossy circuits are noisy."
A theorem that consolidates the above observations is as follows: If tile real pan of
the impedance seen between two terminals of a passive (reciprocal) network is equal to
Rel.l;,.,!. then the PSI) of the thermal noise seen between these terminals is given by V; =
4l::TRelz"u,l (Fig. 2.37) 181. This generaltheorcm is not limited to lumped ci rcuits. For
example. consider a transmining amenna that dissipate.> energy by radiat ion according to
the equation Vix."",/ R",tI. wllere R",lI is the "radiation resistance IFig. 2.38(a)]. As a
re<:eivi ng element I Fig. 2.38(b) I, Ihe antenna generales a thermal noi,e PSI) of I.
,
V; uhl = 4kTRratf. (2.92)
237 OUipul ,wiu 'if" 1"'55;'''' (ruil,rocllli circuil.
)))
r-
'.

,
,., ,.,
Figure 2.311 (lIl Trlll'5ntilling <!IlIe",,,,. (b I reui>"ing wile",,,, l>rmJ<lcillS II,ernu,/ "oiu.
15. INiI "".1 ind"",u<s ond c"P""i!<.OfS JIO'" .n.rgy bm do nol di"i p." il.
l b. Sn""ly 'peaking. Ihi' is nOi correcl because Ihe noise of. recei>"ing amenn. is in f"'" given by !he back
groond noise .g .. c(>Sm", radialion). However. in RF de,ig.n. Ihe noise i, commonly ... umed to be
4kTRrod
Sec. 2.3. Noise 4J
,.,
'"'
Figure 2.39 17u;rma/ ch",,,,e/ nuise uf" MOSFET m(l;lded <IS" ((II eurrenl Suurt"t. (b) ,ullage
suurce.
Noise in MOSFETs The tllerrnal noise of MaS transistors operating in the saturation
region is approximated by a current source tied between the source and drai n termi nals
I Fig. 2.39(a)l:
(2.93)
where y is the excess noise coefficient and g", the transconductance." Tile value of y
is 2/3 for long-channel transistors and may rise to even 2 in shon-channel devices 141.
The aClual va lue of y has ot her dcpcndcn<:ies 151 and is usually obtained by measure-
ments for each generat ion of CMOS technology. In Problem 2. 10. we prove that the noise
can alternatively be modeled by a voltage source V; = 4kTY/8", in series wit h the gate
IFig.2.39(b)1.
Another component of thennal noise arises from the gate res istance of MQSFETs. an
effttt that becomes increasingly more important as tile gate length is scaled down. illus-
trated in Fig. 2.4O(a) for a device with a width of IV and a length of L. this resistance
amounts to
(2.94)
where RO denotes the sheet resistance (resistance of one squW"c) of the polysilicon gate.
For example. if IV = I tim. L = 45 nm. and Ro = 15 Q. then KG = 333 Q. Since KG is dis-
Iributed over the width of the transistor I Fig. 2.4O(b)]. its noise must be calculated carefully.
As proved in 161, the ,tructure can be redu<:ed to a lumped model having an equivalent gate
res istance of RG/3 with a tllermal noise PSI) of 4kTRG/3IFig. 2.4O(c)l. In a good design,
this noise must be much less than that of the channel:
NG
4kT)""
4kTy
(2.95)
The gate and drai n termina ls also exhibit physical resistances. whicll are minimized through
the use of multiple fingers.
At very high frequencies the thcrmal noise currenl flowing through the channel couples
to the gate capacit ivcly. thlls gencrating a "gate-indllced noisc current"' [.>] (Fig. 2.4 1). Thi s
17. More >ccurately. I; - 4kTndO. where UO i, lhe drainsource condUCI""'" in lhe triode region (e,en
though the noi<c i, mca,un:d in Salu""i",,) 131.
44 Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
Drain
0 0 0 0 I
~ -l
i t.
0 0
!
, , ~

w
,.)
R ~
,.. I
m
(0)
"j
Figu,"" 2.40 (oj GlIte "'5islmlce of" MOSfET. (b) eq14i",,/elil cirruit for /loise ,,,leu/ari"Ii,
(c) equ;ml",,! ,w;s" ""d re,,;mlllet ill IOimlled model.
Gate Channel
'"
/
,.
,
j ,;
clTeet is nol modeled in typical circuit simulators, but its significan\:c has remained unclear.
In this boot . we neglect Ihe gale-induced noise current.
MOS devices also suffer from "Hicker" or " 1 IF' noise. Modeled by 11 voltage source in
series with tile gale. tllis noise cllllibits tile followi ng PSI>:
<2.96)
where K is 11 proccss-dcpendent constant. In most CMOS ledmologies, K is lower for
PMOS devices than for NMOS transistors because the fonner carry charge wdl below Ihe
s ilicon-oxide interface and hence suffer less from "surface stales" (dangling bonds) I I I. The
I If dependence means that noise components that vary slowly assume a large amplitude.
The cl>oice of the lowest frequency in the noise integration depends on tile lime scale of
interest and/or the spectrum of the desi red signal II].
Sec. 2.3. Noise 45
E\":Ulll'le 2.17
Can the tlicl.:er noise be modeled hy a current SOlirce'l
Solution:
Yes. as shown in Fig. 2A2. a MOSFET having a small-signal voltage source of magnitude
VI in series wilh its gate is equivalent to a device with a current SOliTCe of value g .. V
t
tied
between drai n and source. Thus.
. "
,
Figure 2.42 GJIP,u.i()lp of flicker ,wise mirage w carmI/.
(2.97)
For a given device size and bias current, tile 1 If noise PSI) intercepts the thennal noise
PSI) at some frequency. called the "1 If noise comer frequencY:fe. Illustrated in Fig. 2.43.
J ~ can be obtained by converting the fliel.:er noise voltage to current (according to the above
example) and equating the result to tile therma l noise currenT:
K "
g- = 4kTyg
WLe I' '" m
oIX)e
(2.98)
[t follows thai
K g.
fe =
IVLC
ill
4kTy
(2.99)
The corner frequency falls in the range of tens or even hundreds of megahenz in today's
MOS technologies.
Flicker Noise
(log scale)
Thennal Noise
,
Figu,"" 2.43 Flicker "oiu co",er frequmc.v.
46 Chap. 2. Basic Cuncepl$;/1 RF De.lign
While the effect of ni cker noise may seem negligible at high freq uencies. we must
nOie that nonlinearity or time variance in circuits such as mixers and oscillators may trans-
late the I If -shaped spectrum \0 tile RF range. We study tllcse phenomena in Chapters 6
and 8.
Noise in Bipola r Tra ns istor s Bi polar transistors comain physical resistances in their
base. emiller. and collector regions. all of which generd(C (hennal noise. Moreover, ll>ey
a bo suffer from "shot noise"' associated wil t. Ihe transport of carriers anuss Ihe base-emiUer
j unct ion. As shown in Fig. 2.44. [il is noise is modeled by two current sources having Ihe
following PSDs:
"

I,
= 2qIB = 2q-
p
r..c = 2q1c.
(2.100)
(2.10 1)
where and Ie an: the base and colleclOr bias currents. respectively. Since 8m =/c/(tT / q)
for bipolar transistors, the colledor current shot noise is oftcn expressed as
/! = 4lcT
gm
C 2
in analogy wil h ll>e thermal noise of MOSFET> or resistor; ,
(2. 102)
In low-noise the base resistance tllenn,,1 noise and Ihe collector current shot
noise become dominant For this reason. wide transistors biased at high current levels are
employed.
"
'.

-,
+
'.,

"
+

Figure 2.44 Noise source. iIP a hi/Nil" mmsislO'
2. 3.5 Representation of Noise in Circuits
With the noise of devices fonnulatcd ahovc. we now wi,h \0 develop mi'll.lurl'S of the noise
performance of circuits. i.e .. metrics that reveal how noisy a given circuit is.
Input-Referred Noise How can the noise of a circuit be observed in the laboratory? We
have access only 10 the output and hence can measure only the output noise. Unfonunately.
the output noise does not permit a fair comparison between \:ircuil.S: a \:i r\:uit may exhibit
high output noise because it has a high gain rather than high noise. For thi s rcaS()n. we
'refer" tile noise to the input.
Sec. 2.J. Nuis ..
Model A
NoIsV
Circuit
"

+ "
Model 0
Noiseless
Circ uli
Figure 2.45 flwu/ rt!trrt,l,wise.
47
In analog design. the input -referred noise is modeled by a serie>; vohage source and a
par-"lIei current soun:c (Fig. 2.45) III. The ronner is obtained by shoning the input pon
of models A and B and equat ing their output noises (or. equivakntly. dividing the output
noise by the vollage gain). Similarly. Ihe Imler is computed by leaving the input ports
open and eqUal i ng the output noises (Of. equivalently, dividing the output noise by the
transimpedance gain).
noise of the common-gate
Assume I I is ideal and negl ed llle noi se of R
t

'00
+
, ,
' ..
--,
'.,
'0 1-'.
' '

+
'0
ZI"J
M,
".
R,
R,


,.,
'"'
"

+
'0


-
R,
'"
Figure 2.46 ( .. I CG s/"8r. (bl r,m'l!u/,,/;,m vf ;"pm- referred "vist \'Ulwgt. If) cQnlJlOllmiQII of
i",IUI-refared !wise currelPl.
Solution:
Shoning the input to ground. we write from Fig. 2.46(b).
(2.103)
Since the voltage gain of the stage is given by I + g",ro. tile input-referred noise voltage is
equal to
4kTy

g.
(2.104)
(2.105)
48 Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
where it is assumed g",ro I. Leaving Ihe input open as shown in Fig. 2A6(c), the reader
can sllow that (Problem 2.12)
(2.106)
Defined as lhe output voltage divided by lhe input current. lhe lnmsirnpedance gain or the
stage is given by g.,roRI (why?). It follows Ihal
f"
_
-r
" "
(2.107)
".,.
g2,2 R2
." ,

(2.108)
" .
g .. Rj
From the above example. it may appear that the noise of MI is "counted"' twice. It
can be shown that III the two input -referred noise sources are necessary and suffi cient, bUI
often com: lated.
EXlImplc 2.19
bplain why the output noise of a circuit depends on lhe output impedance of the preceding
stage.
Solution:
Model ing the noise of the circuit hy input-referred sources as shown in Fig. 2,47. we
observe that some of r; fl ows Ihrough Z" generating a noise voltage at the input that
depends on IZ, I. Thus. ti>e output noise, Vn,<lu" also depends on Il, l.
"
Z, "
:>-< V n."'"
The computation and use of input-referrcd noise sources prove difficult at high fre-
quencies. For it is quite challenging to measure the tnmsimpedance gain of an
RF stage. For this reason, RF des igners employ tile concept of "'noise figure"' as another
metric of noise performance that more easily lends ilself 10 measurement.
Noise Flgun' In circuit and system design, we are interested in the signal -to-noise nttio
(SNR), ddined as the signal power divided by the noise power. It is therefore hel pful to
Sec. 2.3. Noise 49
ask. how does the SNR degrade as the signal travels through a given circuit? If the circuit
contains no noise. then the output SNR is equal 10 the input SNR even jf the circuit acts as
an aUcnualOT. IS Toquanlify how noi sy l he circuit is. we define its noise figure (NF) as
NF =
SNR,.
SNR,,",
(2.109)
such that it is equal to 1 for a noiseless stage. Sin<:c each quantity
dimension of power (or voltage squllrcd), we express NF in decibel s as
,n this rati o has a
NFIJU
1010g SNR
in
SNR"",
(2. 11 0)
NUle that moSI texts call (2.1 09) the "' noise fa<:lor ' and (2.1 10) the noise figu re. We do nUl
make this distinction in this book.
Compared to input-referred noise. the definition of NF in (2. 109) may appear rather
compl icated: it depends on not only the noise of thc ci rcuit under consideration but the
SNR provided by ti>e preceding slage. In fact, if the input signal contains no noise, then
SNRin = 00 and NF = 00. even though the circuit may have fi nite internal noisc. For
such a case. NF is not a meaningful parameter and only the input-referred noise can be
specified.
Calculation of the noise figure is generally simpler than Eq. (2. 109) may suggest.
For e xample. suppose a low-noise amplifier senses the signal received by an antenna
IFig. 2.4l! (a)l. As predicted by Eq. (2.92), the antenna "'radiation resistance:' Rs. pro-
duces thennal noise. leading to the model shown in Fig. 2,48(b). Here. V';.RS represents the
thennal noise of the antenna. and V; the output noise of the LNA. We must compute SNRu,
at the LNA input and SNR"", at its output.

: '
. ,
: :
: :
..... ........ ....... ........ '.}
'"
:Z,"
' .
Noiseless
Circuit
............ . .... _ .. ...... .
(a) (b)
Figure 2,48 (d) Amt "'''' f()Ii()",ed by INA. (bJ t"ui""lem d,-cuil.
18. Bau$C ,he <ign,1 and (he: inpu' n<:ti sc arc anenua(ro by the ' ame (""'<).-.
SNR.,...
: :
:: v_
: :
50 Chap. 2. Hasic CtJncepls ill RF Design
If the LNA exhihits an input impedance of Z ..n. then both V ... and V/<s experience an
attenuation factor of = Zin/(Zin + Rsl as they appear at the input of the LNA. That is.


where Vj. denotes the nns value of the signal received by the antenna.
(2. 11 1)
To determi ne SNR"",. we assume a voltage gain of A. from the LNA input to the output
and recognize thallhe outpul signal power is equal to The output noise consists
of two components: (a) the noise of the antenna amplilied hy the LNA. and
(b) the output noise of the LNA. VJ. Since these lwo componentS are uncorrelated. we
simply add the PSDs illld write
It follows thai
V
2
NF = In
4kTRs
(2. 112)
<2. 113)
(2.114)
(2. 11 5)
Thi s result leads to another definit ion of the NF: the total noise at the output divided hy
the noise at the output due to the source impedance. The NF is usually specified for a I-Hl
bandwidth at a given frequency. and hence somclimes called lhe "spot noise figure" 10
emphasize the small handwidth.
Equation (2.1 15) suggests that the NF depends on the source impedance. not only
through but also through V'; (Example 2. 19). In fact. if we model the noise by input-
referred sources, t!>en lhe inpul noise current. ..... partially flows through Rs. generati ng a
source-dependent noise voltage of ..."Ri at the input and hence a proportional noise at the
output. Thus. lhe NF must be specified with respect 10 a source impedance- typically 50 n.
For hand illlalysis and simulations. it is possible to reduce the right-hand side of
Eq. (2.114) to a simpler form by not ing that the numerator is the lotal noise measured
at the output:
(2.116)
- ,-
NF
= cC:Cc
c . --, - .
4kTRs Ai)
where V;.""' includes both the source impedilllce noise and the LNA noise. and Ao = I" IA,.
is the voltage gain from Yin to V""' (rather than the gain from the LNA input to its output).
We loosely say. "to calculate the NF. we simply divide the total output noise by the gai n
Sec. 2.3. Noise 51
from Yin to V
o
., and normalize the result to the noise of Rs." Alternatively. we can say from
(2.1 15) that "we calculate the output noise due to the amplifier divide it by the gain.
nonnali1.C itt0 4kTRs. and add I to the result:'
It is important to note that the above derivations are valid even if no actual p,J\tu is
transferred from the amenna to the LNA or from the LNA to a load. For example. if Zin
in Fig. 2.48(b) goes to infinity. no power is delivered to the LNA. but all of the deriva-
tions remain valid because they are based on v"ltage (squared) quantities rather than IX'wer
quantit ies. In other words. so long as the derivations incorporate noise illld signal volt-
ages. no inconsistency arises in the presence of impedance mismatches or even infinite
input impedances. This is a cri tical difference in thinking between modem RF design and
traditional microwave design.
Fxample 2.211
Compute the noise figure of a shunt resistor R" with respect to a source impcdilllce Rs
I Fig. 2.491a)l.
...... ,
R,

Rp :
.......... -
,.,
R,

R,
, ,
,0>
Figu,"" 2.49 (u) Circuit WlISistillg of /I 1){Ir<,lIeI re.,i.,ror, (b) model for NF C<I/CIIlllli""
Solution:
From Fig. 2.49( b). the total oulput noise voltage is obtained by seUi ng Yin to zero:
The gain is equal to
Thus.
,
V';:.w, = 4kT( Rs IIRp) .
Re
Ao = ""Co
Rp + Rs '
(R + R )2
NF = .U::T(R " R) , e
s p 4kTRs
R,
= I + - .
R,
(2. 11 7)
(2. 11 R)
(2. 11 9)
<2.120)
The NF is therefore mini mized hy mGximi!;ng Rp. Note that if Rr = Rs to provide
impedance matching. then the NF cannot be less than 3 dB. We will return to this critical
point in the context of LNA design in Chapter 5.
52 Chap.? Hasie Concepts in RF Design
bampll' 2.21
I.>elcnninc the noise figure of lhe common-source SlagI' shown in Fig. 2.50(3) will! respect
to a source impedance Rs. Neglecllt.e capacitances and ni<:ker noise of M I and assume II
is ideaL
,
'n.M1
--.
vnJlS R
~
- - ~ - - ' .
, ..
'"'
Solution;
, ,
From Fig. 2.50(b), Ihe output noise consists of two \:omplmenlS: (a) thaI due to MI. ';.M I '0'
and (b) the ampl ified noise of Rs. V;s(g .. ro)2. It follows that
NF=
, ,
-IkTY8",f
O
+ -IkTRs(gm'o)-
(g .. ro)2
_ Y- +L
gmRS
4kTRs
(2.121)
(2.122)
This result implies that Ihe NF falls as Rs rises. Does [his mean IhaL even though (he ampli-
fier remains unchanged. the overall system noise performance improl'es as Rs increases?!
This interesting point is studied in Problems 2.18 and 2.19.
Noise Figure of Cast:aded Stages Since many stages appear in a receiver chain. it is
desirable to determine the NF of the overall cascade in terms of that of each stage. Consider
the cascade depicted in Fig. 2.5 1(a). where A,' i and A", denote the unloaded voltage gain
of the two stages. The input and output impedances and the OUlput noise voltages of the
two stages are also shown. "
We first obtai n the NF of the cascade using a dira:t method: according to (2.115). we
simply calculate the total noise at Ihe output due to Ihe two stages. divide by (V""d V",)2.
nonnal ile 10 4kTRs. and add one to the result. Taking the loadings into aC\:ount, we write
the overall voltage gain as
(2.123)
19. We assume fOf ,i mpl>ci, y Ihat the react ive c",nponent' of (he input and OOIPU! imrWance. are n"lIed bu,
lhe fin. 1 re, ul! i, validewn if (hey are no<.
Sec. 2.3. Noise 53
Stage 1 Stage 2
A .! "'2 A Y2
Rs ~ v " ~ ~
' . ""-;---;;r ;:-lV>-:;; , :O-'t-:;r:-l,., ,
Rift! R oul! RIn2 RouI2
.............................
(' 1
Stage 2
: ...........................
. AY2 :
R
' ~ V
n2
oul! '
,.==1 >=0'0--'-- '_
r ,

R_
...... ............ ...........
0)
Figure 2.51 (Il) Noise ill (I c(l5Cl1de uf stages. (b) siml,lifted diagram.
The output noise due to the two stages. denoted by V';."U/' consists of two components: (a)
V;,. and (b) V;I amplified by the second stage. Since V. I sees an impedance of R"", I to its
len and Ri", to ils right. it is s<:aled by a factor of Rjn2/{Ri"2 + Rout ]) as it appears at the
input of the second stage. Thus.
(2.124)
The overall NF is therefore expressed as
NF,,,, = 1 (2.125)
4kTRs
(2.126)
Tile first two terms conslitute the NF of the first stage. NFl . with respect to a source
impedance of Rs. Thc third tcnn represents thc noise of thc second stagc. but how can it be
expressed in tenos of tile noise figure of this stage?
54 Chap. 2. Hasie Concepts in RF Design
Let liS now consider the second stage by itself and determine its noise figure with
respcrl (0 a source impedance of R"", I I Fig. 2.51(b11. Using (2.115) again. we have
(2. 127)
It follows from (2.126) and (2. 127) that
(2.128)
What docs Ihe denomi nator represem? This quantity is in fact the "available power gain"
of the first stage. defined as the "available power" at its output. (the power [hal it
would deliver to a matched load) divided by tile available source power. ps.
a
, (the power
that the source would deliver 10 a matched load). This can be readily verified by fi nding tile
power that ll>e first Slage in Fig. 2.5I(a) would deliver 10 a load equal to R"" II :
(2. 129)
Similarly. the power [1M Vb! would ddi wr to a load of Rs is given by
(2.130)
The ratio of (2. 129) and (2.130) is indeed equal to the denominator in (2. 128).
With tllese observations. we write
(2 ,13 1)
where Ap , denotes tile "available power gain" of the first stage. It is important to bear in
mi nd that NFl is computed with respect to the output impedance of tl>c first stage. For IJI
,tages.
(2.132)
Called "Frii s' equation" 171. this result suggests that tile noise contributed by each stage
decreases as tile total gain preceding tllat stage increases. implying that tile fi rst few stages
in a cascade are tile mOSt critical. Conversely, if a stage suffers from allenuation (loss),
then the NF of the following ci rcuits is "ampl ified" when referred to the input of that
stage.
Sec. 1.J. Noise 55
Fxample 2.22
Detennine lhe NF of the cascade of common source stages shown in Fig. 2.52. Neglect the
transistor capacilances and Hicker noise,
. ;gu", 2.52 C"sc"de of CS siages for IW;S" fig"'" c(l/cuiar;()/!.
Solution:
Which approach is simpler to use here. the direct method or Fri is' equalion'! Since
Rin' = Riot = 00. Eq. (2.126) reduces 10
NF = I (2.1 .B)
.
where V;, = 4kTygm,'{"w V;2 = 4kTygm2ro2' A" = gm,ro,. and A,z = gm2'02. W,th all
of these quantities readily availablc. wc simply subslitutc for their values in (2.133).
obtaining
y y
NF = I+ .
SmlRs g;""o,gm2RS

On the other hand. Fri is' equation requires the calculation of the available IX'wer gain of
the fi rst stage and the NF of the second stage with respect to a source impedance of 'Oi ,
leading 10 lengthy algebra.
The foregoing example represents a typical silUation in modern RF design: the interface
between the two slages does not have a 5Q.Q impedance and no allempt has been made
to provide impedance matching between the twO stages. In such cases. Friis' equation
becomes cumbersome. making direct calculation of the NF more allnlCtive.
While the above examplc assumes an infi nite input impedance for the second stage. the
direcl method can be extended to more realistic cases with tile aid of Eq. (2.126). Even in the
presence of complex input and output impedances. Eq. (2.126) indicates that ( I) V; , mUSl
be divided by the ulI/Q(1ded gain from Vin to the output of tl>c fi rst stage: (2) the output noise
of the second stage, V;2' must be calculated with this slage driven by Ihe output impedance
of the first slage;>il and (3) V;2 must be divided by Ihe total vollage gain from V
in
to V
o
.,.
20. Rall frum E .. mplc 2.19 ,h" the: <>u' pu, noise of a rna)' <l!:p<nd on ,he: ""'"'. imp<dan<:e dri"ing
it. but {he soorce impiar.ce noise is .,dude<! from V;l'
56 Chap. 2. Hasic C,-,ncepts ill RF Design
E\ample 2.13
))elcrmine Ihe noise figure of Ihe ci rcuit shown in Fig. 253(a). Neglect trans;,tor
capacitances. nicker noise. channel-length modulation. and body effect
,---,'00
,.,
U,
R"
'.,
'"'
Figurt' 2.53 (,,) C"sc(lde ()I CS ,,,,d CG f/"8ts. (b) simplified di''1,mm.
Solution;
For tile first St age. A,I - 8ml RO I and lhe unlQaded output noise i s equal 10
For [he second stage. the reader can show from Fig. 2.53(b) that
4kTy ( I RV2 )2 + 4kTRm.
8",2 + RO!
r
(2.135)
(2.136)
Note that the output impedance of the first stage is included in the calculation of V;2 but
the noise of RUI is nolo
We now substitute these values in Eq. (2.126). bearing in mind that R jn2 = l /g.,2 and
A,'2 = 8.,2Rm
NFro. = I
4kTRs
4kTy ( Rv' ) '
-- - + 4kTRv'
8.,2 + Rm
+
g.
" R
v
" ( 8;;;1 )',2 R2
' + R .. 21))
g .. 2 /)1
4kTRs
(2.137)
Noise Figure of Lossy Cin:uits Passive ci rcuits such as fillers appear at the from end of
RF transceivers and tllei r loss proves critical (Cllapter 4). Tile loss arises from unwanted
Sec. 2.3. Noise 57
res ist ive components within the circuit that cOnl'en tile input power to Ileat. therehy pro-
ducing a smaller signal power at the output. Funhennore. recall from Fig. 2.37 that resistive
components a lso gellerale thcrmal noise. Tllat is. passive lossy circuits botll ancnuate the
signal and introouce noise.
We wisll to prove tllat tile noise figure of a passive (reciprocal) circuit is equal to ilS
"power loss:' defined as L = where Pup is the avai lable source power and P ou' tbe
available power at the output. As mentioned in the derivation of Fri is' equat ion. the avail -
able power is the power tllat a given source or circuit would del iver to a conjugate-matched
load. The proof is straightforward if the input and output are matched ( Problem 2.20). We
consider a more gene..-"l case here.
Consider the WT:tngemcnt shown in Fig. 2.54(a). where the lossy c ircuit is driven by
a source impedance of Rs while driving a load impedance of R
I
} ' From Eq. (2.130), the
available source power is Po'" = To determine the avail ablc output power, we
construct the Tl>cvenin equivalent shown in Fig. 2.54(b). obtaining P"", = Vi,...)(4R
ou
') '
Thus. tl>c loss is given by
L = (2.138)
To ca lculate the noise figure. we utilize the tlleorem illustrated in Fig. 2.37 and the
equivalent ci rcuit shown in Fig. 2.54(c) to write
R,

.. .,;- R
. '.
,
- ,- . Ri.
V,;"", = 4kTR",,, .,.
. (RL + R
ou
' ) -
Lossy
Circuit
,.)
'0'
Thevenin
Equivalent
...............
'"'
(2. 139)
Figu,"" 2.54 (al Lvssy I", ssi"e "etlt'ork. (b) TI,ne"i" eq"i ,alem. (c ) siml,Iifted diagrwn.
21. For ,i mpiicily. " "e a"ume {he reactive pans of {he imre<iance, are c.ncetled bu, {he final re, uh i, \'a IOd
O\"en i f {hey are
58 Chap.? Hasie Concepts in RF Design
Note that RL is assumed noiseless so that only the noise figure of the lossy circuit can be:
determined. The vultage gain from Vin to V""' is found by noling lhal. in response to Vj" , the
circuit produces an output voltage of V""' = VTIo.. RLI(RL + R"",) (Fig. 254(b). That is.
(2.140)
The NF is equal to (2.139) divided by the square of <2.140) and normalized to 4kTRs:
(2. 141)
=L. (2.142)
The receiver shown in Fig. 2.55 incorporates a front-end band- pass filter (BPfi) to suppress
some of the interferers that may desensitize the LNA. If the filter has a loss of L and the
LNA a noise figure of NF iNA, calculate ll>e Qver-"l1 noise figure.

Figu", 2.55 CascaJ" of Bf'F (II"J UlA.
Solution;
Denoting lhe noise figure urlhe fiherby NFfill' we write Frii s' equation as
NF
LVA
- 1
NF,UI = NFfil1 + I
t
= L + (NFLVA - I )L
= t -NFLV ....
(2.143)
(2. l oW)
(2. 145)
where N F v, ... is calculaled wilh respeCI 10 Ihe OUlpUi resislance of Ihe Ii lIer. For
if L = 1.5dB and NF LV ... = 2 dB, then NF,ol = 3.5 dB.
2.4 SENSITIVITY AND DYNAMIC RANGE
The performance of RF receivers is characlerilCd by many paramelers. We slUdy IWO.
namely, sensilivity and dynamic r.tnge, here and defer the others 10 Chapler 3.
Sec. 1.4. Sensi/;"if), and Dynamic Range 59
2.4.1 Se ns itivity
The sensilivily is defined as Ihe mini mum signal level thai a receiver can deleci wilh
"acceptable qmtlily." In Ihe presence of excessive noise. Ihe delecled signal becomes
unimelligible and carries lillie infonnal ion. We define acceplable qualily as suffi ciem
signal -Io-noise raliu, which ilself dcpends on Ihe type uf mooulalion and the corruptiun
(e.g .. bil errur Me) thai the systcm can tuleratc. Typical required SNR levels are in Ihe
range of 6 10 25 dB (Chapter 3).
In order 10 caleulale lhe sensil ivily. we wrile
SNRu,
NF =
SNR"",
P'i,dPRS
SNR"", .
(2.146)
(2.147)
where P'i& denules the inpul signal power and PRS Ihe source resislance noise power. huth
per unil bandwidlh. Do we Ihese quamilies in y
2
/ Hz or WlHz? Since the inpul
impedance of the receiver is typically matched to thai of Ihe anlenna (Chaplcr 4). Ihe
anlenna indeed delivers signal power and noise power 10 the receiver. For Ihis reason. it
is common to express bolh quantilies in W/Hz (or dBm/Hz). II follows Ihat
(2.148)
Since the overall signal power is dislribuled across a cenain bandwidth. 8. the IWO sides
of (2. 148) must be integrated over the bandwidlh so as 10 obtain the tOlal mean squared
powcr. Assuming a flat speClrum for the signal and the noise, we have
P,jg.w, = PRS . NF SNR"", B. (2.149)
Equation (2. 149) expresses the sensitivity as the minimum input signal that yields a
given value for tile output SNit Changing tile notation slightly and expressing Ihe quantities
in dB or dBm. we have
ll
P"n l,IBm = PRslt!B"' IH: + NFldS + SNRminlt!B + 1010gR. (2.150)
where Pun is thc sensitivity and R is expressed in Hz. Now that <2.150) docs nOI direclly
depend on the gain of the system. If the receiver is matched 10 Ihe antcnna. thcn from
(2.91). PRS = kT = -174dBm/Hz and
P"n = - 174 dBm/ Hz + NF + 10 log B + SNR"'i"' (2.151)
NOle Ihat Ihe sum of the firsl three lerms is the IOtal imegrated noise of Ihe system
(sometimes called the ""noise fl oo(').
60 Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
A GSM m:eiver requires a mi nimum SNR of 12dH and has a channel bandwidth of
200 kHz. A wireless LAN receiver, on the other hand. specifies a minimum SNR of 23 dB
and has a channel bandwidth of 20 MH",-. Compare tile sensitivilies of these two systems if
both have an NF of 7 dB.
Solution:
For the GSM receiver. P"n = - W2dBm. whereas for tile wireless LAN system. p,," =
- 71 dBm. !Joes this mean that the lattcr is inferior? No. the lallcr employs a much wider
bandwidth and a more efficient modulation to accommooate a data "'dte of 54 Mbls. The
GSM system h:mdles a data rate of only 270 kbls. In other words. ,pecifying the sensitivity
of a receiver without tile data rate is not meaningful.
2.4.2 Dynamic Range
!Jynamic range (OR) is loosely defined as the maximum input level that a receiver can
"tolerate" divided by Ihe minimum input level that it can deted (the sensitivity). This defi -
nition is quantified differently indifferent applications. For example, in analog circuits such
as analog-to-digital conveners. the DR is defined as the "full -scale" input level divided by
tbe input level at which SNR = I. The full scale is typically tile input level beyond which a
hard saturation occurs and can be easily determi ned by examining the ci rcuit.
In RF design. on the othcr hand, Ihe situation is more complicated. Consider a sim-
ple common-source stage. How do we define the input "full scale" for such a circuit" Is
there a panicular input level beyond which the circuit becomes excessively nonlinear? We
may view tile I-dB compression poim as such a level. But. what if the circuit senses two
imerfercrs and suffers from imcrmodulation?
In RF design. two definitions of DR have emerged. The first. simply callcd the dynamic
range. refers to the maximum tolerable de.l;red signal power divided by the minimum tol-
erable desired signal power (tile sensitivity). Il lustrated in Fig. 2.56(a). this DR is limited
by compression at the upper end and noise at the lower end. For example. a cell phone
comi ng close to a base station may receive a very large signal and must process it with
Pe<1onnance
l imned by
Compression
Senslllvily Pe<1onnance
limited by
Receiver --;t c.cCrccU __ ';Nolse
Integrated Noise
,
,.j
I I
'"'
scale
Flgu,"" 2.56 Defi";I;"''' "f(") DR ,,,,d (bl SFDR
'"
Sec. 2.4. Setlsilil'iIJ" alld Dynamic Range
"
acceptable distortion. In fact. the cell phone measures the signal strength and adjusts the
receiver gain so as 10 avoid compression. Excluding imerfercrs. Ihis "compression-based"
DR can exceed 100dB Occause the upper end \.Can be raised relatively easily.
TI>e se<:ond lype. called ll>e "spurious-free dynamic range" (SFOR). represents limita-
tions arisi ng from bolh noise and interference. The lower end is slill equal to tile sensitivity.
but the upper end is defined as the maximum input level in a Iwo /ime test for which the
third-order 1M products do not exceed the imcgralcd noise of Ihe receiver. As shown in
Fig. 2.56(b), two (modulated or unmooulaled) lones havi ng equal ampl itudes are applied
and their level is raised until the 1M products reach the integrated noise' Tile ratio of the
power of each tone to the sensit ivity yields the Sf-DR. The SFDR represents the maximum
relat ive level of interferers that a receiver can tolerate while producing an acceptable signal
qual ity from a small inputlevcl.
Where should the various levels depicted in Fig. 2.56(b) be measured, at tile input
of thc circuit or at its output? Sincc thc 1M components appear only at the output. the
output port serves as a more natural candidate for such a measurement. In this case. the
sensitivity- usually an input-referred quant ity- must be scaled by the gain of the circuit
so that it is referred to thc OUlpUt. Alternativcly, tile output 1M magnitudes can be divided
by the gai n so that they are refcrred to the input. We follow the latter approach in our SFDR
calculations.
To determine the upper end of the Sf-DR. we rewrite Eq. (2.56) as
P
_p +p,,,,,-PI\f Q"'
111'3 - '" 2
(2.152)
where. for the sake of brevity. we have denoted 2010gA, as PA even though no actual
power may be t"'dnsferrcd althe inpUI oroutput!X'Tls. Also. PIM,o"' represenls the level of
1M products at tile output. If the cireuit exhibits a gain of G (in dB), then we can refer the
1M level to the input by writing PIM,i. = PIM,ow - G. Similarly. the ;npullcvcl of each tone
is given by Pi. = P ""' - G. Thus. (2.152) reduces to
P -P'M
P
_ p . + '" . jn
111'1 - on 2
(2.153)
}Pi" - Pm.i"
2
(2.154) =
and hence
2PIII'1 + Pm ,n
Pm = 3
(2.155)
The upper end of the SFOR is that val ue of Pin which makes Pm.in equal to the integrated
noise of the receiver:
2PIII'J + (-174dBm + NF + 1010gB)
Pi" .... " =
23_ N<>Ie lh .. lhe inlcgmlcd D<}i : i, a single yalue (e_g_. 100 I' V m .. ). "'" a
(2.156)
62 Chap. 2. Basic Cuncepl$;/1 RF De.lign
The SPI)R is the difference (in dB) between Pin.1tWX and tile sensitivity:
SFDR = Pi"""" - ( - 174 dBm + NF + 10 log II + SNR",j,,)
2(PIIPJ + 174dBm - NF - 10 log 8)
= - SNR",i""
3
(2. 157)
(2.158)
For example. a GSM receiver with NF = 7 dB. Pllrl = - 15 dBm. and SNR",in = 12 dB
achieves an SFUR of 54dB. a substantially lower value Ihan Ihe dynamic range in Ihe
absence of imerferers.
EXlImplc 2.26
The upper end of the dynamic range is limited by intennodulation in lhe presence of ""'Q
interferers or desensitization in the presence of ,me interferer. Comp!lre these two ca"Cs and
detennine which one is more restrictive.
Solution;
We must compare the upper end expressed by Eq. (2.156) with the I-dB compression poinl:
,
P I - JB';' Pin.""",
<
Since PI - dB = Pllf' l - 9.6dB.
and hence
,
Pllf'l - 9.6dB >
< 3
,
PI/f'l - 28.8 dB > - 174 dBm + NF + 10 log B.
<
(2. 159)
(2.160)
(2.161)
Since the right-hand side represents the receiver noise floor. we expect it to be much lower
than the left-hand side. In fact, even for an extremely wideband channel of B = I GHz and
NF = IOdR. the right-hand side is equal to - 74dRm. whereas, with a typical PI/I'l of - 10
to - 25 dRm, the left -hand side still remains higher. It is therefore plausible to condude that
(2.1 62)
It follows thaI the maximum tolerable level in a two-tone test is quite lower than that in
a compression test. i.e .. corruption by intennodulation between two interferers is much
greater than compression due to one. The SFDR is therefore a more stri ngent characteristic
of the system than the compression-based dynamic range.
2.5 PASSIVE IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION
At radio frequencies. we often employ passive networks to transfonn impedances- from
high to low and vice versa. or from complex to feal and vice versa. Called "matching
Sec. 2.5. PllS$il'e Impedance Trmujormalil)11 63
networks," such circuits do not easily lend themselves to integration because their con-
stituent devices. particularly inductors. suffer from loss if buill on si licon chips. (We do
use on-chip inductors in many RF tnlilding blocks.) Nonetheless. a basic understanding of
impedance transformation is essential.
2.5.1 Quality Factor
In its simplest form, the quality factor, Q, indicates how close to ideal an energy-storing
device is. An ideal capacitor dissipates no energy. exhibiting an infinite Q. but a series
resistance. Rs IFig. 2.57(a)l. reduces its Q to
Qs = Cwo
B,
<2.(63)
where the numer-"tor denotes the "desired" componenl and lhe denomi nator, the "unde-
si red-' component. If the resistive loss in tile capacitor is modeled hy a parallel resistance
IFig. 2.57(b)l. then we must define the Q as
B,
Qf' = - ,- .
C.
(2.164)
because an ideal (in[i ni te Q) results only if Rf' = 00. As depicted in Figs. 2.57(c) and (d).
similar concepts apply to inductors
u"
Qs = (2.165)
B,
B,
Qf'=Lw-
<2.166)
While a parallel resistance appears to have no physical meaning. model ing the loss by RI'
proves useful in many ci rcuits such as amplifiers and oscillators (Chaplers 5 and 8). We
will also introduce other definitions of Q in Chapter 8.
2.5.2 Series-to-Parallel Conversion
Before studying transformation techniques. let us consider tile series and parallel RC
secl ions shown in Fig. 2.58. What choice of values makes the IWO networks equivalent?
I"
R.
-G;::::J-
C
I",
I"
R.

,
'"
Figure 2.57 (d) Suit! RC dre,,;I. (b) equ;""/mll",,,,IIe/ dr-cuil. (e) ser;ej Rt- drt'uil. (d) eq"i.."iell/
Immlle! circuil.
"
Chap. 2. Hasie Concepts in RF Design
Equating Ihe impedances.
RS Cs
C \ ',\ II-<>
,.,
RsCss + 1
C"
R.

C.
)0'
RpCps + I'
and substitutingjw for s, we have
and hence
,
RpCrRsCsw- = 1
RpCp + RsCs - RpCs = O.
Equation (2. 169) implies tlmt = Qp.
(2.167)
(2.168)
(2. 169)
(2.170)
Of course. tl>e two imp(."dances cannot remain equal at all frequencies. For the
seri es section approacl>es an open circuit at low freq uencies whil e the parallel sect ion docs
not. Nevenheless. an allows equivalence for a narrow frequency range. We
first substitute for RpCp in (2. 169) from ( 2.170). obtaining
Utilizing the definit ion of Qs in (2. 163). we have
,
Rp = W s + I)Rs
Substitut ion in (2. 169) thus yields
,
C - Q
s
1' - Qi+ , Cs.
So long as 1 (which is true for a fin ite frequency range).
,
RI' "" QsRs
C
p
"" Cs
(2.171 )
(2. 172)
(2. 173)
(2. 174)
(2. 175)
That is. the series-to-parallel conversion retains the value of the capacitor but raises the
resistance by a factor of Ql These approximations for Rp and Cp are relatively accu-
rate because the qual ity factors encountered in pract ice typically 4. Conversely.
Sec. 2.5. Passi"e Impedance Tronsformalion 65
parallel-to-scriesconversion reduces lhe resistance by a factor of Thi s statement applies
10 Nt sections as well.
2.5.3 Basic Matching Networks
A common situati on in RF transrn;ucr design is that a load resistance must be transfonned
\0 a lower val ue. The circuit s hown in Fig. 2.591a) accomplis hes thi s task. As ment ioned
above, lhe capa<:i lor in parallel wilt. RL converts this resistance to a lower series component
IFig. 2.59{b)1. The inductance is inserted to cancel Ihe equivalent series capacitance.
L, C,

i
c,
z" ---->---'
i
z," -------'
,., ,OJ
Figu,"" 2.59 (tI ) M"IC/,iIJ8 I!er,wrk. (b) e"ui""lenl circuil.
Writi ng Zu, from Fig. 2.59(a) and replacing $ with)",. we have
Rd l - L,CI", ! ) + JLt'"
Z 'Jw)
Thus.
_on 1 + JRLC
I
",
R,
Re(Zinl = , , ,
1 + R- C-",. , ,
R,_
+
R,
(2.1 76)
(2.177)
(2.178)
indicating that RL is transformed down by a factor of I + Al so. sett ing the imaginary
pan to zero gives
(2. 179)
(2. 180)

I
Re(Zinl "'" "
RLCi "'
(2. 181)
I
L, = ,.
CI "'-
(2. 182)
The following illustrates how tl>e componcnt values are c hosen.
66 Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
Example 2.27
Design the matching network of Fig. 2.59(a) so as 10 transform RI. = 50 Q to 25 n at a
center frequency of 5 GHz.
Solution:
Assuming I. we have from Eqs. (2.181) and (2.182). C1 = 0.90 pF and LI = 1.13 nH.
respectively. Unfortunately, however. Qp = IAI , indicating thaI Eqs. (2. 178) and (2.180)
must be used instead. We thus obtain CI = O.637pF and L I = 0.796 nH.
In order to tnrnsfonn a resistance to a higher value, lhe capacitive network shown in
Fig. 2.6O(a) can be used. The series-parallel conversion results derived previously pro-
vide insight ocre. If Q2 1. tile parallel combination of CI and RL can be converted to
a series network IFig. 2. 6O( b)l. where Rs""'I Rd C1w) 2,- 1 and CS""' C1. Vi ewing C2 and
C1 as one capacitor. and convening the resuiti ng series sect ion to a parallel ci rcuit
IFi g. 2.6O(c)]. we have
(2.183)
(2 .184)
That is, the network boost.> the val ue of RL by a factor of ( I
(2.185)
Note that the capacitive component must be cancelled by placing an inductor in pa'allel
with the input.
c, C, C,
,
I
::J
:;D.,.
r
c,
.,
r .,
'," '.
,.,
'"
'd
figure 2.60 (lI! C"Jl<,cilh'" "'"lchi"8 cireuil. (b! sin'l'lijied cireuil ".ilh 1'"",IIe1-lo-series com'u-
sio". (f) simplified <"i,cuir "'i//, suies' /(N"""IIe1 (o,,,usiQl,.
For low Q values. the above deri vations incur s ignificant error. We thus compute the
input adminance (I / Y,.) and replace s with jw.
(2. 186)
Sec. 2.5. Passi;'e Impedance Trans/ormation 67
The real pan of rin yields the equi valent resistance seen to ground if we write
<2. 187)
(
C)'
""C;o,-,c' , + R L 1 + C-.'
Ri tW- ,
(2.188)
In comparison with Eq. (2.1 84). this rc>;ult contains an addit ional component. (RLC5w2) - I .
Exampk 2.2H
lJetermine how the circuit shown in Fig. 2.61(a) transforms R
i
.
"
r
c,
z,"
,.,
to,
.-igurc 2.61 (,,! M,,/chi"8 ""lIm,t, (IJI siml'lijied cirellil
Sol ution :
We postulate that conversion of the L I-RL branch to a parallel section produces a higher
resistance. If Qi = (L ,wIRLl
2
I. then tl-te equivalent parallel resistance is obtained from
Eq. (2.174) as
(2.189)
(2.190)
The para llel equivalent inductance is equal to 1-1 and is can\:el1ed by C
1
JFig. 2.61 (b)].
TI-te intuition gained from our analysis of mat\: hing networks leads to the fou r
"L-seet ion" topologies:' shown in Fig. 2.62. In Fig. 2.62(a). C
1
transforms RL to a smaller
series value and L t cancels CI . Similarly. in Fig. 2.62(b). L I transforms RL to a smaller
series value while C1 resonates with LI. In Fig. 2.62(c). LI transforms HI_ to a larger paral-
lel value and C
1
cancels the result ing parallel inductance. A similar observalion applies to
Fig. 2.62(d).
How do these networts transform voltages and As an consider the
c ircuit in Fig. 2.62(a). For a s inusoidal input vollage with an nns value of Vv.. the power
N. The l<rm "C i, ud bee.us<: the c'p""i" .. and the induct.,.- form the kller L in the ci.-.:uit diagram
68 Chap. 1, Basic Cuncepl.,;/1 RF De.lign
--... -...... .
c, .

' ............... .
r-' """N RC
Re{ Zlnl < RL . ... : . . : :
,., ,.,
. ....
c, .
Rc
r lf1
RC
Re{ Zlnl > RL . ; ... .: :
'"
'"
2.62 Four L sec/imps used jor mard';"8.
delivered to the input pon is equal to and thm delivered to the load. V;', / RL.
If L I and C1 are ideal. these two powers mus! be equal. yielding
N,.
(2.19 1)
Re{li"]
This result. of course. applies to any lossless matching network whose input impedance
conlains a zero imaginary part. Since Pi" = Vi"!;. and P "'" = V "",fo"" we also have
(2. 192)
For a network transforming RL to a /o"'er value "amplifies" the voltage and
aUenuales llle \:urrent by lhe above factor.
".xampll' 2.29
A closer look at the L-sect ions in Figs. 2.62(a) and (c) suggests that one can be obtained
from the olher by swapping the inpul and out pul port>. Is il possible 10 generali ze lhis
observation?
Solution:
Yes. it is. Consider tile arrangement shown in Fig. 2.63(a). where the passi ve network
lransforms RL by a factor of <l'. Assuming the input port no imaginary component.
we equale lhe power delivered 10 the nelwork 10 the power delivered 10 llle load:
(2. 193)
Sec. 2.5. PUS$il'c Impedance Trull.ljormlllil)11
Loul
PN.lv.
........
,,)
1
Figure 2.63 ( .. ) '"put ""'/ (b) output ;ml""/""Cu of" lo .. less IJUss;'-e I1er ... '()rk.
11 follows that
69
(2.19..\)
pointi ng 10 tile Thcvenin equivalent sl>own in Fig. 2.63(b), We observe that lhe network
transfonns Rs by a faclor of I/ o and Ihe input voltage by a factor of 1/ fo. similar \0 Ihal
in Eq. (2. 191). In other words. ifthe input and output pons of such a network are swapped.
tile n:sistance transformation ratio is simply inverted.
Transfonners can also transform impedances. An idcaltransfonncr having a turns ratio
of" "amplifies" the inpm voltage by a factor of" (Fig. 2.64). Since no power is lost.
= and hence Rio = Rdn
2
. The behavior of actual transformers. especially
lhose fabricaled monolilhically. is sludied in Chapler 7.
Tile networks studied here operate across only a narrow bandwidth because the trans-
formalion "'"lio. e.g .. 1 + vari es with frequency, and the \:apacitance and indUClance
resonatc over a narrow frequency range. Broadband matching networks can
be constructed. but they typically suffer from a hi gh loss.
2.5.4 Loss in Matching Networks
Our sludy of malchi ng nelworks has lhus far neglected the loss of their conslituenl compo-
nents. pW'licul,.,.ly. that of inductors. We analyze tbe effect of loss in a few cases bere.
but. in general. simulations are ncressary to determine the behavior of lossy
networks.
70 Chap. 2. Hasie Concepts in RF Design
.. PL
Rs L,
w. r W- Jr c--c,
R 1tl1 "; "
, .......................... .
Consider tile matching network of Fig. 2.62(3), shown in Fig. 2.65 with the loss of LI
modeled by a series resistance. Rs. We define the loss as the power provided by the input
divided by that delivered 10 Ri. n , c funner is equal 10
v
2
p. = ,.
'" Rs + Riot
and the latter,
P,_ = ( . R., )'
'" Rs + Ri. t R", I
because tile power delivered to R",I is ent irely abS()rbed by RL. It follows that
Pin
Loss = -
P,
(2.195)
(2.1 96)
(2.197)
(2 ,198)
For example, if Rs = 0.1 Rinl' then the (power) loss reaches 0041 dB. Note that this network
transforms RI, to a lower val ue. Rinl = RL/ ( I + thereby suffcri ng from loss even if Rs
appears small.
As anotl>er consider the network of Fig. 2.62(b), depicted in Fig. 2.66 with
the loss of 1.., 1 modeled by a pamllel resistance, Rr. We nOie that the power del ivered by Vi. ,
Pi., is entirely absorbed by RrIIRI,:
"
Pi. =
V.;."
(2. 199)
RI' II RL
=
V;., RI' + RL
(2.200)
R, Re
P in ............................ P L
c, :
1 I i I
""Y- I 'f' _ Rei _ R,
- : ........... :;: ........ : ..... 1 -
Figu,"" 2.66 Los:<\' "'alching ,,,,Iwllrk wilh INlral/,,/ ",si,'lena
Sec. l.ri, Scalleril1g Parameter.1 71
Recognizing V;' ,/ RL as the power delivered (0 tile load. PL, we have
Loss = 1
R,
+ -
Re
(2.201)
For if Rp = lOR
L
lhen the loss is cquallo 0.41 dB.
2.6 SCATTERING PARAMETERS
Microwave theory deals moslly wilh power quantities mlher Ihan voltage or current quami -
tie;;. Two reasons can explai n this approach. First. tradit ional microwave design is based on
tr<lnsfer of power from one stage to the Sccond, the measurement of high-frequency
voltages and currents in the laboratory proves very diflicult , whereas that of average power
is more straightforward. Microwave thoory therefore models devices. circuits, and systems
by parameters that can be obtained through the measurement of power quantities. They are
called "scattering parameters" (S-parameters),
Refore studyi ng S-par<lmeters, we introduce an that provides a useful view-
point. Consider the Lt-CI series combination depicted in Fig. 2.67. The circuit is driven by
a sinusoidal source. v"" having an output impedance of Rs. A load resistance of RI. = R5
is tied to the output port. At an input frequency of w = (../IICI) - t , 1.., 1 and C
t
fonn a shon
ci rcuit. providi ng a conj ugate match betwecn the source and thc load. In analogy with trans-
mission lincs, we say the "incidcnt wave" produced by the signal sourcc is absorbed by RL.
At other frequenc ies, however, 1.., 1 and Ct altenuatc the voltage dcl iwred to Ri . Equiva-
lently, we say the input port of the circuit generates a "reHected wave" that returns to the
source. In other words. the difference betwecn the incident power (the power that would be
delivcrcd to a matched load) and the reHectcd powcr rcpresents the power delivered to thc
circuit.
',"
Incident

Figure 2.67 {",:idem wal'e ill a "e/w{!,k.
Tile above viewpoint can be generalizcd for any two-port network. As illustrated in
Fig. 2.68. we denote the incident and refl ectcd wavcs at tile input port by V; and
rcspectively. Similar waves arc dcnoted by V
2
+ and V; . respectively, at the out pu\. Notc
R,


" -
Two- POri
- ',
-
--vi
Network v; ___
figu..., 2,68 f//uslrtlli<m of illcid"m ,md rejlecud "'a "n til !I,e iII/lUI m,,/ OUiPUl,
71 Chap. 2. Hasic C,-,ncepts ill RF Design
that Vi denotes a wave generated by Vb! as if the input impedance of Ihe cirCllil were
equal 10 Rs. Since that may not be Ihe case, we include the reflected wave, Vi. so thm Ihe
actua l vohage measured at the input is equal 10 vt + V
1
-. Also. V; denotes the incident
wave tr.weling imo lhe output port or, equivalently, lhe wave rt'f1ecled from R
L
. These four
quantities arc uniquely related to one another through the S-paramc\crs of tile network:
Vi =SlI v t + SIZV
2
+
Vi = S2t Vi +SnV;-.
(2.202)
(2.203)
\Vith the aid of Fig. 2.69. we offer an intuitive interpretation for each parameter:
I. For 5
11
. we have from Fig. 2.69(a)
s"
v-
- ' I
- vt v,' _ 0'

Thus. St t is the ratio of the reflected and incident waves at the input port when the
reflection from RL (i.e .. V; ) is lCro. Thi s parameter represents the accuracy of the
input mal<:hing.
2. For St2. we have from Fig. 2.69(b)
""
;[
R,

(2.205)
Thus. 5
1
2 is thc ratio of the reflected wave at the input port to the incident wave
into the output pon when the inplll pon is matched. In this casco tile outpllt port is
driven by the signal source. Thi s parameter characteri zes the "reverse isolation" of
tile circuit. i.e . how much of the output signal couples 10 the input network.
R, R, R,

'. -
Two-Port
-- V1-
Networ k

Two-Port -',
:c
--jV;
Network
V;_
"

,., , ..
R, R,

Two-pan -',
'c
Network
V2- -- " ""

:;
'. -
Two-pon
__ Vi Network
V; +

'" '"'
Figure 2.69 lII1lslml;O!! of fOllr
Sec. 1.6. Seal/trillS Parameters 7J
3. For S!2. we have from Fig. 2.69(c)
(2.206)
Thus. 522 is the ratio of reflected and incident waves at Ihc output wilen Ihe reflec-
lion from Rs (i.e . v t ) is zero. Thi s parameter represents Ihe accuracy of the output
matching.
4. For 521. we have from Fig. 2.69(d)
(2.207)
Thus, 521 is the ratio of the wave incident on tile load 10 that going 10 the input when
the refledion from RL is lero. Tbis paramctcr represents the gain of the circuil.
We should make a few remarks at tbis poinl. Firsl. S-panunClCrs gcnerally have
frequency-dependent complex values. Second_ we often express S-parameters in units of
dB as follows
S,"o IIi B = 2010g 1Smnl (2.20ll)
Third. the condition V{ = 0 in Eqs. (2.204) and (2.207) requires that the reflection from R/.
be zero. but it docs nOI mean that the out put pon of the circuit must be conjugate-matched
to Ri. This condition simply means that if. hypothetically. a tnmsmission line having a char-
acteristic impedance equal to Rs carries the output signal to RL. then no wave is reflected
from RI . A similar note appl ies to the requirement vt = 0 in Eqs. (2.205) and (2.206).
The conditions vt = 0 at the input or V; = 0 at the output facilitate high-frequency mea-
suremCnts while crcati ng issues in modem RF design. As mcntioned in Section 2.3.5 and
exempl ified by the cascade of stages in Fig. 2.53. modem RF design typically docs nOi
stri ve for matching between stages. Thus. if 5 II of the first stage must be measured with
R/. = R5 at its output. then its value may not represent the Stt of the cascade.
In modem RF design. 511 is the most commonly-used S parameter as it quant ifies the
accuracy of impedance matching at the input of reccivers. Consider the arrangement shown
in Fig. 2.70. where the receiver exhibits an input impedance of Zu, . The incident wave vt
is given by Vio/2 (as if Z;" were equal to R5)' Moreover. the total voltage at the receiver
R,
RecelYer
z,"
Figure 2. 70 wilh ;"ddt,,1 ,,,,,I reflecled K"'O .
74 Chap. 1. Ha sic Cmcepts in RF Design
input is equal to Vml i"/(l i" + Rs) . which is also equal to v t + V
t
- . Thus,
It follows that
v-
,
V 1m V;"

lin + Rs 2
l in - Rs
= V,".
2(Z;" + Rsl
= lin - Rs
v t 2", + Rs
(2.209)
(2.21 0)
(2.2 11)
Called Ihe input reflecl ion coefficient' and denoled by ['i"' Ihis quantily can also be
considered 10 be 5 II if we remove Ihe condilion Vi = 0 in Eq.
Example 2 . .l0
Delermine Ihe S-paramelers of Ihe common-gate siage shown in Fig. 2.7 1(a). Negieci
channel-Ienglh modulalion and body effeci.
'00 '00
R, R,
' ..
,
i
R, R,
, ,
r-
K
""
"
''"

z


(.,
'"
'00
R,
, vi--
R,
ie,
RL" Rs
"', '" ,.
, K
Vi" Ie,

(,)
figu,.., 2.71 (a) CG SU'8e fur c"/cu/ar;",, af Sp{mlt"ner.. (b) ;"e/us;"" of C"I",cilu,s. (c) effect
'if refluted ,..",e ,,/ oUlpul.
Sec. 1.7. Analysis v/ Nunlinear Dy/wmie Systems 75
Drawing Ihe ci rcuil as shown in Fig. 2.7 1(b). where Cx = C
GS
+ CSR and C r = CGV + C1)11o
we wrile l i" = (l / 8mlll(Cxs) - I and
5
11
=
lin - Rs
(2.212)
1m + Rs
=
I - 8",Rs - Cxs
(2.213)
I + 8", Rs + Cx'
For 5 \2, we recognize Ihal Ihe arrangemenl of Fig. 2.71(b) no coupling from Ihe
oUlput 10 Ihe inpul if c hannel -Ienglh modulation is neglecled. Thus. 5 12 = O. For 5n. we
nOle Ihal Zo./ = Rul l (C rS)- I and lienee
(2.214)
(2.2 15)
Laslly. 52 1 is oblained according 10 Ihe configural ion of Fig. 2.71 (c). Since Vi I V;" =
(V,- / Vx )( VX/ Vi"), V,- / Vx = 8m! RvI IRsll(Cys) - I I. and Vx / V;" = lih/(lin + we
obtain
It follows Ihal
v- ( ( )
- '- = 8m Rul IRsl l -
Vi" CrS I + 8", Rs + RsCxs
(2.216)
(2.217)
2.7 ANALYSIS OF NONLINEAR DYNAMIC SYSTEMS!S
In our treatment of systems in Section 2.2. we have assumed a static nonl ineari ty, e.g .. in
Ille form of y(J) = UIX(J) + U2_r'(J) + u J_,J(t) . In some cases, a cireuil may exhibi l dynamic
nonl inearily. requiring a more complex analysis. In Ihi s secl ion. we address Ihis las k.
2.7.1 Basic Considerations
lei us firsl consider a general nonli near system with an inpul given by x(t) = A I COSW11 +
A2 COS u>:!I. We exped tile OUlpUt, yU), \Q contain harmonics atllwl, IJIW2. and 1M products
25. This sect i"" be skjpped jn . first readi ng.
76 Chap. 2. Hasie Concepts in RF Design
at i::wl qW). where. II. 1/1, k. and q arc imcgcfs. In other words,
00 00
y(t) = Lan cos(n"'tl + 0.) + L b" cos(nW21 + 4>" )
." ,
."'
00 00
+ L
L e""h eos(II"-' 11 + IIIW)I + "'._",). (2.218)
- - 00 "' - - 00
In the above equation. an. bn e m. n and the phase shifts are frequency-dependent quantities.
If the differential equation governing the system is known. we can simply substitute for y(l)
from this expression, equate the like tenns. and compute an, b., Cm,n. and t!>e phase shi fts.
For example. considcr tile simple RC section shown in Fig. 2.72. where the capacitor is
nonlinear and expressed as CI = Co{1 + (tV WI) ' Adding tile voltages across RI and CI and
equating the result to V
in
we have
dV"",
+ (tV"",) -- + = Vi .
d,
(2.2 19)
Now suppose V.A I) = Vo COSWII + Vo cos UT!I (as in a twotone test) and assume the system
is only "weakly" nonlinear. i.e .. only the output terms at WI. UT! . WI W2. 2m1 UT! . and
2m2 WI arc s igni ficant. Thus. the output assumes the form
Vil",(1) = al COS(wll + 4' 1) + bl COS(W21 + 4>2) + CI COSI(WI + W):)I + 4'))
+ q cosl (WI - UT!)I + 4'41 + c) cosl (2m1 + UT!)I + 4's I
+ C4 cos) (WI + 2m2)1 + 4'6) + CS cos) (2m1 - (2)1 + 4n)
(2.220)
where. for simplicily, we have used (em and 4'm. We must now substitute for V"",(t) and
Vi. (I) in <2.2 19). convert products of sinusoids 10 sums. bring all of the lenns to one side of
the equat ion. group them according 10 their frequencies. and equatc the coefficient of each
s inusoid 10 zero. We thus obtain a system of 16 noolinear equations and 16 knowns (al. b
l
.
CI . .... <'6. 4' 1 .. " 4'S)
c,
,
f igu..., 2.72 HC circuil ... il/' mmlillell' C"IHlCil()r.
This type of analysis is called "hannonic balance" because it predicts the outpul fre-
quencies and allempts to "balance" the two sides of the \.Cireuit's differential equalion by
including these componcnts in Vo./O) . The mathcmati callabor in harmonic balance makes
hand analysis difficult or impossible. The " Volterra series" approach. on the olher hand.
prescribes a ruursire melhod that computes the response more accurately in successive
Sec. 2.8. Volterra Series 77
steps withoUi the need for solving nonlinear equations . A detailed [rCalmem of the concepts
described below can be found in 110--14).
2.8 VOLTERRA SERIES
In order to understand how the Vol1crra series represcms the time response of a system .
we begin wilh a simple input form. Vbr{t) = Voexp(jwIO. Of course. if we wisll io obtain
the response to a sinusoid of tile form VOCOS"-' II = RelVoexp(jwtt)). we simply cal-
culate Ihe real pari of the output. '" (The use of Ihe exponential fonn greatly simplifies
tile manipulat ion of the product terms.) For a linear. time- invariant system. the output is
given by
(2.221)
where ff (wl) is t!>e Fourier transform of the impulse response. For example. if the eapacilOr
in Fig. 2.72 is li near. i.e .. CI = Co. then we can substitute for V""' and Yin in Eq. (2.2 19):
It follows that
H (w I) =
RICOjwl + I'
Note that the phase shi ft introouced by the cireuit is included in H (wI ) !>ere.
(2.222)
(2.223)
As our neXI step. let us ask. how , hould the OUlput response of a dynamic nonlinear
system be expressed? To this end. we apply IWO IOnes to Ihe input. Vi. (I) = Vo CXP{jwll) +
Vo exp(jw!I). recognizing that Ihe output consisls of bolh linear aod nonlinear respooses.
The fonner arc of the form
(2.224)
and the latter include exponentials such itS e xp[j(wl + >:l)I[. etc. We e xpect [hatlhe \.Coeffi -
c ient of such an exponcntial is a fun clion of bolh WI and W2. We thus make a sl ight change
in our notation: we denole H (wj) in Eq. (2.224) by HI (Wj) Ito indicate first -order (l inear)
terms) and [he coefficient of exp[ j(wl + w2)11 by H2{WI. UT!) . In olher words. Ihe overall
output can be wrinen as
Vil",(r) = HI(wl)VOexp(jwlr) + H I(w2)Voexp(jw2r)
+ H2(WI.W2)VJeXp[j(wl + UT!)I) + . (2.225)
How do we Icnns al 2m1. 2m
2
alld WI - W2? If W!) explj{wl +
>:l)11 represents the component at WI + <0) . then H!(wi. wl)exp)j(2wtlllmust model
26. hu", . "",h<r poin, of "i",'. in Vo exp(}wl!) - 1'0 eo, wI' + jl'o si n "' I '. 'he fi", Ienn general.' ilS own
response. os dot' the second ,.,m: the !"'O responses remain diS!inSuish.ble by vinue of!he fae!or j.
78 Chap. 2. Hasic C,-,ncepts ill RF Design
that at 2"' 1_ Similarly. "'2) and H2(WI . - "'2) serve as cocflicicnts for exp[
and explj(wl - "'1)/1. respect ively. In other words. a more complete fonn of Eq. (2.225)
n:ads
V"",(I ) = HI (WI)VO cxp( jWt l) + HI (W2)VO exp(j>;!1) + HJ(wl . wdVg cxp(2jwtt)
+ H, (W2. W2)VJ exp(2jW21) + Hl(WI . w2)V5 explj(w l + "-'2)1[
+ H2(ill l . - wz) VJ expl j (wl - >::)/1 + . ... (2.226)
Tlms. our task is simply to compute 1f'l("' 1. "'1).
E\ample 2.31
Solution:
We apply lhe inpul Vi. (I) = + Vo exp(jw21) and assume lhe OUl pul is of lhe
form V"",(I) = HI(wil Vocxp(jwll) + + H!(wl.w2)Vgexpl)(wl +
"'1)11. We substitute for V""' and V", in Eq. (2.2 19):
R, Coi l + aH I (wilV?" + uHI (w2lV?" + aHl(WI. w2) vg.J(w' +"' '1
X IHI(WI)jwIV?" + HI (W2)j"'1Vod"'l' + H!(wi. W1,)j(wl + W2)
X vg .J(w, +"''1 + H I (wilt!"' " + H , (wz )t!"'" + Hl( WI. "'1) - w,),
To obtain "2. we only consider the terms containing WI + wz:
Thai is,

RICo[u HI (WI )ff l (w2)iw , Viie' WI ..." + uH
I
("'1) H I (wdiwz Vije' WJ .",
+ H2(WI. wz)i(wl + "'1) vge'(wl -w')'1 + H2(W, . (2)
"R,COj(WI + "'1) HI(wil HI("'1)
Rl e oj(wl + "'1) + I
(2.227)
(2.228)
(2.229)
N01ing that tile denomi nator rcsembles thal of (2.223) but with w, replaced by WI + WZ.
we simplify H2(WI. (2) 10
(2.230)
Why did we assume V"",(I) = H,(wllVoexp(iw,l) + H,(w2lVoexp(iw21) +
H2V5(Wt.W!)cxpl j(wl +W2)11 whi le we " now that V"",(J) also contains tenns at
2w,. 2w
2
and WI - Wl? This is b<x:ause these other exponentials do not yield terms of the
form expl)(w, + >2)11.
Sec. 2.8. Vullt'rra Series 79
Exalllple 2.32
If an input Vocxp(jWtt) is applied \0 the ci rcuit of Fig. 2.72. determine the amplitude of
tile second harmonic at tile OUipUt.
Solution:
As mentioned earl ier. tile component at 2w1 is obtained as "2(WI. WI )VJ explj(wl + WI )/1.
Thus. tile amplitude is equal to
(2.231)
(2.232)
We observe that Akl falls to zero as WI approaches zero because C, draws ]jule current.
and also as WI goes to infinity b<x:ause the second harmonic is supprcssed by the low-pass
nalure of Ihe ciT<;uil.
If lwo lones of equal amplilude are appl ied 10 lhe cireuil of Fig. 2.72. delermine lhe
ratio of the amplitudes of the components at Wt + W! and WI - "'1. Recall that H t(w) =
(RI Cojw+ I)- I .
Solution:
From Eq. (2.230). the ratio is given by
1
'.".'1 1 1
Awl -",2 H2(WI . "'1)
(w l +"'1)H, (W2) Ht(WI+W2) I.
(w , "'1)H, ( wz)HI(wl "'1)
(2.233)
(2.n-\)
(2.235)
The foregoing e xamples poinl 10 a mel hodical approach lhal allows us 10 compule
lhe second harmoni c or second--Qrder 1M components wilh a moderate amounl of algebr-d.
But how about higher-order harmoni cs or 1M prodUC1S? We sunnisc that for Nth-order
terms. we must apply the input Vjn(l ) = Vo exp(jwl l) + .. . + Vo exp(jw.vl) and compute
Ho(WI . ... . w. ) as thecoefficicnt of the expli(wl + ... + wo)11 tcrms in the output. The
80
output \.Can tllerefore be as
N N N
VO",U) = L HI (w,IVocxp(jwkf) + L L H2(Wm. wdVJ cxpl jew,. W<)I]
" " "
+ L L L H3(Wn , Wnt. WtI VJ explj(wn Wm wklll + .... (2.236)

The above represenllllion of the output is called the Volterra series. As exemplified by
(2.230). Hm("'I . .. '. ",,,,) can be com pUled in lerms of HI . ... . H", _ I with no need 10 solve
nonlinear equations, We \.Call Hm Ihe "'-th "Volterra kernel,"
Example 2.3-1
l)etermine the third Vollerr.t kernel for the circuit of Fig. 2.72.
Solution;
We assume Vin{t) = Voexp(j"'ltl + Vo exp(jw21) + Vo exp(jw3tl . Since Ihe output con-
tains many components. we introduce the shon hands HI(I) = HI("'I) VOeXP(jWII).
H1(2) = 1I 1("'2)VOexp(jwll). etc .. lI'n .2) = 112("'1. w2)Vgexpl)("'1 + 412)11. etc .. and
H}( 1.2.}) = H}("'I. w;:. "'3) VJ explj(wl + 412 + W})t] . We express the output as
Vo.,{t) = HI( ]) + H H2) + HI(3) + H2n.2) + H2n.l) + H2i2.l) + H2(1.1l
+ IIm.2) + Hm.J) + H3(1 .2.3) + ... . (2.237)
We must substitute for V
ou
' and Von in Eq. (2.219) and group all of tile tenns that con-
tain WI + w, + WJ. To obtain such terms in the product of aV"", lIlld dV"",/dl. we
nOle that UH2(1. 2Vw3/1 1(1) and a/l IOv(wl + >2)/12( 1.2) produce an exponential of the
fonn expl)("' 1 + w2)llexp(j",]). Similarly, aH2(2.3JwIHI(I). (lHI(lV(W2 + w3) H2(2.3) .
aHz( 1.}!.lw, HI
1
21 ' and aH I(2J(WI + wl)H,(I .JI result in WI + 41, + WJ. Finally. the product
of uV
o
., and dV"", / dl also eOnlains I x j(wl + W2 + w3) IIJn .2.3) . Grouping all of the
tenns. we have
HJ(wl . "-'1. W3)
. R C H2(WI . W2)W3 H I (413) + H2("'2. 413)411 H I (WI) + H2(WI. "'])W2 HI ("'2)
= - Ja I 0
RICoj(wl + "-'1 + W3) + I

- jaRI C
o
RICOj(wl + '-"2 + W3) + (
. R C HI(W3)(WI +W2)H,(WI."'2)
- Jalo .
RICOj(wl + 412 + 413) + T
(2.238)
Note that H2( 1. 11' etc . do not appear here and could have been omitk-d from Eq. (2.237).
With thc third Volterra kernel available. we can compute the amplitude of critical tcrms.
For example. the third-order 1M components in a two-tone lest aTe obtained by substiluting
WI for WJ and - "-'1 for 412.
Sec. 2.8. Volterra Series 81
Tile reader may wonder i f the Vohc ..... " series can be used with inputs ot her lhan
exponential s. Thi s is indeed possible 1141 but beyond Ihe scope of this boot .
Tile approacll described in this sect ion is called lhe "tmrrnonic" met hod of kernel
calculation. In summary. this method proceeds as follows:
L Assume Vih(t) = Vocxp(jWtl) and V"",(t) = H1(wl)VUcxp(jWtt). Substit ut e for
V""' and Vjn in the system"s diITcfCmi al eqUal ion. group the terms that comain
exp(jWtt). and compute the fi rs t (li near) kernel. HI (WI).
2. Assume Vi. (I) = Vo CXP(jWII)+ Voexp(jw2t) and V 00'(/) = HI (WI ) VoCXP(j"' II) +
II I ("'2) Vo exp(jw;:/) + ("'1 . "'2) vg expl jew I + w;: )11. Make subst itutions in the
differential equlII ion. group the terms Ihat contain exp(j(wl + >2)11. and determine
the second kernel . H2(WI . 412),
3. Assume Vin(tl = Voexp(jwltl + Vo exp(jW2I) + Vo exp(jw3tl and VO",(t) is given
by Eq. (2.237). Make subst itutions. group the lenns tiM contain explj(wl + 41, +
"'3)11. and calculllle the third kerneI. IIJ("' I. 412. "'J).
4. To compUle the amplitude of harmoni cs and 1M components. choose "'1 . "'2 ....
properly. For example. H2("' I. WI) yields tile transfer function for 2411 and
H3(WI. - "'2. WI) the transfer function for 2411 - 412.
2.8.1 Method of Nonlinear Currents
As seen in Example 2.34. the hannonic method be\.Comes rapidly more complex as tI
increases. An alternati ve approach called the method of "nonlinear currents" is somet imes
prefcrred as it reduces tile algebra to some extent. We describe the method itself here and
refer the reader 10 I I 3] for a formal proof of its validity.
Tile met hod of nonl inear \.Currents as follows for a circuit Ihat \.Contains a twO-
terminal nonl inear device 1131 :
I. Assume Vin(l) = Vo exp(jwltl and determine tile linear response of the \.Circuit by
ignoring the nonl inearity. The "response" includes both the output of intcrest and
the vollage across the nonlinear device.
2. Assume V",(t) = Voexp(jwlt) + Vo exp(jw;:I) and calculate the voltage across the
nonl inear device. assuming it is li near. Now. compute tile Iwnlitlear component of
the current Ilowing through the devi\.Ce. assuming the device is nonl inear.
3. Set the main input to zero and place a current source equal to the nonlinear
component found in Stcp 2 in parallel with the nonl inear device .
4. Ignori ng the nonli neari ty of tbe device again. detennine the circui t"s response to the
current source applied in Step 3. Agai n. the response includes the output of interesl
and the voltage across the nonlinear device.
5. Repeat Steps 2,3. and 4 for higher-order responses. The over.tll response is equal
to the output components found in Steps 1.4_ etc.
The following example illustrates the procedure.
81 Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
Example 2 .. \.5
Determine H3(W, . "". Wl) for tile circuit of Fig. 2.72.
Solution:
In this case, tile output voltage also appears across the nonl inear device. We that
HI(wl)= (R1Cojwl + 1)- 1. Thus. wilh Vjn(l) = VOCXp(jwll). lhe vohage across (lie
capacilOT is equal to
(2.239)
In the second slep. we apply Vi.(t) = Voexp(jwlt) + Voexp(jw21). obtaining the linear
voltage an os, C
I
as
(2.240)
Wilh this vohage. we compute lhe nonlinear curren! flowing lhrough C , :
(2.241 )
(2.242)
Since only the component at WI + W2 is of interest at thi s poinl. we rewrite tile above
expressIon as
' ("1"",,(1) = "CO + ...
[
)(WI + wz)VJeii"'J",, )1 1
(RICo)wl + 1)(RICo)W2 + I)
(2.243)
= "Col)(wl + W2)VJe' (WI ... ",,)I H , {wl) H
I
{W2) + 1. (2.244)
In (he Ihird ,(ep. we sc( (he inpullo zero. a linearcapacilOr. and apply Ie. . ",,{/) in
parallel wilh C, (Fig. 2.73). The currem componem at WI + >:! flows through the parallel
\:ombinal ion of R, and Co. producing VCI . ",,(I):
R,
\',\
Figure 2.73 IlIciusi,,,, of lIon/i"ear curre,,1 ill RC secth",
Sec. 2.B. Volterra Series
Exalllple 2.35 (Cullimlla/)
VCI."",,{t) = - "Coj(wl + W2) VJd
1w
, +""l' H
1
(w, )
R,
X H I (an) ;C7CCC-"C--:-CC-C
R1Cuj(wl + "'2) +
= -aRICoj(WI + W)HI (w!lHI(W2)HI(WI + W2)VJei
iw
,+"'Z),.
8J
(2.245)
(2.246)
We note that lhe coefficient of VJ explj(wl + >2)11 in these lWO equations is lhe same as
H!(wi. W2) in (2.229).
To dctcnninc Hl(WI ,"'!'''-'])' we must an input of tile fonn Von{l) =
Vo exp(jwll) + Vo exp(j<t>;!/) + Vo exp(jw]/) and write the voltage across C1 as
VC I (I) = H, (WdVoei'"" + HI (W2)Voe""" + HI + H2(w l . u>:!)vJei(w, ... ",,11
(2.247)
Note (hal. in (0 Eq. (2.240). we have included (Ile second-order nonl inear tenns in
(he voltage so as to cakula1e the (hird-order terms." The nonlinear currentlhrough C( is
thus equal to
dVe.
IC I.M" (t) = uCoVe. Tt-
We substitute for Vel and group the tenns containing WI + "'1 + W]:
h:I . ",,(I) = uCol " I (WI )1f7("'1. W])j(u>:! + W]) + H7{W2. W]ljWI H I (WI)
+ HI ("'1) H2(WI, W])(WI + W]) + H2(WI. W])jW2HI (W2)
(2.24S)
+ 1ft (WJ)1{2(Wt. W2)(WI + "'1) + H2(WI. "'1)jWJ1{1 (wl)I VJ ... Hw' . """'W!)1
+ . (2.249)
This current now, Ihruugh the parallel combination of RI and Co, yielding Ve.."",,(t). The
reader can readily show lha( the cocllicienl of exp(j(wl + "'1 + Wl)11 in VC I . ",,(I) is the
same as (he lhird kernel expressed hy Eq. (2.23H).
The procedure described above applies (0 lwo-lerminal nonlinear devices. For lransis-
tors. a similar appruach can be laken. We illus(rate (his poim wi(h the aid of an example.
Exalllple 2.36
Figure 2.7.J.(a) shows (he inpul nClwork of a commonly-used LNA (Chap(er 5). Assuming
lhmg",L, /C
Gs
= Rs (Chapler 5) and 'I) = u(VGS - VT/I)2. delennine the nonlinear lerms
in ,".,. Neglect O1her capaci(ances. channel -length modulalion. and body effect
27. "'" btt""", Ih<y do no< I,ad '0. WI + "'2 + WJ.
84 Chap. 1. Hasic Gmcepls in RF Design
' ..
"
,.,
'"'
"
Z.74 I aJ CS stage willi i",/UCIOTS ill <erie. willi "",/ gale, (b J i"c/u.imp vf ",m/i"l''''
eurmll, (c) cumpU/lUi()1I of output currt'lI/.
Solution;
In lllis circuit. two quamilies are of intere,;t. namely, the output current. /"", (= Iv). and
lhe gatc->our.;c voltage. VI: the laUer mUSt be computed ca,,11 lime as it delermine, lhe
nonlinear component in lv_
Let liS begin with the linear responsc. Since the current flowing through L, is equal to
VI Cess + 8m VI and that flowi ng through Rs and k; equal 10 VI Cess. we can write a KVL
around the inpulloop as
(2.250)
It follows Ihat
(2.251)
Since we have assumed gmL,ICes = Rs. for s = jw we oblain
(2.252)
+ 4;)CGs1-
1
. Note lhall"", = gmV, = g",H,lw)Vin .
Sec. 1.8. Vullt' rra Series 85
Now. we aSSlUnc Vi.(J) = Vo CXP(j"'II) + Vo and write
(2.253)
Upon experiencing Ille chllraclcristic Iv = a this voltage rcSllltS in a nonlinear current
given by
(2.254)
In Ihe slep. we sel Vi. to 1.ero llnd insen a eurrenl source having Ihe above val ue in
parallel with Ihe drain currenl source lFig. 2.74(b)l. We must compule VI in response to
II),,,, assuming the ci rcuil is linear. From Ihe equivalem ci rcuil shown in Fig. 2.7-l(c). we
have Ihe following KVL:
Thus. for s = j",
VI . - jLI'"
--(jw) = ----"""'---w',.
Iv,OW/!
2g.,LJw + I - 2
w"
a.255)
(2.256)
Since Iv."". comains a frequency componem at WI + '-"2. tile above transfer function must
be cakulated al Wt + W2 and multipl ied by lv,,,,,. 10 yield Vt. We therefore have
(2.257)
[n our last slep. we assume Vi .(t) = Vo exp(jwt/) + VoCXp(jw2t) + Voc xp( jW]/) and wrile
Si nce Iv = a the nonl inear currem at Wt + '-"2 + W] is expressed as
Iv . "" = lal H t (w I )H2(W2. "'3) + H I ('-"2 )H2( '" I . W])
+ H I (W])H2(Wt. <2) JVJ,J{W' +"" +"')'.
(2.25!!)
(2.259)
The Ihird-.order nonlinear component in tile oulput or interest, I"",. is equal 10 the
above expression. We nOle Ihat. even though the lransistor exhibits only second-order
nonlinearity. the degeneration (feedback) caused by LI results in higher-order terms.
TIle reader is encouraged 10 repeat this analysis using Ihe hannonic method and see
that it is much more complex.
86 Ch"p.2. 8"5;'" Cuncepls in RF De.lign
REFERENCES
111 R. Dnign or An"/ug CMOS " "8",led Cirei/iIS. ROS10n: McGraw. Hill. 2001.
121 L. w. Couch. Vigiwl ,,,,d A,w/oS CommuII;cUli()lp Syslem" Founh Edition. New York:
I>lacmillan Co .. 1993.
131 A. van de. ZieL "Them,al "Qise in Field EfT",! Tr.msistor<," Pmc. IRE. \'oL 50, IJP- 1808-J 8 12.
Aug. 1962.
141 A. A. Abidi, "High-Frc<jucncy Noise Measurements un FET. with Small Dimensions," IEEE
rm".. Eleclltm Peden. \'oL 33. pp. 1801 - 1805. Nov, 1986.
151 A. J. Shollen el al. . "Accurate Thermal Noise Model of Deep-$ubmi(1"QIl CMOS." I ED ...f Dig
Ted,_ P<l[laf. pp. 155- 158, Dec. 199'1.
161 B. Raiav;. "' mracl of Dislribulc<.l Gale Res;SI.n,..: on (he Pcrfuml.nce of MOS Devices,"
IEEE Trail,' , Cire"!I,' ,,"d SYSie"'5- I'lIrll. wI. 41. pI). 750--754. "'W 1994
171 H. T. Frii s, "Noise Figure of RaJio Rttei"ers," Pro<. IRE. vol. 32. PI'. 419-422.July 1944.
181 A. Papouli s, Probability. RUI,do/li l'ariables. ,,,,d SwcllUSlic Processes. Third Edition, New
York: McGraw Hill. 19'11.
I'll R. W. Bennet. "Methods of Soh' ing Noise Problems:' Proc. IRE. "01. 44. PI'- 609--638, May
1956,
1101 S, Narayanan. "Applic.t;on of VOhClrd Series to Intermodulat;on I);ston;on Analys;s of
Transistor Feedba,k Amplifiers." IEEE Trt"" Circuit Theorv. '-01. 17. Pl'. 518- 527. Nov. I'HO.
1111 P_ Wanlbacq et aL. "High-Frequency I)istonion Analysis of AnalQg Integrated Cil(uit<." IEEE
rm". Cirt'uils ""d Sysltms. fl, "01. 46. PI'. 335- 334. Man:h 1999,
1121 P. Wambaq anJ W. Sanscn, Diswrtio" A"a/ysi, of Alw/og bllegmled Circuits. Norwdl. MA:
Kluwer.I998.
1131 J_ Bussganag. L Ehnnan. anJ J_ W. G .....ham. "Analysi s Qf Nonlinear Systems with Multiple
lnpuIS," Proc. IEEE. "01. 62. 1'1'.1088- 1119. Aug. 1974.
1141 E. Bedrosian and S. O. Rice, "The Oulpul Properties of Volterra Syslems (Nonlinear Syslems
with Memmy) Driwn by Hannoni, and Gaussian Inputs." Pro<:, IEEE, \'01. 59. PI'. 1688---
1707. Dec. 1971.
PROBLEMS
2.1. Two nonlinear stages arc cascaded. If the input/out put characterist ic or each stage
is by a thi rd-order polynomial. delermine lhe p tJ/J of lhe cascade in
tmns of the PtJB of each slage.
2.2. Rcpeat Example 2. 1! if one interferer has a level of - 3 dBm and the other. - 35 dBm.
2.3. If cascaded. stages having only "e('o"d-order nonlinearity can yicld a fin ite !Pl. For
example. consider the cascade identical common-source stages shown in Fig. 2.75.
2.75 Cmeade ofCS ,mges,
Pmblem.1 87
2.4.
2.5.
If each IransiSlOr operales in Saluralion and follows lhe ideal square-law behavior,
determine the IP) of the cascade.
Determine the IP) and PI ,IB for a system whosc characteri stic is approximated hy a
fift horder polynomial.
Consider the scenario shown in Fig. 2.76. where W3 - un = W2 - W3 and the band-
pass filler provides an allenualion of 17 dB al W2 and 37 dB at W].
10mV 10mV
0,1 mV
t 0
., .,
t

w, w
_2 dB
_17 dB
Ampl if ier
--1
'"

-37 dB -., - , - -
Figure 2.76 C"sc"de of BPf- ""d ,m",lijier.
(a) Compute tht llPJ of the amplificr such thatthc intcnnodulation product falling
at illl is 20dB below the desired signal.
(b) Suppose an ampl ifier with a voltage gai n of 10dB and IfP
J
= 500 mY, precedes
the hand-pass filter. Calculate the liP] or the overall chain. (Neglect second-
order nonlinearities.)
2.6. Prove thai lhe Fourier lransfonn of Ihe aulocorrelalion of a random signal yields lhe
spectrum. i.c .. thc powtr measured in a I-Hz bandwidth at each freq ucncy.
2.7. A broadband cireuit sensing an input VOCOSlL\)1 produces a third hannonic
V] cos{3lL\)1). lJetenni ne the I-dB compression poim in terms of Vo and V).
2.8. Prove that in Fig. 2.36. the noise power delivered by Rt to R2 is equal to that deliv-
ered by R2 10 Rt if the resislOrs reside at the same temperature. What happens irthey
do not?
2.9. Explain why the channelt hcrmal noise of a MOSFET is modeled hy a current source
tied between the sourcc and drai n tenninals (rather than. say. between the gate and
source tenni nals).
2.1 0. Prove that the channel thermal noise or a MOSFET can be referred to the gate as a
voltage given by 4kTy 18m. As shown in Fig. 2.77. lhe lwo <:ircuiLS muSI generale lhe
same current with the samc terminal voltages.
2. 11 . Detw nine the NF of the cireuit shown in Fig. 2.52 using Friis' equat ion.
2.12. Prove that the outpUt noise voltage of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.46(c) is given hy
-- --
V2, =
'. .
88
2. 13.
2.1 4.
2. 15.
- -411:: t l2
;:;t--' "
rJ
Chap. 2. Basic Concepts ill RF Design
Figure 2.77 Equ;"alelll circuils for IIoise of" MOSfT.
Repeat 2.23 if tile CS and CG stages are swapped, Does the NF change?
Why?
Repeat 2.23 if 8m and 8m arc replaced with ideal "urren\ sources and
channel -length modulation is not neglected.
The inputlomput characteristic of a bipolar differential pair is given by V""' =
-2Rcit'f."tanhlV;./(2Vr)I. where Rc denotes the load resistance. I n: is Ihe llli1
current. and Vr = Ir.T/ q. l>etcrminc the IP) of the circuit
2. 16. What happens 10 lhe noi se figure of a ci r<; uil i f lhe d reuil is loaded by a noiseless
impedance ZL at its output?
2. 17. Tile noise tigllrc of a cirClii t is known for a souree impedance of RSI. Is it possible to
compute the noise figure for another source impedance RS2 ? bplain in detai l.
2. 18. Equation (2. 122) impl ies that the noise figure falls as Rs rises. Assuming that the
amenna voltage swing remains constam, explain what happens 10 lhe output SNR as
Rs increases.
2. 19. Repeat Example 2.21 for tbe arrangement shown in Fig. 2.78. where the transformer
amplifies its primary voltage by a factor of" and transforms Rs to a value of ,,2 Rs.
Figurt' 2.78 CS 'tage '/",m by " m",si"""er.
2.20. For matched inputs and outputs, prove that the NF of a passive (reciprocal) circuit is
equal 10 ilS power loss.
2.21. Dctennine the noise figure of each circui t in Fig. 2.79 with respect to a source
impedance Rs. Negl ect channel-length modulation and body effect.
Problems 89
2.22.
'--T'OO
,.,
'"
,,'
'"
,,'
Figure 2.79 CS swges i<" NF c,,/cu/ariOl',
Determine the noise figure of cad. ci rcuit in Fig. 2.80 with respect 10 a source
impedancc Rs. Neglect channel -length modulation and body effect.
M,
R,

'"
'"
'"
,,'
2.80 CC stage.fvr NF .. "/cu/miv,,.
90 Chap. 2. Basic C,-,ncepts ill RF Design
2.23. [)clcnninc Ille noise ligure of each circui t in Fig. 2.111 willl respect \0 a source
impedance Rs. Neglect channel -length modulat ion and body effect.
,-+-' .
,.,
'", ",
Figure 2.8 1 Stage. jvr N F {"a/Culmi"" ,
CHAPTER
3
COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS
The design of highly-integrated RF transceivers requires a solid understanding of commu-
nication theory. For example. as mcmioned in Chapter 2. the receiver sensitivity depends
on the mi nimum acceptable signal-to-noise Imio. which itself depends on tile type of mod-
ulation. In facl. today we rarely design a low-noise amplifier. an oscillator. elc., wil h no
attention to Ihe Iype of transceiver in wllich tlley are used. Furthermore. modern RF design-
ers must regularly interact with digital signal processing engi neers to trade funct ions and
specifications and must therefore speak the same language.
This chapter provides a basic. yet necessary. understanding of modulation theory and
wireless standards. Tailored to a reader who is ultimately interested in RF Ie design rather
thill! communication theory. the are described in an intuit ive language so that they
can be incorporated in the reader's dai ly work. The outl ine of the chapter is sllown below.
Modutation
AM, PM, FM
. Intersymbollntarlaranc.o
Slgnal Constellatlon&
ASK, PSK. FSK
QPSK, GMSK, QAM
OFDM
Spectral Regrowth
Mobjt. Systema
Celtutar System
Hand-ofl
Multipalll Fading
[);V<trsi ty
Mulupta Access TKhnqlues Wireless Standards
. Duple.lng GSM
FDMA IS_9S COMA
TDMA Wldeband CDMA
COMA Btuetooth
. IEEE802.ltlWblg
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
How does your enler a cell pllone here and \.Come out of anot ller \.Cell phone miles
away'! We wish to understand the incredible journey tilat your voice signal takes.
The transmitter in a cell pllone must convert Ille voice. wll ieh is called a "baseband
signal"' because its spectrum (20Hz to 20kHz) is centered around zero frequency. to a
"passband signal: ' i.e . one residing around a nonzero cemer freq uency. w, IFig. 3.I(b)l.
We call We the "carrier freq uency."'
"