AREA OF PARALLELOGRAM

If two sides of a parallelogram are represented by two vectors A and B, then the magnitude of their cross product will be equal to the area of parallelogram i.e.

PROOF Consider a parallelogram OABC whose two sides are represented by two vectors A and B as shown. The area of parallelogram OABC is equal to : = hA----------------(1)

Draw perpendicular CD on side OA. Consider right angled triangle COD

sin = h/OC h= OC sin h= B sin

Putting the value of h in equation (1), we get, = B sin A = AB sin OR

COMMUTATIVE LAW FOR DOT PRODUCT

This law states that : "The scalar product of two vectors of vector times the projection of and and is equal to the magnitude .

onto the direction of vector

"

Consider two vectors

,the angle between them is

where Similarly,

represents the projection of vector

onto the direction of vector

Where Since

represents the projection of vector

onto the direction of vector

This shows that the dot product of two vectors does not chanfe with the change in the order of the vectors to be multiplied. This fact is known as the commutative of dot product.

Consider two vectors and . Let these two vectors represent two adjacent sides of a parallelogram. We construct a parallelogram OACB as shown in the diagram. The diagonal OC represents the resultant vector

From above figure it is clear that: This fact is referred to as the commutative law of vectr addition . ASSOCIATIVE LAW OF VECTOR ADDITION The law states that the sum of vectors remains same irrespective of their order or grouping in which they are arranged. Consider three vectors , and ) and ( + )

Applying "head to tail rule" to obtain the resultant of ( + Then finally again find the resultant of these three vectors :

This fact is known as the ASSOCIATIVE LAW OF VECTOR ADDITION.

DISTRIBUTIVE LAW FOR DOT PRODUCT

According to distributive law for dot product:

PROOF Consider three vectors , and .Here we will use geometric interpretation of dot

product by drawing projection as shown below. First we obtain the sum of vectors and by head to tail rule then we draw projection respectively onto the direction of and . onto the from the terminal

point of vector The dot product direction of

is equal to the projection of vector multiplied by the magnitude of . i.e.

YOUNG'S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT

The first practical demonstration of optical interference was provided by THOMAS YOUNG in 1801. His experiment gave a very strong support to the wave theory of light. EXPERIMENTAL www.citycollegiate.com ARRANGEMENT 'S' is a slit, which receives light from a source of monochromatic light. As 'S' is a narrow slit so it diffracts the light and it falls on slits A and B. After passing through the two slits, interference between two waves takes place on the screen. The slits A and B act as two coherent sources of light. Due to interference of waves alternate bright and dark fringes are obtained on the screen. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS Let the wave length of light = Distance between slits A and B = d Distance between slits and screen = L Consider a point 'P' on the screen where the light waves coming from slits A and B interfere such that PC=y. The wave coming from A covers a distance AP=r1 and the wave coming from B covers a distance BP=r2 such that PB is greater than PA.
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Path difference = BP-AP = BD S = r2-r1 = BD In right angled BAD Sin = BD/AB Or sin = s/d Or S = dsin -------(1) Since the value of 'd' is very very small as compared to L, therefore, will also be very small. In this condition we can assume that : Sin = tan From (1) S = dtan ---(2) In right angled DPEC Tan = PC/EC = y/L Putting the value of tan in eq. (2), w get

S = dy/L Or y = SL/d -----(3) FOR BRIGHT FRINGE

For bright fringe S = m -----(3) Therefore, the position of bright fringe is: www.citycollegiate.com

FOR DARK FRINGE AT P For destructive interference, path difference between two waves is (m+1/2) ----(3) Therefore, the position of dark fringe is: y = (m+1/2)L/d FRINGE SPACING www.citycollegiate.com The distance between any two consecutive bright fringes or two consecutive dark fringes is called fringe spacing. Fringe spacing or thickness of a dark fringe or a bright fringe is equal. It is denoted by x. Consider bright fringe. y = mL/d For bright fringe m=1 y1 = (1)L/d for next order bright fringe m=2 y2 = (2) L/d fringe spacing = y2 - y1 or x = (2)L/d - (1)L/d x =L/d (2-1) x = L/d Similar result can be obtained for dark fringe.

y = mL/d

DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS THROUGH CRYSTALS-BRAGG'S EQUATION

DIFFRACTION OF XRAYS THROUGH www.citycollegiate.com CRYSTALS The nature of x-rays is electromagnetic i.e. they are electromagnetic waves. X-rays have very short wavelength of the order of 10 x 10 -10 m. Therefore it is not possible to produce interference fringes of x-rays by Young's double slit experiment or by thin film method. The reason is that the fringe spacing is x = L/d and unless the slits are separated by a distance of 10 x 10 -10 m, the fringes so obtained will be closed together that they can not be observed. How ever it is possible to obtain x-rays diffraction by making use of crystals such as rock salt in which the atoms are uniformly spaced in planes and separated by a distance of order of 2 A to 5A. Therefore, the diffraction of x-rays takes place when they incident on the surface of crystals. BRAGG'S EQUATION www.citycollegiate.com Consider a set of parallel lattice planes having spacing 'd' between each other as shown. Consider two rays 'a' and 'b' incident on the surface of crystal of NaCl. After reflection, these rays reflected and are in phase. After reflection they interfere each other.

The path difference between the two reflected rays is given by:

Now the X-rays will interfere constructively if the path difference is an integral multiple of wavelength . Thus, This relation is known as Bragg's Law. The spacing of the atomic layers of crystals can be found from the density and atomic weight. Both 'm' and '' can be measured and hence the wave length of x-rays can be measured by using Bragg's equation.