An optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is an optoelectronic instrument used to characterize an optical fiber.

An OTDR injects a series of optical pulses into the fiber under test. It also extracts, from the same end of the fiber, light that is scattered (Rayleigh backscatter) or reflected back from points along the fiber. (This is equivalent to the way that an electronic time-domain reflectometer measures reflections caused by changes in the impedance of the cable under test.) The strength of the return pulses is measured and integrated as a function of time, and is plotted as a function of fiber length. Description An OTDR may be used for estimating the fiber length and overall attenuation, including splice and mated-connector losses. It may also be used to locate faults, such as breaks, and to measure optical return loss. To measure the attenuation of multiple fibers, it is advisable to test from each end and then average the results, however this considerable extra work is contrary to the common claim that testing can be performed from only one end of the meter. In addition to required specialized optics and electronics, OTDRs have significant computing ability and a graphical display, so they may provide significant test automation. However, proper instrument operation and interpretation of an OTDR trace still requires special technical training and experience. OTDRs are commonly used to characterize the loss and length of fibers as they go from initial manufacture, through to cabling, warehousing while wound on a drum, installation and then splicing. The last application of installation testing is more challenging, since this can be over extremely long distances, or multiple splices spaced at short distances, or fibers with different optical characteristics joined together. OTDR test results are often carefully stored in case of later fiber failure or warranty claims. Fiber failures can be very expensive, both in terms of the direct cost of repair, and consequential loss of service. OTDRs are also commonly used for fault finding on installed systems. In this case, reference to the installation OTDR trace is very useful, to determine where changes have occurred. Use of an OTDR for fault finding may require an experienced operator who is able to correctly judge the appropriate instrument settings to locate a problem accurately. This is particularly so in cases involving long distance, closely spaced splices or connectors, or PONs. OTDRs are available with a variety of fiber types and wavelengths, to match common applications. In general, OTDR testing at longer wavelengths, such as 1550 nm or 1625 nm, can be used to identify fiber attenuation caused by fiber problems, as opposed to the more common splice or connector losses. The optical dynamic range of an OTDR is limited by a combination of optical pulse output power, optical pulse width, input sensitivity, and signal integration time. Higher optical pulse output power, and better input sensitivity, combine directly to improve measuring range, and are usually fixed features of a particular instrument. However optical pulse width and signal integration time are user adjustable, and require trade-offs which make them application specific.

A longer laser pulse improves dynamic range and attenuation measurement resolution at the expense of distance resolution. For example, using a long pulse length, it may possible to measure attenuation over a distance of more than 100 km, however in this case an optical event may appear to be over 1 km long. This scenario is useful for overall characterisation of a link, but would be of much less use when trying to locate faults. A short pulse length will improve distance resolution of optical events, but will also reduce measuring range and attenuation measurement resolution. The "apparent measurement length" of an optical event is referred to as the "dead zone". The theoretical interaction of pulse width and dead zone can be summarised as follows: Pulse length Event dead zone 1 ns 10 ns 100 ns 1 s 10 s 100 s 0.15 m (theoretically) 1.5 m (theoretically) 15 m 150 m 1.5 km 15 km

OTDR is connected to one end of any fiber optic system up to 250km in length. Within a few seconds, we are able to measure the overall loss, or the loss of any part of a system, the overall length of the fiber and the distance between any points of interest. OTDR is a amazing test instrument for fiber optic systems. 1. A Use for Rayleigh Scatter As light travels along the fiber, a small proportion of it is lost by Rayleigh scattering. As the light is scattered in all directions, some of it just happens to return back along the fiber towards the light source. This returned light is called backscatter as shown below.

The backscatter power is a fixed proportion of the incoming power and as the losses take their toll on the incoming power, the returned power also diminishes as shown in the following figure.

The OTDR can continuously measure the returned power level and hence deduce the losses encountered on the fiber. Any additional losses such as connectors and fusion splices have the effect of suddenly reducing the transmitted power on the fiber and hence causing a corresponding change in backscatter power. The position and degree of the losses can be ascertained. 2. Measuring Distances The OTDR uses a system rather like a radar set. It sends out a pulse of light and listens for echoes from the fiber. If it knows the speed of light and can measure the time taken for the light to travel along the fiber, it is an easy job to calculate the length of the fiber.

3. To Find the Speed of the Light Assuming the refractive index of the core is 1.5, the infrared light travels at a speed of

This means that it will take

This is a useful figure to remember, 5 nanoseconds per meter (5 nsm-1).

If the OTDR measures a time delay of 1.4us, then the distance travelled by the light is

The 280 meters is the total distance traveled by the light and is the there and back distance. The length of the fiber is therefore only 140m. This adjustment is performed automatically by the OTDR it just displays the final result of 140m. 4. Inside the OTDR

A. Timer The timer produces a voltage pulse which is used to start the timing process in the display at the same moment as the laser is activated. B. Pulsed Laser The laser is switched on for a brief moment. The on time being between 1ns and 10us. We will look at the significance of the choice of on time or pulsewidth a little bit later. The wavelength of the laser can be switched to suit the system to be investigated. C. Directive Coupler The directive coupler allows the laser light to pass straight through into the fiber under test. The backscatter from the whole length of the fiber approaches the directive coupler from the opposite direction. In this case the mirror surface reflects the light into the avalanche photodiode (APD). The light has now been converted into an electrical signal. D. Amplifying and Averaging

The electrical signal from the APD is very weak and requires amplification before it can be displayed. The averaging feature is quite interesting and we will look at it separately towards the end of this tutorial. E. Display The amplified signals are passed on to the display. The display is either a CRT like an oscilloscope, or a LCD as in laptop computers. They display the returned signals on a simple XY plot with the range across the bottom and the power level in dB up the side. The following figure shows a typical display. The current parameter settings are shown over the grid. They can be changed to suit the measurements being undertaken. The range scale displayed shows a 50km length of fiber. In this case it is from 0 to 50km but it could be any other 50km slice, for example, from 20km to 70km. It can also be expanded to give a detailed view of a shorter length of fiber such as 0-5m, or 25-30m.

The range can be read from the horizontal scale but for more precision, a variable range marker is used. This is a movable line which can be switched on and positioned anywhere on the trace. Its range is shown on the screen together with the power level of the received signal at that point. To find the length of the fiber, the marker is simply positioned at the end of the fiber and the distance is read off the screen. It is usual to provide up to five markers so that several points can be measured simultaneously. F. Data Handling An internal memory or floppy disk can store the data for later analysis. The output is also available via RS232 link for downloading to a computer. In addition, many OTDRs have an onboard printer to provide hard copies of the information on the screen. This provides useful before and after images for fault repair as well as a record of the initial installation.

5. A Simple Measurement If we were to connect a length of fiber, say 300m, to the OTDR the result would look as shown in the following figure.

Whenever the light passes through a cleaved end of a piece of fiber, a Fresnel reflection occurs. This is seen at the far end of the fiber and also at the launch connector. Indeed, it is quite usual to obtain a Fresnel reflection from the end of the fiber without actually cleaving it. Just breaking the fiber is usually enough. The Fresnel at the launch connector occurs at the front panel of the OTDR and, since the laser power is high at this point, the reflection is also high. The result of this is a relatively high pulse of energy passing through the receiver amplifier. The amplifier output voltage swings above and below the real level, in an effect called ringing. This is a normal amplifier response to a sudden change of input level. The receiver takes a few nanoseconds to recover from this sudden change of signal level. 6. Dead Zones The Fresnel reflection and the subsequent amplifier recovery time results in a short period during which the amplifier cannot respond to any further input signals. This period of time is called a dead zone. It occurs to some extent whenever a sudden change of signal amplitude occurs. The one at the start of the fiber where the signal is being launched is called the launch dead zone and others are called event dead zones or just dead zones.

7. Overcoming the Launch Dead Zone As the launch dead zone occupies a distance of up to 20 meters or so, this means that, given the job of checking a 300m fiber, we may only be able to check 280m of it. The customer would not be delighted. To overcome this problem, we add our own patch cord at the beginning of the system. If we make this patch cord about 100m in length, we can guarantee that all launch dead zone problems have finished before the customers fiber is reached.

The patch cord is joined to the main system by a connector which will show up on the OTDR readout as a small Fresnel reflection and a power loss. The power loss is indicated by the sudden drop in the power level on the OTDR trace.

8. Length and Attenuation The end of the fiber appears to be at 400m on the horizontal scale but we must deduct 100m to account for our patch cord. This gives an actual length of 300m for the fiber being tested. Immediately after the patch cord Fresnel reflection the power level shown on the vertical scale is about 10.8dB and at the end of the 300m run, the power has fallen to about 11.3 dB. A reduction in power level of 0.5 dB in 300 meters indicates a fiber attenuation of:

Most OTDRs provide a loss measuring system using two markers. The two makers are switched on and positioned on a length of fiber which does not include any other events like connectors or whatever as shown in the following figure.

The OTDR then reads the difference in power level at the two positions and the distance between them, performs the above calculation for us and displays the loss per kilometer for the fiber. This provides a more accurate result than trying to read off the decibel and range values from the scales on the display and having to do our own calculations. 9. An OTDR Display of a Typical System The OTDR can see Fresnel reflections and losses. With this information, we can deduce the appearance of various events on an OTDR trace as seen below.

A. Connectors A pair of connectors will give rise to a power loss and also a Fresnel reflection due to the polished end of the fiber. B. Fusion Splice Fusion splices do not cause any Fresnel reflections as the cleaved ends of the fiber are now fused into a single piece of fiber. They do, however, show a loss of power. A good quality fusion splice will actually be difficult to spot owing to the low losses. Any signs of a Fresnel reflection is a sure sign of a very poor fusion splice. C. Mechanical Splice Mechanical splices appear similar to a poor quality fusion splice. The fibers do have cleaved ends of course but the Fresnel reflection is avoided by the use of index marching gel within the splice. The losses to be expected are similar to the least acceptable fusion splices. D. Bend Loss This is simply a loss of power in the area of the bend. If the loss is very localized, the result is indistinguishable from a fusion or mechanic splice. 10. Ghost Echoes (False Reflection) In the following figure, some of the launched energy is reflected back from the connectors at the end of the patch cord at a range of 100m. This light returns and strikes the polished face of the launch fiber on the OTDR front panel. Some of this energy is again reflected to be re-launched along the fiber and will cause another indication from the end of the patch cord, giving a false, or ghost, Fresnel reflection at a range of 200m and a false end to the fiber at 500m.

As there is a polished end at both ends of the patch cord, it is theoretically possible for the light to bounce to and fro along this length of fiber giving rise to a whole series of ghost reflections. In the figure a second reflection is shown at a range of 300m. It is very rare for any further reflections to be seen. The maximum amplitude of the Fresnel reflection is 4% of the incoming signal, and is usually much less. Looking at the calculations, even assuming the worst reflection, the returned energy is 4% or 0.04 of the launched energy. The re-launched energy, as a result of another reflection is 4% of the 4% or 0.042 = 0.0016 x input energy. This shows that we need a lot of input energy to cause a ghost reflection. A second ghost would require another two reflections giving rise to a signal of only 0.00000256 of the launched energy. Subsequent reflections die out very quickly as we could imagine. Ghost reflections can be recognized by their even spacing. If we have a reflection at 387m and another at 774 then we have either a strange coincidence or a ghost. Ghost reflections have a Fresnel reflection but do not show any loss. The loss signal is actually of too small an energy level to be seen on the display. If a reflection shows up after the end of the fiber, it has got to be a ghost. he dynamic range of an OTDR is usually specified as the attenuation level where the measured signal gets lost in the detection noise level, for a particular combination of pulse length and signal integration time. This number is easy to deduce by inspection of the output trace, and is useful for comparison, but is not very useful in practice, since at this point the measured values are random. So the practical measuring range is smaller, depending on required attenuation measurement resolution. When an OTDR is used to measure the attenuation of multiple joined fiber lengths, the output trace can incorrectly show a joint as having gain, instead of loss. The reason for this is that adjacent fibers may

have different backscatter coefficients, so the second fiber reflects more light than the first fiber, with the same amount of light travelling through it. If the OTDR is placed at the other end of this same fiber pair, it will measure an abnormally high loss at that joint. However if the two signals are then combined, the correct loss will be obtained. For this reason, it is common OTDR practice to measure and combine the loss from both ends of a link, so that the loss of cable joints, and end to end loss, can be more accurately measured. The theoretical distance measuring accuracy of an OTDR is extremely good, since it is based on software and a crystal clock with an inherent accuracy of better than 0.01%. This aspect does not need subsequent calibration since practical cable length measuring accuracy is typically limited to about 1% due to: The cable length is not the same as the fiber length, the speed of light in the fiber is known with limited accuracy (the refractive index is only specified to 3 significant figures such as e.g. 1.45 etc.), and cable length markers have limited accuracy (0.5% 1%). An OTDR excels at identifying the existence of unacceptable point loss or return loss in cables. Its ability to accurately measure absolute end-to-end cable loss or return loss can be quite poor, so cable acceptance usually includes an end-to-end test with a light source and power meter, and optical return loss meter. Its ability to exactly locate a hidden cable fault is also limited, so for fault-finding it may be augmented with other localised tools such as a red laser fault locator, clip-on identifier, or "Cold Clamp" optical cable marker. Reliability and quality of OTDR equipment The reliability and quality of an OTDR should be determined on the basis of its accuracy, measurement range, ability to resolve and measure closely spaced events, the speed at which it makes measurements, and its ability to perform satisfactorily under various environmental extremes and after various types of physical abuses. In addition to its cost, the instrument should also be rated on the features provided, its size, its weight, and how simple it is to operate. Accuracy is defined as the correctness of the measurement (i.e., the difference between the measured value and the true value of the event being measured). The measurement range of the OTDR is defined as the maximum attenuation that can be placed between the instrument and the event being measured, for which the instrument will still be able to measure the event within acceptable accuracy limits. Instrument resolution is a measure of how close two events can be spaced and still be recognized as two separate events. The duration of the measurement pulse and the data sampling interval create a resolution limitation for OTDRs: the shorter the pulse duration and the shorter the data sampling interval, the better the instrument resolution, but the shorter the measurement range. Resolution is also often limited when powerful reflections return to the OTDR and temporarily overload the detector circuitry. When this occurs, some time is required before the instrument can resolve a second fiber event. Some OTDR manufacturers use a masking procedure to improve resolution. The procedure

shields or masks the detector from high-power fiber reflections, preventing detector overload and eliminating the need for detector recovery.