PROPULSIONSUBSYSTEMSIZINGTOOL: LASERABLATIVEPROPULSION

AProject Presentedto TheFacultyoftheDepartmentofAerospaceEngineering SanJosStateUniversity InPartialFulfillment oftheRequirementsfortheDegree MasterofEngineering by JohnA.DonovanV May2012

 2012 JohnA.DonovanV ALLRIGHTSRESERVED

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Abstract
Conventionalpropulsionsystemswillnotfeasiblyallowmankindtoexploreoutsideof thissolarsystem,oreventhegalaxy.Costsaretoolargetoraisematerialsintospacetobuild largerobjectsonorbit.Moreefficient,advancedpropulsionsystemsareneededtoenablethe dreamsoflargeronorbitstructures,possiblecolonizationofotherobjectswithinoursolar system,andexplorationbeyond.LaserAblativePropulsion(LAP)isoneoftheseadvanced propulsionsystems,andthetopicofthisreport. Oneofthemajorissuesconventionalpropulsiontechnologiesisthemassratio.These technologies(solidandliquidfueledchemicalsystems)relyonalargeamountofpropellant carriedonboardtopropelarelativelysmallamountofmassintospace.LAPandother advancedtechnologieslooktoimproveefficiencybyremovingpropellantweightfromthecraft, whilestilldeliveringtherequiredenergytoachievethedesiredincreaseinvelocity(v). Thisisaninnovativetechnology,withverylittleresearchandfieldtestingoflarge systems.Someexperimentsandanalyseshavebeendocumentedonasmallscalewithspecific solidmaterials.Thegoalofthisreportistofurtherunderstandingofthistopic,anddevelopa tooltobeginsizing/tradingthistechnologyforthepropulsionsubsystem.UsingConservationof Energyequations,thesimplerelationshipsbetweeneventsintheenergytransferchainwillbe describedanddiscussed.

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Acknowledgements
Iwouldliketothankmyfatherforalwaysenablingandencouragingmetostudyand learnmore.HefosteredmyloveofouterspaceandtalentforengineeringsinceIwasachild. IwouldliketothankDr.AlecGallimore,professorattheUniversityofMichigan AerospaceEngineeringdepartment.Hetaughtandinspiredmetothinkofmoreadvanced propulsionsystemsandthedoorstheywillopenforhumankind. JerryOckermanandBlakeHaufofLockheedMartinwereinstrumentalinadministering theSJSUoncampusprograms,enablingmetoearnthisdegreewhileworkingintheindustry. Dr.NikosMourtos,Dr.PeriklisPapadopoulos,andMs.CandySimelassistedmewith manyhurdlesandmuchpaperworkthatwererequiredtoenablemyworkonthisproject,and finallycommencemydegree. IwouldliketothankNikDjordjevicandLeeLundsfordfortheirguidanceontheresearch andpresentationofthematerialscontainedwithinthisreport. Also,thankstomygirlfriendwholetmetaketimetoworkonthisproject,whilestill ensuringIhadenoughtimetopayattentiontoher.

Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 Motivation ........................................................................................................................ 1 HistoryandBackground................................................................................................... 2 LaserAblativePropulsionConcept.................................................................................. 3 PotentialBenefitsandApplications................................................................................. 7

THEORY....................................................................................................................................9 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 LaserProperties............................................................................................................... 9 ConservationofEnergy.................................................................................................. 12 RocketPropulsion.......................................................................................................... 13 LAPSubsystemDesign................................................................................................... 16

PROPELLANTEVALUATIONANDSELECTION......................................................................... 18 3.1 3.2 3.3 PropellantsConsidered.................................................................................................. 18 PropellantProperties..................................................................................................... 19 FuturePropellantConsiderations.................................................................................. 21

BENCHMARKING.................................................................................................................... 22 4.1 4.2 CorrelationtoExperimentalResults.............................................................................. 22 DiscussionofDifferences............................................................................................... 29

PARAMETRICAPPROACH....................................................................................................... 31 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 ToolParameters............................................................................................................. 31 Determiningpropulsivecharacteristics......................................................................... 32 ToolLayoutandCalculations......................................................................................... 33 FutureAnalyses.............................................................................................................. 36

DISCUSSIONANDRESULTS.................................................................................................... 38 6.1 6.2 6.3 DiscussionofContinuousWavevs.PulsedLaserPower...............................................38 ToolAnalysisResults...................................................................................................... 39 FutureStudy................................................................................................................... 40

CONCLUSIONANDRECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................. 41

REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................42

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List of Figures
Figure1 Figure2 Figure3 Figure4 Figure5 Figure6 Figure7 Figure8 Figure9 Figure10 Figure11 Figure12 Figure13 Figure14 Figure15 Figure16 GeometryofLaserIrradiationonaSolidSurface PhaseChangeExampleforWater(H2O) LAPThrustConceptVaporizationofLiquefiedSolidMaterial PulsedLaserOperation Asurveyofreportedmaximumcouplingintensities ConservationofMomentumVisualExample LAPConceptSequenceofEvents Ablatedmasspershotvs.irradianceonPOM Momentumofprojectilevs.massreductionbyablation ElectronandLatticetemperatureforCoppertarget Surfacestructuralfeaturesinducedbytrainsoflaserpulses Surfacestructuralfeaturesinducedbytrainsoflaserpulses Surfaceripplesinducedbytrainof17laserpulsesforAg(a)andCu(b) Beamprofilerecordedontothermalpaper ToolscreenshotwithLaserParameterInputsforAluminumpropellant ScreenshotofGeneratedDataforAluminumpropellant 5 6 7 10 11 14 17 23 25 26 27 28 28 32 34 35

List of Tables
TableI TableII TableIII TableIV TableV TableVI TableVII TableVIII Aluminum(Al)Properties Copper(Cu)Properties Silver(Ag)Properties Silicon(Si)Properties Uranium(U)Properties DelrinProperties PercentageofLaserPowerforHeatFlow MaterialAnalysisResultsforOne200ns,1x109W/cm2Pulse 19 19 19 20 20 20 24 25

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Nomenclature
A CP dm E E Ep F f g0 Isp ma mi mf n P PPeak PAvg p R Ru T0 Tc Te TM T t t V V v ve vrms Greek beamspotsize(m2) specificheatatconstantpressure(J/kgK) depth(thickness)ofmaterialablated(m) changeinenergy(J) totalenergy(J) energyperpulse(J) thrust(N) pulsefrequency(1/s) gravitationalacceleration specificimpulse(s) massablated(kg) initial,orwetmass(kg) final,ordrymass(kg) numberofmoles laserpower(W) peaklaserpower(W) averagelaserpower(W) pressure(N/m2) specificgasconstant(J/kgK) universalgasconstant(8.314J/molK) initialtemperature(K) chambertemperature(K) exit(ambient)temperature(K) meltingtemperature(K) incrementaltemperature time(s) timeincrementorlaserpulsewidth(s) volume(m3) volumeofmaterialvaporized(m3) exitvelocity(m/s) electronmeanvelocity(m/s)

incrementorchange density(kg/m3)

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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Motivation
Conventionalpropulsionsystemswillnotfeasiblyallowmankindtoexploreoutsideofthis solarsystem,oreventhegalaxy.Costsaretoolargetoraisematerialsintospacetobuildlarger objectsonorbit.Withoutanachievableandaffordablespacetransportationsystem, explorationofspacewillnotreachitspotential.Moreefficient,advancedpropulsionsystems areneededtoenablethedreamsoflargeronorbitstructures,possiblecolonizationofother objectswithinoursolarsystem,andexplorationbeyond. Oneofthemajorissuesfacingconventionalpropulsiontechnologiesisthemassratio. Thesetechnologies(solidandliquidfueledchemicalsystems)relyonalargeamountof propellantcarriedonboardtopropelarelativelysmallamountofmassintospace.Laser propulsionandotheradvancedtechnologieslooktoimproveefficiencybyremovingpropellant weightfromthecraft,whilestilldeliveringtherequiredenergytoachievethedesiredincrease invelocity(v). Thisisaninnovativepropulsiontechnology,withverylittleresearchandfieldtestingof largesystems.Someexperimentsandanalyseshavebeendocumentedonasmallscalewith specificsolidmaterials.Thegoalofthisreportistofurtherunderstandingofthistopic,and developatooltoanalyzetheconceptformultiplematerials.

1.2 History and Background

Conventionalrocketpropulsiondependsoncarryingtheentireamountofenergy requiredforthemission.Thisisamajorcontributortothelargepropellantmassratio.Typical missionscontainupwardsof85%ofthevehiclemassaspropellant.Theseenergyrequirements varydependingonthetypeofmaneuverstobeexecuted:orbitraisingorinsertion, orbit/attitudecontrolanddeorbitingattheendofasatelliteslifetime. Forfuturemissionssuchasdeepspaceexploration,thepowerrequirementforafixed payloadmasssimplyscaleswiththedistance:typically200kWforareturnmissiontotheouter solarsystem,200600kWforacargotugtoMars,orover1MWforamannedMarsmission[1]. Carryingthisamountofpoweronboardcannotbeachievedwithtodaysconventional propulsionsystems.Thesetypesofmissionswouldrequireestablishmentofanorbiting platformfromwhichtobuildlargerstructuresforlongrangemissions.Theenergyrequiredto beginbuildingsuchaplatform,keepitonorbit,andmanthisplatformwouldbeimmense! Then,transportationofmaterialstothisplatformcanbeginforconstructionofalargescale spacecraft. Clearly,futuremissionswillneedtodevelopmuchmoreefficientenergyusageintheir propulsionsystems,ortheywillneedtoharnessexternalenergysources.Theuseoflasersto beampowertothespacecraftprovidesafavorablealternative.Sincethereisanexternal energysource,thespacecraftcanshedthelargeofthepropellantweightrequiredby conventionalpropulsionsystems.

Oneofthemajoradvantagesoflaserpropulsioncomparedtotraditionalchemical propulsionisthatpracticallyanyobjectofcondensedmattercanbeusedasafuel.Aslongas thematterwillablatewhenalaserisfocusedonit,theenergeticexhaustwillactasthrust.This ablationexhaustwillbeintheformofvaporizedmatteruntiltheplasmagenerationthreshold, whereplasmaswillbegenerated.[2] Conventionalpropellantsarematerialsthatareexplosive,corrosive,and/orpoisonous, makingthemgenerallydangerousanddifficulttohandle.Sincenearlyanymaterialcanbe selectedasthepropellantforthistypeofsystem,safetyisnotalargeconcern.Thisfactoralone willdrivedownthecost,complexity,andsocialpressuresagainstconventionalpropulsion systems,aswellasadvancedsystemsusingsomeformofnuclearpower. Theperfectpropellantforlaserpropulsionisnotknownatthistime,duetolimited researchinthearea.Researchconductedsofarhasnotidentifiedwhichmaterialproperties leadtothebestthrustorspecificimpulseforagivenmission.

1.3 Laser Ablative Propulsion Concept

LaserAblativePropulsion(LAP)canresultinvaryingphysicalmechanisms,includingthermal (vaporization,explosiveboiling)andnonthermal(plasmagenerationandacceleration)[3].In thisreport,thethermalaspectsofthisprocesswillbeassessedduetotimeconstraintsforthe explorationoftheplasmaphysicsatthistime.Theplasmaphysicsareanareaoffurtherstudy forfollowonprojects.

ThebasicsofLAPcanbedescribedinthefollowingenergytransferchain: Laserenergyistransmittedthroughspace Thisenergybeingtransmittedbylaserdoesnotpassthroughanyatmosphere,orvery littleatmosphere,sothatahigherpercentageofthepowertransmittedisusableto generatepropulsionforthespacecraft.Furtherdiscussionsoftheselossesareincluded inSection2.3titledConservationofEnergy. Futurestudy:Theinstallationofvariouslaserpowerstationsonorbitoronthesurface ofothercelestialbodieswillenabletravelthroughthespacewithoutrequiringlarge amountsofpropellant. Laserisfocusedontothesolidmaterialthatactsaspropellant ThiscanbeANYmaterial!Thisincreaseseaseofmanufacturingandavailability,and decreasessafetyconcerns,costs,handling,permits,storagerequirements,etc. Laserheatssolidmaterialtomeltingpointandchangesphasetotheliquidstate Thepropellantisexposedtothevacuumofspace,sotheinitialtemperatureofthe propellantisassumedtospaceambient,ornearabsolutezero(Approximatedat3.15 Kelvin).Themaximumtemperatureachievableforthisstateofmatterwillbethe meltingpointofthematerial,atwhichpointthesolidtransformstoaliquid(with thicknessS(t)asseeninFigure1below:

Figure1:GeometryofLaserIrradiationonaSolidSurface S(t)=0priortothelaserbeamheatingthesolidmaterial(t=0).Oncethelaserenergy isdeliveredtothesurface,thesurfaceofthesolidismeltedandchangesphasesto liquid. Liquidmaterialisvaporizedtothegaseousstate Themaximumtemperatureachievableforthisstatewillbetheboilingpointofthe material,atwhichpointthematerialablatesintheformofgas.Theliquidregionseen inFigure1willvaporizetoagaseousstateintheoppositedirectionofthelaser.

Inaccordancewiththephasechangefigurebelow,theenergyrequiredtovaporizethe solidmaterialcanbedeterminedbyintegratingtheenergyequationsforeachregionof thermalabsorption:Heatingofsolid,heatoffusion,heatingofliquid,andheatof vaporization.

Figure2:PhaseChangeExampleforWater(H2O) GasmovesawaywithVelocity(VE) Theadditionofenergy(intheformofheat)excitesthemoleculeswithinthematerial,

causingthemtoincreasetheirvelocityastheyexittherearofthespacecraft.Thisgasis expelledtoprovidethrustforthespacecraft.

 Figure3:LAPThrustConceptVaporizationofLiquefiedSolidMaterial Inthisreport,thefocusiswhatoccurswhenhighlypressurized,heatedmaterialexpands intovacuumandtransformsintoagaseousstate.

1.4 Potential Benefits and Applications

ThebenefitsofLAPincludeadramaticweightsavingsintermsofpropellantneededfor themission.Asaresult,morepayloadcanbedeliveredforasimilarsizedcraft.Another approachistominimizethesizeofacrafttoachieveasimilarmission.Thiscanalsoincrease thefrequencyofmissions,assystemsbecomelesscomplexandcanbemanufacturedona largerscale. Initialmissionscouldbepowergenerationsatellitesand/orplatforms,whichcouldabsorb theraysofthesunwhileonorbit.Thispowercanbeconvertedintolaserenergyand

transmittedtospacecraftthatarefartherfromthesun,wheresolarpowerislessfeasible,or notfeasibleatall. BenefitsofLasersforEnergyTransmission Thedevelopmentofprogressivelymorepowerfullasersiscloselyrelatedtothe advancementofthistechnology,butwillnotsolelybenefitLaserAblativePropulsion. Astheselaserpowersystemsgrowmorepowerful,theyprovideawidevarietyofpossibleuses: Beamedenergytoearthfromspace Beamedenergyfromspacetospace Shortrangesatellitedefensefromincomingspacedebris Beamedlaserlightreflectedoffasatellitecouldprovidegroundtogroundenergy transmission Beamedlaserlightreflectedoffasatellitecouldprovidedaylighttoanotherareaofthe earth Atmosphericapplicationsinclude: Boostphasemissiledefense(AirborneLaserTestBedALTB) Laserpoweredaircraft Highpowereddata/signaltransmissions

2 THEORY
2.1 Laser Properties
ThewordLASERstandsforLightAmplifiedbyStimulatedEmissionofRadiation.Energy istransferredintheformoflightwhenenergyisremovedfromtheelectronatacertain potential.Absorptionoflaserenergy(light)willcauseanelectrontobebumpeduptothenext highestlevel.Sincelaserstransmitenergyintheformoflight,thetargetrequiresadirectlineof sight,andanydisturbancesinthemediumitistravellingthroughwillreducetheenergy transmitted. Typicallaserproperties TheenergytransmittedbyalaserismeasuredinJoules(J).Lasersystemsaretypically ratedintermsofthepower(P,inWatts)thattheycandeliver.Powerisameasureofthelasers rateofenergytransfer,inJoulespersecond(J/s).Acommonlyusedpropertyisthefocused intensity(I,inW/cm2).Thisparameterdescribesthepowerofthelaserdeliveredtoaspecific area,whichisusefulindeterminingthepowerdeliveredforaparticularbeamsize.Thisbeam spotsizeisdenotedasanarea(A,inm2). Thereareseveralmethodstodescribethepoweroutputofalasersystem.Peakpower andaveragepowerdescribeusefulcharacteristicsforanenergyfocusedviewoflasers.This projectisspecificallyexaminingthelaserpropellantinteraction,soanassumedamountof energyisdeliveredtothesurfaceofthepropellant.Thedesigndetailsregardingenergylosses, pointingrequirementsandotherconsiderationsaretopicsforfuturestudiesonthistechnology.

Therearemanyotherpropertiestoconsider,dependingontheparticularapplicationof thelasersystem.Examplesare:beamdiameter,spatialintensitydistribution(beamprofile), divergence,andbeamqualityfactor[4]. Whyuseapulsedlaser? Oneadvantageofpulsedlasersforthistechnologyisthatenergyisdeliveredin consistentlysizedpulses,withenoughtiminginbetweensothatthepropellantreactionis completebeforethenextpulseisdelivered.Thisallowsthereactiontoremainina thermodynamicstate(solidtogasreaction)versushighertemperaturesandionizationthat wouldleadtoplasmageneration. Pulsedlasersalsoenablehigherenergyleveldelivery.Powersourcescangeneratea fixedamountofpoweroveronewholesecond,butahigherlevelofpowercanbeachievedfora fractionofthatsecond.Inthefigurebelow,aconstantenergylevelisdeliveredperpulse(Ep). Thefrequencyofrepetitionisdefinedbyf=1/t.

Figure4:PulsedLaserOperation[5] PeakPowerisdefinedastherateofenergyflowineachpulse,ofdurationt. (1) PPeak=Ep/t

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Foralaserenergyof0.01Jandpulsedurationof8nanoseconds,thePeakPowerisasfollows PPeak=0.01J/.000000008s=1,250,000Wor1.25MW AveragePowerisdefinedastherateofenergyflowaveragedovereachperiod,ofdurationt. (2) PAvg=Ep/t

Forafrequency(f)of10,000Hz,thedurationbetweenpulsesis0.0001seconds,whichimplies PAvg=0.01J/0.0001s=100W Whyshorterpulses? Practicallyspeaking,shorterpulsesallowthepowersourceofthelasertocoolbetween pulsessothatitdoesnotoverheat,andcanoperateforalongerduration.Asseeninequation (1)above,ashorterpulseyieldshigherPeakPowerdeliveredtothesystem.Thefigurebelow showshowthemaximumintensityofalaserdecreasesasthelaserpulsedurationincreases. Therefore,shorterpulseswillenablehigherintensitiestobeachieved.

Figure5:Asurveyofreportedmaximumcouplingintensities[6]

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2.2 Conservation of Energy

Transmittedlaserenergyabsorbedbythepropellantisbasedontheabsorptivityofthe surface.Somesurfacecoatingswillreflectmoreenergythantheyabsorb.Othersaredesigned tomaximizeabsorptivity.Inthisstudy,thesurfaceisassumedtoabsorballdirectedenergy. Possibletypesofenergylosses Therearenumeroustypesofenergylosswhichoccurfromthetimetheenergyisgenerated untilitisdeliveredtothetarget.Theseinclude,butarenotlimitedto: Energyconversiontolightlosses Imperfectfocusingofthebeam Heatenergylostintransmissionthroughspace Oncetheenergyhasreachedthecraft,therearemoreopportunitiesforenergylosses

topresentthemselves: Imperfectreflectionofthecollectoronthespacecraft Focusedenergyreflectedbythepropellant(Absorptivity<1.0) Incompletevaporizationofthepropellant(i.e.chunksofpropellantablate,insteadof completevaporization)

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Energyeffectonsolidmaterial Typicalphasechangesprogressfromsolidtoliquidtogas(thenplasma,butthiswillnot beexaminedinthisreport).Intermsofenergy,thematerialwillheatasasolidaccordingtothe specificheatcapacityofthematerialinsolidform.Oncethemeltingpointisreached,aphase changeoccurs.Thisphasechangefromsolidtoliquidrequiresanenergyinputcalledthe enthalpyoffusion.Duringthisphasechange,thereisnochangeintemperature,eventhough thereisheatbeingaddedtothematerial.Oncemelted,thematerialwillheatasaliquid accordingtothespecificheatcapacityofthematerialinliquidform.Oncetheboilingpointis reached,asecondphasechangeoccurs.Thisphasechangefromliquidtogasrequiresan energyinputcalledtheenthalpyofvaporization.Thetemperatureremainsconstantduringthis phasechange,butthenheatingcontinuesaccordingtothespecificheatcapacityofthematerial ingaseousform.EnthalpyisdefinedastheEnergyInput(laserenergyinthiscase)dividedby themassofthematerialandthechangeintemperature.

2.3 Rocket Propulsion

ConservationofMomentumisthefoundationforthebasicthrustequationsutilizedinthis paper.Theconservationofmomentumsaysthatinthebelowfigure,thefollowingequation holdstrue: (1) (mm)*(v+v)=m*ve Theunitsofmomentum(orimpulse)arekgm/s.

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 Figure6:ConservationofMomentumvisualexample Thrust,aforcemeasuredinNewtons(N,orkgm/s2),isthederivativeofmomentum(impulse). Byapplyingthetimederivativetotheexitvelocity(ve),theequationbecomesthestandard forceequationofmasstimesthesecondderivativeofposition,whichisacceleration.

(2)

F=m* (ve)=F=m*acceleration

Sincetheexitvelocityismoreeasilydeterminedthantheaccelerationofparticlesleavingthe spacecraft,thetimederivativeisappliedtothemassofthepropellantinsteadoftheexit velocityasshownbelow (m)*ve=*ve

(3)

Withaconsistentpulsedlaserenergysource,themassflowratewillbeveryconstantand predictable.Sincemassflowrateisdefinedasmasspersecond,thentheaveragematerial ablatedpersecondwouldbeusedinthisequation.Theexitvelocityisalsorelatedtothe specificimpulse(Isp)bythegravitationalaccelerationoftheobject(g0) 4 ve Isp * g0

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ThrustEquations Chemicalpropulsionsystemshaveathermodynamiccharacterization,whichrelates temperature in the chamber to the temperature at the exit,shownbelow 5 Egas Cp * mp * Tc Te

Startingfromthekineticenergyequation 6 E * m * v2

Thenrearrangingtosolveforvelocity 7 v 2 * E / m
0.5

Combiningequations(7)and(9)provideanewrelationforvelocity 8 v 2 * Cp * Tc Te
0.5

Equation 10 states the variables affecting velocity in a constant pressure condition, where there is only heating of the material. IdealRocketEquation TheIdealRocketEquationapplieswhenacraftcanapplyaccelerationtoitselfby ejectingsomeofitsmassatahighspeedintheoppositedirection,asgovernedbythe conservationofmomentum.Theequation,derivedbyTsiolkovsky,statesthatthechangein velocityofacraftisproportionaltothemassratio(initialmass,includingpropellant,dividedby thefinalmass). 9 v ve ln mi / mf

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Thisequationisusefultoshowusthelimitationsofconventionalpropulsionsystems. Thebasisofthisequationisthatthecraftistheonlysourceofenergy.Therefore,thecraft needsalargeamountofpropellanttogeneratetheenergynecessarytoachieveacertainvalue ofv.Withalaserpoweredpropulsionsystem,theenergyisnotstoredonthecraft,and thereforesignificantlyreducestheinitialmassofthecraft. Ifthesamevcanbeachievedwithamuchsmallerinitialmass,thenthecraftcanbe sizeddowntoperformthemission.Anotheroptionistoincreasethepayloadofthemission, whichwouldrequireasimilaroverallsizeofthecraft,butahigherpercentageofthemass wouldbepayload.

2.4 LAP Subsystem Design

Thedesignofthespacecrafttakesonsomeuniquecharacteristicsduetotheadvancesin technologythatcomewithusingtheLAPsystem.Thefirstexampleisthesignificantreduction ofonboardpropellantstorage.Thelaserenergycapturewillrequirereceivingopticsmounted onthespacecraftfacingthedirectionofthelasersource.Alimitationtousinglaserenergy transmissionisthatdirectlineofsightisnecessary.Oncethelaserenergyiscaptured,focusing mirrorswillshinethelightontothepropellantsurface. Duetotheequalheatingwithinthelaserspotarea,theangleofincidencebetweenthe laserandthesurfaceofthepropellantisnotafactorinthedirectionofthrust.Theablationof propellantmaterialwillejectmaterialnormaltothesurfaceofthepropellant,inagaseous form.AstudyontheeffectsofdifferentconicalnozzlesontheperformanceofanLAPsystem [7]describestheperformanceimprovementsthatcanbeachievedbytheuseofanozzleonthe gasplume.However,theuseofanozzle,whichnozzleworksbest,andgasperformanceare

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outsideofthescopeofthispaper.Intheconclusionsectionofreference7,itisstatedthatthe ablatedmassperareaappearedtoremainapproximatelyconstant.Thisisfurtherproofthata nozzleisnotnecessaryinanLAPsystem. Oneconcept[8]tookthenozzlelessapproachevenfurther.Amicrothrusterwas developedandtestedthatutilizesapropellanttapethatispassedoveranonboardlaserfor thrustgeneration.

Figure7:LAPConceptSequenceofEvents

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3 PROPELLANT EVALUATION AND SELECTION

3.1 Propellants Considered
Severalexperiments[3,9,18,19]wereconductedusingAluminum(Al),Copper(Cu), Silver(Ag),and/orSilicon(Si)aspropellants.Theseexperimentsusedshort(femtotomilli second)laserpulsestodeliverenergytothematerials.Inadditiontothosepropellantsfoundin experiments,Uranium(U)wasaddedtounderstandthebehaviorofamuchheavierelement. Propellantdesign Nonozzleisusedinthedesign,sothecrosssectionalareaofthepropellantisequaland theareaoftheexitareequal.Theambientpressureisthevacuumofspace,whichhasan approximatevalueof0PaThepropellantforthiscraftisshapedsuchthattheareaheatedby thelaserenergyisexactlythespotareaofthelaser.Thiswillensureevenheating,a consistentlysizedheatingsurface,andacontinuousthrustlevel.Thelaserfocusing/pointing systemcanaccountforthedistancefromsourceandanglefromsourcetoalwaysfocusthe energyonthepropellantface.

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3.2 Propellant Properties

Tablesinthissectionoutlinerelevantmaterialpropertiesforeachpropellantselected. TableI:Aluminum(Al)Properties
Property Molar Mass Specific Heat Density Enthalpy of Fusion Enthalpy of Vaporization Melting Temperature Boiling Temperature Value 0.02698 900 2702 395478 10885841 933.4 2740 Units kg/mol J/kg-K kg/m^3 J/kg J/kg K K Source [10] [10] [10] [10] [10] [10] [10]

TableII:Copper(Cu)Properties
Property Molar Mass Specific Heat Density Enthalpy of Fusion Enthalpy of Vaporization Melting Temperature Boiling Temperature Value 0.06355 384.56 8960 204721 4793076 1357.75 2840 Units kg/mol J/kg-K kg/m^3 J/kg J/kg K K Source [11] [11] [11] [11] [11] [11] [11]

TableIII:Silver(Ag)Properties
Property Molar Mass Specific Heat Density Enthalpy of Fusion Enthalpy of Vaporization Melting Temperature Boiling Temperature Value 0.10787 235 10500 104756 2364884 1234 2436 Units kg/mol J/kg-K kg/m^3 J/kg J/kg K K Source [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12]

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TableIV:Silicon(Si)Properties
Property Molar Mass Specific Heat Density Enthalpy of Fusion Enthalpy of Vaporization Melting Temperature Boiling Temperature Value 0.02809 710 2330 1653257 15628337 1683 2628 Units kg/mol J/kg-K kg/m^3 J/kg J/kg K K Source [13] [13] [13] [13] [13] [13] [13]

TableV:Uranium(U)Properties
Property Molar Mass Specific Heat Density Enthalpy of Fusion Enthalpy of Vaporization Melting Temperature Boiling Temperature Value 0.23803 120 18950 65034 2003949 1405 4407 Units kg/mol J/kg-K kg/m^3 J/kg J/kg K K Source [14] [14] [14] [14] [14] [14] [14]

TableVI:DelrinProperties
Property Molar Mass Specific Heat Density Enthalpy of Fusion Enthalpy of Vaporization Melting Temperature Boiling Temperature Value 1450 1410 172000 448 Units kg/mol J/kg-K kg/m^3 J/kg J/kg K K Source [2] [2] [2] [2] -

ThereisnotenoughinformationabouttheDelrinmaterialtoincludeitinthisstudy,butit islistedasadditionalinformationwhichmaybeusefulinafuturestudy.

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3.3 Future Propellant Considerations

Onlysolidmaterialswereconsideredatthistime,butliquidscouldalsobeutilizedina systemsuchasthis.Theliquidpropellantswouldhavetobeanalyzedtodetermineiftheir materialpropertiesweremoresuitabletothisapplication.Thedesignofthesystemwouldbe morecomplex,includingpressurizationtanks,spraynozzles,etc.Oneimmediatelyobvious advantageofusingliquidpropellantisthataconsistentsprayofpropellantcanbe accomplished.Also,theseliquidswouldrequirelessexternalenergytovaporizeintothe gaseousstate. Therearemorepossibilitiesforcreatingandtailoringmaterialstofittheneedsofthe mission.Ifahigherdensitymaterialisdesired,whilestillworkingwithliquids,thenhighdensity solidscanbedissolvedinacidtoyieldahighdensityliquid. Advancedsolidmaterialswithtailoredproperties Liquidswithhighdensity,molecularweight,etc. AdvancedmaterialsperNASAInSpacePropulsionSystemsRoadmap[15]

Evensolidwater(H2O)wasdiscussedinafewstudies.Waterhasthehighestspecificheat ofANYknownmaterial.Asmentionedabove,itisunknownwhichpropertiesmaketheperfect propellant,butsolidwaterwouldbeagoodwaytoexaminespecificheatasaperformance contributor.

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4 BENCHMARKING
4.1 Correlation to Experimental Results
Thetoolcannotbecheckedforcorrelationwithanyfullsizeexperimentorstudy, becausethisconcepthasnotbeentestedinspace.Thesmallscaleexperimentsavailablewillbe utilizedtodiscusstheunderstandingoftheprocess,despitetheresultsnotcorrelatingtothe conditionspresentinthistool.Sincethereisnodirectcorrelationforthisstudy,thisreportwill discussthedifferencesofthoseexperiments,aswellaswhattheyimplyaboutthefeasibilityof theconditionspresentedinthistool. Severalorganizationshaveconductedexperimentsusingsmallscalelaserpowerlevels

ablatingtinyamountsofmaterialwithapulsedlaserapproach.Themostcommonpower sourcewasaCO2laser.

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Onestudy[2]examinedthepropulsivecharacteristicsofPolyoxymethylene(POM),a.k.a.Delrin astheyarerelatedtolaserirradiance.Thisstudyassessedveryrelevanttopicssuchas momentumcoupling,specificimpulse,efficiency,andablatedmasspershot,whichisseenin thefigurebelow:

Figure8:Ablatedmasspershotvs.irradianceonPOM[2] ThevaluesinTableVIIbelowareagoodmeasureoftheactualpowerlossesdueto

conversionoflaserenergyintoheating.Thisinformationwasntincorporatedintothetool, becausetheywereperformedwithinatmosphere,andothertestconditionsmayhavebeen presenttofurtheralterthesevalues.Futurestudiescanlookatreplicatingthesetestsina vacuumenvironmentattemperaturesthataremorerepresentativeofthespaceenvironment.

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TableVII:Percentageoflaserpowerforheatflow[9]

Specimens Steel

Spotsize (mm) 0.3

Averageincident laserpower(mW) 26 50 90 150 210 26 50 66 150 210 30 75 120 170 300 90 150 260 300 467

Peakfluence (mJ/cm2) 74 141 254 424 594 74 141 186 424 594 21 53 84 120 212 254 424 736 849 1321

Percentageoflaser powerforheatflow(%) 76.9 74 67.7 70 67.6 69.2 82 87.8 68 66.7 73.3 73.3 72.5 70.6 68.3 77.8 86.7 50 50 50.3

Silicon(a)

0.3

0.6

Copper(b)

0.3

Fromtheabovetable,theexperimentalaveragepercentageofpowerforheatflowisasfollows: Steel(with0.3mmdiameterbeam)is71.24% Silicon(with0.3mmdiameterbeam)is74.74% Silicon(with0.6mmdiameterbeam)is71.60% Copper(with0.3mmdiameterbeam)is62.96%

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AnexperimentoutlinedinReference[15]documentsaccelerationduetoalaser

inducedshockimpulse.However,itwasdiscoveredthroughexperimentationthataprojectile constructedofpolyacetal(POM)withmassof1.36gwaspropelledatavelocityof32.2m/sin atmosphere.Thiswasaccomplishedbyablatingamassof10.7mgofmaterialperpulse. Withoutthespecificmassoftheprojectileandmassablatedateachpointintime,the momentumoftheablatedmaterialcannotbedetermined.

Figure9:Momentumofprojectilevs.massreductionbyablation[15]

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Figure10:ElectronandLatticetemperatureforCoppertarget[16] Figure10showsthetimedependenceofelectronandlatticetemperatureofsurfacefor coppertargetirradiatedby60fs,800nmpulseatdifferentlaserenergyirradiancelevels. Higherirradiancesleadtohigherequilibriumtemperaturesduetohigherenergylevelsbeing addedtothesystem. Thisshowsthatitispossibletoaddalargeamountofenergyandraisethetemperature ofanobjectveryquickly.Forexample,witha200nanosecondpulse(200,000picoseconds),the temperatureofthematerialwillcertainlyequalizeatahighenoughvaluetovaporizethe propellantmaterial.

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Figure11:Surfacestructuralfeaturesinducedbytrainsoflaserpulses[17] Theabovefigureshowsthesurfacestructuralfeaturesinducedbydifferenttrainof pulsesat0.8mJpulseforCopper.Thenumberofpulsesusedforeachpictureare(Nisnumber ofpulses):(a),(a)N=4;(b),(b)N=17.Thebelowfigureshowsthesameforalargernumberof pulses:(c),(c)N=67;(d),(d)N=500.

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Figure12:Surfacestructuralfeaturesinducedbytrainsoflaserpulses[17]

Figure13:Surfaceripplesinducedbytrainof17laserpulsesforAg(a)andCu(b)[17]

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Figure13showsthesurfaceripplesinducedbytrainof17femtosecondlaserpulsesat0.8 mJpulseforSilver(a)andCopper(b).Thisstudywasexaminingthesurfaceripplesthat occurredonthemetalsurfaces,butillustratesthebehaviorofLAPsurfaceinteractionsona smalltimescale.

4.2 Discussion of Differences

Theexperimentsconductedbytheseorganizationswerewitnessingtherealworld

powertransmissionlossesthatwerediscussedinsection1.3,aswellasatmosphericconditions whicharenotpresentinthespaceenvironmentforwhichthistoolisbeingdesigned. Forthisstudyinreference[2],amaximumof20Jperpulsewasdelivered,which

resultedfromamaximumirradianceof500W/cm2.Itisdifficulttocorrelatetothisdata, becausethecorrelationbetweenIrradianceandenergydeliveredisdependentonthebeam size,andareabeingirradiated.FromFigure10,itappearsthattheirradiatedareawasa150mm x150mmsquare,whichwouldbe15cmx15cmsquare,oranareaof225cm2.Withthis information,since1W=1J/s,itcanbeestimatedthatthetimeofthepulsewasequalto500* 225/20=5625s1,soeachpulsewas0.00018s,or180s.Thisseemslikealongerpulsethan mostotherstudies,sothemissinginformationaboutthebeamprofileisnecessarybeforeitcan bedeterminedwhetherthisdatacorrelatesornot.

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ThelaserinducedshockimpulseexperimentoutlinedinReference[15]isnot representativeofLAP,sinceitreliesonashockwavepropagatingthroughatmosphereto providethrust.Thisexperimentlookedverypromisingwiththelevelofdetailthatwasprovided documentingtheexperiment.However,withoutthespecificmassoftheprojectileandmass ablatedateachpointintime,themomentumoftheablatedmaterialcannotbedetermined. Figure10[16]showstheelectrontemperaturesunderdifferentlaserirradiancelevels, whicharenearthelevelsutilizedinthisreport.However,temperatureconditionsthishighwill produceplasmasthatareoutofthescopeofthisreport.NASAsonlineThermoBuildtool[18] isusefulinexaminingthebehaviorofelementalmaterialsatthetemperaturesseenhere. However,agreaterunderstandingofthenomenclatureusedinNASAsprogramisneeded. Thereisalotofroominthisareaforfuturestudies,andespeciallyexperimentstogaina betterunderstandingofthisprocess,andthegoverningphysics.

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5 PARAMETRIC APPROACH
5.1 Tool Parameters
Thetooldevelopedforthisprojectfocusedonseveralkeyvariablesbasedonthedesired outputs.Theoutputscouldbeusedasinputsiftheproperinformationisnotavailable. UsingtheConservationofEnergyequationsabove,andtheMaterialPropertiesofSection 3.2,theamountofenergycominginfromthelaserisusedtovaporizethesolidpropellant material.Thismaterialthenexitsthespacecraftwithvelocity(ve),whichprovidesthethrustfor thecraft. ThetoolwasdevelopedusingMicrosoftExcel,andcanbeappliedforanymaterialfor whichthecharacteristicsinsection3.2areknown.Screenshotsofthecode,alongwiththe equationsusedinthecode,willbeprovidedinthissection. BeamProperties Thelaserenergydeliveredtothepropellantisassumedtobetheamountofenergythat istransmittedtothepropellant.Thisenergyisalsoassumedtobe100%usedforheating.The valuesshownareforonelaserpulse,sothattheresultscanbescaledupforlargersystems,or correlatedtofutureexperimentsthatwillproveordisprovethisanalysis. Inthisstudy,abeamsizeof0.3mmwasused.This0.3mmrepresentsthediameterofa beamsize,inacircularbeamshape.Thebeamspotsizeistheareaofthecircle,or7.069x108 m2.Laserirradianceisassumedtobe1x109W/cm2,withapulsewidthof200nanoseconds. Thisyieldsavalueof14.138Jperpulse.

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Forreference,asamplediagramofbeamareafromanotherstudy[2]wasincluded.

Figure14:Beamprofilerecordedontothermalpaper.(a)Beampatternofcrosssection (150mmx150mmsquare),(b)Focusedbreampatternonablator(30mmx30mmsquare)[18]

5.2 Determining propulsive characteristics

Theoutputsofthetoolinthisconfigurationarethekeypropulsivecharacteristics,including: MassAblatedperpulse ExitVelocity(ve)ofablatedmaterial Force SpecificImpulse(Isp)

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Thiscanbeusefulifthereareseveraltradestobemadeeitherinthepropellant materialorthelaserbeingutilizedforthemission. BasisofEquations Oncethe14.138Jofenergyisreceived,thisenergyheatsthesurfaceaccordingtothe specificheatofthematerial,passesthroughenthalpyoffusiontoliquidform,heatsagain accordingtospecificheat,andpassesthroughenthalpyofvaporizationbeforeablatingto providethrust. Fromthemassablatedvalue,densitycanbeusedtocalculatethedepthofvaporization inconjunctionwiththespotarea. ExitvelocityisdeterminedusingtheZerothLawofThermodynamicsattheboiling temperatureofthematerial. Ispisdeterminedbydividingtheexitvelocitybythegravitationalforce.(Assumedtobe 9.8m/s2fornearearthoperations) Forceisdeterminedbytheexitvelocitytimestheproductofnumberofpulsesper secondandthemassablatedineachpulse(massflowrate).

5.3 Tool Layout and Calculations

Thistoolcanbeutilizedinmultipleways.Thissectionshowsanexampleofthetoolused forthepurposesstatedinsection5.2above.ItisshownforthecaseofanAluminum Propellant.

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Figure15:ToolscreenshotwithLaserParameterInputsandPropulsiveCharacteristicOutputs forAluminumpropellant.

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Figure16:ScreenshotofGeneratedDatawithequationsofeachcelllistedforAluminum propellant.

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5.4 Future Analyses

Thistoolcanbeutilizedinmultipleways.Ifthedesiredoutputsareknown,acceptable inputscanbedeterminedfromthoseanswers.Theequationsgoverningthisconditioncanbe rearrangedtosolvearelateddesignproblem. Determininglaserinputrequirements Theoutputsofthetoolinthisconfigurationwouldbealistofkeylaserproperties requiredtoprovidesufficientpowerforthemission.Thekeylaserpropertiesinclude: LaserPower LaserPulseWidth PulseFrequency Density

Thiscanbeusefulifthereareseveralmaterialsbeingconsideredduetovolumetricor weightconstraintsofthemission.Itcanalsoservetoalleviatepossibleinteractionsbetween materialsofthespacecraftandthepropellantsbeingablated.

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Determiningpropellantmaterialproperties Thisconditionwasnotstudiedinthisproject,butcouldeasilybeconstructed. Theoutputsofthetoolinthisconfigurationwouldbealistofkeymaterialproperties thatwouldfitthemissionconstraints.Thekeymaterialpropertiesdeterminedinthismission designsituationinclude: Molarmass HeatofVaporization SpecificHeat Density

Thiscanbeusefulifthereareseveralmaterialsbeingconsideredduetovolumetricor weightconstraintsofthemission.Itcanalsoservetoalleviatepossibleinteractionsbetween materialsofthespacecraftandthepropellantsbeingablated.

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6 DISCUSSION AND RESULTS

6.1 Discussion of Continuous Wave vs. Pulsed Laser Power
Intheliteraturesearchtherewereseveralexperimentsusingsmallscalelaserpower

levelsablatingtinyamountsofmaterialwithapulsedlaserpowersource. TheresultsoftheseexperimentswouldworkdifferentlyifaContinuousWavelaser

wereusedasthepowersource.TheContinuousWavelaserwoulddelivermorepower,but systemgeneratingthepowerwouldneedtobemuchlargertodeliverthesamelevelofenergy tothepropellant.TheremaybeanissuewiththeCWlaserprovidingenergycontinually,where theremaybeexcessenergyputintothematerialthatisntusedtogeneratepropulsion. Withoutthetimeinbetweenpulses,thephysicswouldbeentirelydifferent.Therewould almostimmediatelybegenerationofplasma,whichwasavoidedinthisreportbykeepingthe pulsesfarenoughaparttoensureonereactionwascompletedbeforethenextbegan.

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6.2 Tool Analysis Results

Theresultsofthetoolprovidedthekeypropulsiveparametersdeliveredforonelaser pulseofenergy.Asexplainedearlier,thepulsedlaserapproachallowstimeforthereactionto completebeforeantherreactionisstarted.Thiswillalsomaketheresultseasiertocorrelateto futurestudiessincetherehavenotbeenanystudiesofthistypetodate. TableVIII:MaterialAnalysisResultsforOne200ns,1x109W/cm2Pulse
Material Aluminum Copper Silver Silicon Uranium Mass Ablated (grams) 0.00001029 0.15329947 0.4462870 0.06445467 0.64794445 Exit Velocity (m/s) 2219.5 1477.1 1069.3 1930.6 1028.1 Force (N) 0.000023 0.2264 0.4774 0.1244 0.6661 Isp (Seconds) 226.5 150.7 109.1 197.0 104.9

Basedontheseparametersalone,thereislittlethatcanbeknownaboutthe applicabilityofeachmaterialtoaspecificmission.AluminumandSiliconseemtoablatethe leastamountofmaterialperpulse,whichmeanstheycanbeusedforlongerdurationmissions, wherehigherIspismoreimportantthanalargeamountofthrust.SilverandUraniumseemto ablatesignificantlylargeramountsofmaterial,whichresultsinalargerforceperpulse.Copper seemstobeawellbalancedmaterialamongstthefive.Itprovidesamoderateamountofboth ThrustandIsp.Therearemanymorematerialstoselectfrom,sincealmostanymaterialcanbe thepropellantforLaserAblativePropulsion.

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6.3 Future Study

Varyingthetimescalewillyielddifferentresultsinthephysicsoftheproblem.Inthis report,thelengthsofpulsesdiscussedareconsideredlongintermsofpulsedlaserpower.If muchshorterpulsesaredelivered,thesolidwouldnotfullytransitiontogaseousstatewithin thetimeframeofonepulse.Inthisscenario,heatingwouldoccuroveranumberofpulses,and oncetheenergyinputwassufficienttoablatethematerial,thereactionwouldbecompleted andthrustgenerated.Reference[19]coverstheseinteractionsinmoredetail. FutureMissionDesign:Theinstallationofvariouslaserpowerstationonorbitoronthe surfaceofothercelestialbodieswillenabletravelthroughspacewithoutrequiringlarge amountsofpropellant. Thereisalotofroominthisareaforfuturestudies,andespeciallyexperimentstogaina betterunderstandingofthisprocessandthegoverningphysics.

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7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Attheonsetofthisresearch,itwasexpectedthatathoroughunderstandingofthekey propertiesofmaterialswouldbeobtainedandanalyzed.Basedontheresultsofthisstudy, thereismuchmoretolearnaboutthesematerialsandtheirinteractionswithlaserexcitation. Thelistofacceptablematerialsforthistechnologyissovastthatitwouldtakeaverylongtime tofindtheperfectpropellant. Significantresearchinthehardwareaspectofthistechnologyisreallyneededtoenable widespreadacceptanceanduseofthistechnology.Thedifficultyofpointingand collecting/focusingthelaserenergywillprovetobeverydifficult. Thecalculationsperformedinthisreportwereverydifficultwithoutexperimental resultstocorrelatewith.Experimentationundertheconditionsofthespaceenvironmentis difficult,butthetechnologywillbestoperatewherethereareasfewenergylossesaspossible duringtheenergytransmission. Thisreportrepresentsamajorleapfromthedataandstudiesthathavepreviouslybeen conducted.Itrepresentsmoreofatheoreticalapproachtothetechnology,sincethereisno datatoprovethattheconceptworksaspresentedhere. Onceconcretedatacanbeobtainedfromexperiments,thematerialpropertiesthat contributemosttothrustefficiencycanbeidentified,andthesearchfortheperfect propellantcanbegin.

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